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National Art Education Association

Developing Academic Games and Simulations for Art EducationAuthor(s): Frank D. SusiReviewed work(s):Source: Art Education, Vol. 41, No. 1, Teaching Art (Jan., 1988), pp. 18-24Published by: National Art Education AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/3194131 .Accessed: 31/10/2012 19:49

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Developing Academic Games and

Frank D. Susi

M a any art educators are confronted with this instructional dilemma: How can the historical content of art be presented as stimulating and experience-oriented

learning activity? One way is through the learning-by- doing associated with the use of academic games and simulations.

Academic games are of two types, simulation and non- simulation. Simulation games are dramatizations of processes or events from the real world played in a simulated environment. The intent is to provide participants with insights into the phenomenon being simulated. Military personnel regularly engage in war games to practice maneuvers and tactics that would be applied in real combat situations. Simulation games can be competitive or non-competitive.

In non-simulation games players solve problems or answer questions on a specific subject. Individuals or teams are asked questions or given puzzles, and those with the most points or correct answers at the end of play win. Such games are most appropriate for review and use of existing knowledge but are not well suited to the introduction of new content. For example, a "word find" comprised of the names of artists or art terminology would challenge students to make use of their knowledge of art vocabulary. The "College Bowl"

and "Academic Challenge" are televised academic games which do not focus on a specific subject area.

Simulations are defined as creating the effect or appearance of something. Academic simulations include role playing and other structured experiences designed to generate interactions among participants. Knowledge is applied as an aspect of the "make believe" activity. Such direct involvement allows participants to develop an understanding of art-related subjects, concepts, or processes (Cunningham, 1984).

Through game and simulation activities, students' intellectual processes can be raised to the higher levels described in Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Cognitive Domain (Bloom, 1956). The six levels of performance, ranging from simple to complex are:

1. Knowledge: remembering or recalling specific factual information such as word definitions for a quiz or test;

2. Comprehension: developing an understanding of the intent or meaning of specific information such as the preparation of a sketch based on a particular theme or participation in a discussion;

3. Application: using abstract knowledge in practical situations such as creating a series of color swatches after discussing color theory;

18 Art Education/January 1988

Simulations for Art Education

Art Education/January 1988 19

4. Analysis: separating an entity into its essential parts for study and examination such as describing the design principles used in a work of art;

5. Synthesis: creating a new whole from the assembly of many parts as in the development of a complex work of art or the preparation of a research paper involving many sources;

6. Evaluation: making judgments based on selected criteria or standards such as the preparation of a critical essay. The Advantages of Academic Games and Simulations Games and simulations are especially useful in adding variety to one's repertoire of instructional approaches and in meeting the needs of students with widely different learning styles. The contributions games and simulations make to learning stem from the advantages over other approaches to teaching they present. When carefully designed and implemented they can lead to:

1. The application of knowledge and learning as students are confronted with situations which require sequences of inquiry, thought, and action in a process that is psychologically involving. Participants work to solve problems as part of their learning.

2. A high degree of motivation and purpose for learning. Feelings of realism and relevance are injected into the classroom as students apply their knowledge in reaj life game situations.

3. A learning experience that can be enjoyable and challenging. Content that students traditionally dislike can be more pleasant when studied in a game or simulation situation.

4. Reinforcement of prior learning through a review process which emphasizes a variety of thinking skills. Games and simulations can be specifically designed to encourage such goals as establishing relationships, answering questions, analyzing information, and recalling facts (Cruickshank & Telfer, 1980).

Experts are careful to avoid exaggerated claims about the learning that results from the use of games and simulations. In general, while they have not been shown to be more effective in increasing academic achievement than other instructional practices, they have not been proven to be less effective. As an instructional option, they should be tailored to situational needs. Game play is a way to enhance learning but is not an educational goal in itself. Not every student will like it. Developing an Academic Game Several points should be kept in mind when designing games:

1. The game should be easy to learn and to play.

Players can then concentrate on the strategies and goals rather than the rules.

2. A method should be devised for recording actions and strategies that have been successful. This improves subsequent play.

3. Relationships between strategies for play and outcomes should be clearly identifiable. Clever moves or correct responses should be rewarded. In some cases, rewards can be included for near misses or ballpark answers.

4. The strategic possibilities of the game should not be quickly exhausted so that players can play many times and still be able to use knowledge of the content being featured.

5. The game should encourage experimentation with different strategies and discourage players from sticking with one approach (Fletcher, Koeller, & Martin, 1972).

The following general guidelines will be helpful in designing games for use in the study of art:

1. Determine the purpose and goals of the game, such as introducing or reinforcing information, or developing research skills.

2. Select the content or situation you intend to simulate. Since a game is a type of contest, try to include elements, strategies, rules and artifacts that students can appreciate.

3. Identify the roles players will take. What background, skills, or knowledge are necessary to play the game? Are all of the roles the same? What can players do and not do? Is there a minimum or maximum number of participants? Is a score keeper or moderator necessary? Are scoring procedures and criteria for winning clear?

4. Identify the resources necessary for play. Consider time, location, and game materials. Plan the physical space and room environment to support the requirements of the game (Livingston & Stoll, 1973).

The educational potential of any game is affected by details such as the materials used in play, fine points of the rules, scoring, and play procedures. The preparation of a supportive play environment will enhance the psychological climate in which the game is played. Following the initial design phase, the game should be given a trial run with players who will provide candid feedback about strengths and weaknesses. Revisions and adjustments will be part of an ongoing process of refinement. An Illustration of an Academic Game One type of academic game that offers great potential for art educators is the "frame game," a contest based on an existing television show or board game but using information about art as the content. By combining the art content with established formats and play sequences, teachers can save time and get students quickly involved in the activity. The titles of paintings, sculptures, or architectural works can be used as the basis for questions. Other content can focus on art processes, periods or movements, the names of individual artists and personalities, media and techniques employed, quotations, expressions, or critiques related to study. Because procedures are often familiar to both teacher and students, it will not take much time to introduce the


Left: "Role-playing simulations based on such ordinary occurrences as the evening news program on television can provide opportunities for strengthening students' research, writing, and speaking skills." Above: "Effective debriefing is critical if students are to complete the process of understanding the new information they have studied and experienced."


"Other contributors could include a 'book beat' ..."


game, determine possible play strategies, describe the scoring system, and explain criteria for winning. Most frame games are best suited for recall and review or new applications of existing knowledge.

By playing the game mentally to explore the limits of the rules, the game developer can anticipate problems and resolve unclear procedures. Also, possible alternatives for play and variations on the basic idea for the game can be imagined.

The game designer will need to consider the roles students will play in the game. For example, who will be the emcee, and who will keep score? Will play be conducted by individuals or teams? For best results the game should be planned so that participants' background, knowledge, and ability to play are considered. When actual play begins, the teacher's role should shift from active director to unobtrusive observer. Since the game director's responsibility is to clarify and interpret rules, that role in the game must be conducted judiciously. Otherwise, such interventions may be seen as favoritism.

The easiest way for students to learn how to play is to have them begin with a practice round as soon as possible after the game has been introduced. Forcing them to listen to a long list of directions and rules is an almost certain way to dampen enthusiasm. Generally, the first time a game is played, participants learn the play procedures. The important educational concepts that have been identified as the game's objectives will become apparent in ensuing rounds. In some cases, a written script or brief rehearsal can be helpful in guiding game flow over rough spots or difficult transitions. If one provides opportunities for participants to play the game more than once, its potential as a teaching tool can be most fully realized (Fennesy, 1973). Debriefing The discussion that follows a game or simulation is referred to as the "debriefing session." The focus is the learning gained from the play experience. Effective debriefing is critical if students are to complete the process of understanding the new information they have studied and experienced. The discussion session can address questions and concerns that arise during play and help clarify and make sense of key issues and problems. Careful guidance of these sessions is necessary so that the game experience can have its most potent effect on the student's knowledge (Lederman, 1984).

This post-experience discussion should be more than a simple reflection upon what has occurred. The emphasis in these sessions is on what happened and the learning derived. Analyzing and evaluating experiences and integrating the concepts into the player's consciousness are important. Through skillful questioning, the teacher can help students understand new connections with existing knowledge and instill positive attitudes. When used in this way, the debriefing session is a learning process in its own right (Lederman, 1984).

Evaluation of the game itself should focus on the extent to which: - The background knowledge necessary for effective play had been provided by classroom discussion, individual inquiry, and other assignments;


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- Hoped-for learning outcomes have been achieved as indicated by formal assessment; - The game could be administered and played with the group involved; - All players were able to participate in meaningful ways; - The rules were understood; - The roles played by the students (scorekeeper, emcee, etc.) were performed well and resulted in active participation; - The win criteria were clear and understood by all participants. Constructing Academic Simulations Simulation designers operate on the assumption that learning is not simply the storage of information but also the ability to use it. The more abundant information is about a specific phenomenon, the better suited it is for development as an academic simulation. To be most effective, participants must experience a high degree of involvement and identification with the situation being simulated.

Role playing simulations based on such ordinary occurences as the evening news program on television can provide opportunities for strengthening students' research, writing, and speaking skills. Participants prepare the program content and present a mock newscast based on the information covered in class.

To conduct a newscast simulation, students are organized into a team of from four to twelve members that includes an anchorperson, critics, reporters, and ad writers. They put together a full-scale presentation based on the format of this familiar television program. The presentation can reflect a selected time period in the history of art, with all of the writing geared to the life and culture of the period. The focus could also be general in nature with opportunities for reporters to move among periods of art. In either case, one of the reporters can be responsible for preparing a time travel segment - visiting an individual or group of artists, exhibition opening, or other newsworthy event from the world of art. The critic(s) can review exhibitions or works of art, architecture, and design.

To vary the content, current and historical material can be mixed in the same program. Reporters covering a beat would be responsible for segments on current events, art- related activities in the school and community, and events of local, state and national significance. Other contributors could include a "book beat," an editorial spot, and of course, sports and weather updates. (How about a report on horse races that includes an interview with Degas?). The anchor must try to make the whole thing come together into a smooth and coherent presentation by writing introductions to the various reports, providing comments when appropriate, and keeping the whole thing moving.

Participants should be encouraged to play their roles with levels of enthusiasm that can release creative energy and imagination. Role definitions, play artifacts, rules, and other elements used to connect the simulated activities to real life situations can be manipulated to add complexity. The presentation can be video taped and retained as an instructional resource that can be shared with other classes, the PTA, or at open house.

Giving the appearance of reality or "verisimilitude" is an important attribute of effective simulations. The best way to build this perception is to base the idea to be simulated on a realistic model. A strong resemblance between the simulated phenomenon and the roles of participants reduces the chances of outside factors confusing the activity.

Striving too hard for realism, however, can be costly in both time and effort. While there is no magic formula for finding the best balance, the designer might start with a simple model and add complexity as needs arise.

Many players will acquire new knowledge or reinforce prior learning through participation in simulations and the debriefing session. When using simulations, the teacher assumes a role as facilitator of learning; as helper rather than leader; as resource person rather than judge, educator, or tester. She demonstrates expertise by asking questions, and stimulating thinking and discussion rather than requiring attention (Lederman, 1984).

In evaluating the effectiveness of simulations the teacher must learn to recognize different levels of understanding and learning that occur. The skills and knowledge acquired by one participant are often quite different from those obtained by others in the same group. Conclusion Many excellent books and periodicals on the purchase and use of commercial game and simulation products for classroom use are available. Descriptions of over 1200 academic games and simulations are presented in the 1980 edition of Horn and Cleaves' Guide to Simulations/Games for Education and Training.

With confidence and patience, games and simulations can become useful techniques in broadening one's range of instructional approaches. Applying them with imagination and enthusiasm will enhance the teaching and learning that result from the study of art. EO

Frank D. Susi is Associate Professor of Art and Coor- dinator of Art Education, in the School of Art at Kent State University, Kent, Ohio.

References Bloom, B. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. New York:

McKay Publishing. Cruickshank, D.R. (1977). A first book of games and simulations

Belmont, CA.: Wadsworth Publishing. Cruickshank, D.R. & Telfer, R. (1980). Classroom games and

simulations. Theory Into Practice. 19(1), 75-80. Cuningham, J. B. (1984). Assumptions underlying the use of dif-

ferent types of simulations. Simulations and Games. 15(2), 213-234. Fennesy, G. (1973). Guidelinesfor writing the director's manualfor a

simulation game (Report no. 152). Baltimore, MD.: Johns Hopkins University, Center for the Social Organization of Schools.

Horn, R. E. & Cleaves, A. (1980). Guide to simulations/games for education and training (4th ed.). Beverly Hills, CA.: Sage Publications.

Lederman, L. C. (1984). Debriefing: A critical reexamination of the post-experience analytic process with implications for its effective use. Simulations and Games. 15 (4), 415-432.

Livingston, S. & Stoll, C. (1973). Simulation games: An introduction for the social science teacher. New York: Free Press.


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