November | December 2013

Natural additives for fish - do we have to reinvent the wheel or is there a shortcut?

The International magazine for the aquaculture feed industry

International Aquafeed is published six times a year by Perendale Publishers Ltd of the United Kingdom.All data is published in good faith, based on information received, and while every care is taken to prevent inaccuracies, the publishers accept no liability for any errors or omissions or for the consequences of action taken on the basis of information published. ©Copyright 2013 Perendale Publishers Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means without prior permission of the copyright owner. Printed by Perendale Publishers Ltd. ISSN: 1464-0058

INCORPORAT ING f I sh fARm ING TeChNOlOGy

The global importance of aquacul-ture,inparticularfinfish,isgrowingand correspondingly, the demandfor high-quality feeds and addi-

tives is increasing year by year (AquafeedDirectoryIssue2013/14).

This rapid growth induces diverse challenges for feed formulation, husbandry, reproduction or processing that required innovative solutions. New species are introduced into aquaculture regularly (i.e. bluefin tuna) and new technologies in feed production are also adopted. There is a constant supply of new raw materials to substi-tute ingredients which are less and less available.

However, new challenges are not only intrinsic to the system but the general increase of aquaculture is also associated with new disease challenges and new demands from customers (i.e. freedom from AGPs, welfare).

All of these topics have arisen with the advent of modern aquaculture. Part of solving the challenges posed is try-ing to develop feeds and additives to address them. However, finding new feed components and addi-tives is a time and labour intensive process and the pressure to produce higher quantities and better qual-ity aquaculture produce is already on, not in ten or twenty years down the line. So is there a potential shortcut to addressing all these new challenges par-ticularly with regard to additives?

Part of the answer is livestock on land

Livestock feed production in land-based systems has a wealth of history, with the

first documented silage-making occurring in 1200 BC. The first commercial diets for army horses and poultry were produced around 1800. In comparison, the first modern fish feeds were manufactured for trout in the 1950s.

Independent of whether a feed is pro-duced for land-based livestock or for aquaculture, many of the components are similar. Both land and aquaculture systems use grains, legumes and animal byproducts. Therefore, many of the risks of contamina-tion of raw materials, the challenges of producing and even the microorganisms causing spoilage are exactly the same.

There may be areas where factors important for land-based livestock are similar to aquaculture's, such as palatability, feed intake and nutrient efficiency with regard to environmental pollution, which are crucial for efficient and sustainable systems anywhere.

Finally, there are those factors of unique importance to aquaculture feeds such as very specific demands for the feeds behav-iour in water such as mechanical stability, specific density, sinking behaviour or nutri-ent leakage (i.e. Aas, et al. 2011).

Growing academic interest in additives

Current research is understandably focused on the basic feed components such as cereals, marine ingredients, soya, animal byproducts, oils and fats and their suitability for different aquatic species. Knowledge about optimal levels of vitamins, minerals and trace elements for different species is steadily increasing.

Other additives have received less atten-tion from academic research but exhibit a vast potential in improving resource and feed efficiency.

Technical additives, preservatives, acidi-fiers, probiotics, prebiotics, immunomodula-tors, AGPs, phytogenics, mycotoxin binders are interesting and increasingly used but the suitability and uses for them in aquacultures are not as firmly established as for the bulk components. Particularly phytogenics as an innovative addition to the group of feed additives are of increasing interest in aquacul-

ture as they offer entirely new applications (i.e anti-inflammatory functions).

Areas of interest for aquaculture feeds where additives are without doubt beneficial is feed presentation and hygiene. However there is a small amount of knowledge to draw from land-based systems already (i.e. high protein poultry and pet feeds).

Improving health and reproduction through feed is certainly of interest. However, due to the pronounced physiological differences between mammals, birds and aquaculture species additives used for this purpose in land-based systems have to be more thoroughly re-evaluated for use in

Natural additives for fish - do we have to reinvent the wheel or is there a shortcut?by Susanne Kirwan, Malte Lohölter and Andreas Lewke, Dr Eckel, Germany

Ca-Acetate Ca-formate Sorbic Acid Fumaric Acid Acidifier Acids-on support

Figure 1: Residues (top) of solid acids experimentally dissolved in water

38 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | November-December 2013

FEATURE

November-December 2013 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | 39

aquaculture systems to evaluate whether the systems they target are of equal interest in the aquaculture species.

From the land into the water: taking land-based feed additives into aquafeeds

To illustrate the basic concept of the iden-tification of suitable additives in land-based systems that have potential for aquaculture, a short checklist can be a fast and common sense approach before beginning a controlled trial. This approach works equally well for established additives, or the latest develop-ments in phytogenic additives. In order to answer the questions a species, culture condi-tion and the type of feed presentation should be known in advance.

1. Is the substance/blend stable in the aquatic environment? Will it leach imme-diately from the pellet of is stable for the time until consumed by the target species?

2. Does the substance have a window of

optimum temperature? If so, does that temperature fit the aquatic environment it is to be used in?3. Is the substance in structure or with density unlikely to negatively influence the technical behaviour of the feed in water or during processing? 4. Are all active com-

ponents stable through the production process (pelleting/extrusion/expansion)?

5. Does land-based livestock accept the component well, does it positively affect voluntary feed intake?

If all those have been answered to the affirmative, the component has potential to be a useful additive in aquafeed and is worth consid-ering for an in-vivo trial.

Example 1: Advanced acidifier

Acidifiers are very well established additives on land for feed preservation, improving feed conversion and reducing pathogen pres-

sure. They are effective independent of tem-perature, usually technically inert and well accepted by most livestock. The only ques-tion remaining is how fast they dissolve in a watery medium, as an acidifier which dissolves instantaneously is not available to be active within the animal but is lost to the surround-ing water. If some acidifiers are retained more

reliably within the feed, they can subsequently be active beyond simple feed preservation in the intestine of the animals fed.

The solubility of indi-vidual acids and their blends have been char-acterised in literature and are easily confirm-able with basic lab tech-niques. For the following illustration (Figure 1) acidifier samples were dissolved for five min-utes at a concentration of (0.5 percent) in water.

The liquid phase was then strained out and the residue dried to calculate the unsolved fraction (pictures in the top row of Figure 1). Already the

table 1: Survival rate (%) of white shrimp after 60 days

latibon Plus Me (acidifier)

time (d) Control 0.3% 0.6% 0.9% 1.2%

60 85.8d 88.5c 91.5ab 93.8b 94.5a

(p<0.05)

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table 2: Feed trial diet composition

Diet

Control additive

Fishmeal 8.0 8.0Isolated soy protein 32.0 32.0

Wheat 14.4 14.4

Peas 12.0 12.0

Maize 14.0 14.0

Corn starch 8.0 8.0

Fat 6.0 6.0Minerals/Vitamins/Choline 4.5 4.5

Chrome oxide 0.6 0.6

Methionine 0.2 0.2

Cellulose 0.4 -

additive - 0.4

38 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | November-December 2013 November-December 2013 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | 39

FEATURE

The annual production of olive oil is esti-mated to be at least 2.9 million tonnes with some 15 million tonnes of OMW being pro-duced annually. In Mediterranean countries, the production of olives has been a major part of the agricultural produce of these countries for many decades (if not centuries). For every 100 kg of olives, 35 kg of OP are produced; it could, thus, be suggested that the production of OMW and OP are sustainable and the availability of OP for use in any type of feed production and thus aquaculture should be straightforward. OP is not expensive (€0.1-0.2/kg), it is thus a price-competitive raw ingredient compared to other vegetable oils. This cost linked to the fact that 4 to 8 percent of OP is needed to be included in the fish feed formulation make OP as a promising lipid source for aquaculture.

Finally, the problem of transferring OP from Mediterranean countries to northern Europe or to other places of the world could be rationalised by extracting the polar lipids of OP that they are the active feed components and therefore reducing the volume of material that needs to be trans-ported (Nasopoulou and Zabetakis, 2013).

OP-enriched fish feeds and fishThe research focus in our group has

been towards the commercial exploitation of OP in order to produce novel func-

tional feeds and hence food. OP is now used in several agricultural and aquacultural applications with promising results. The novelty of our approach though is that we are not only interested in produc-ing (novel) fish but also we are assessing the nutritional value of this (novel) fish in terms of cardio-protection, aiming, ultimately, in creating and patenting novel func-tional fish feeds, fish and health supplements.

In detail, two diets have been compared: one being the commercial one for gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) called fish oil diet (FO diet) and the novel one where OP (8 per-cent w/w at the final pellet) has been used (OP diet). In our first part of the work, the total lipids of sea bream fed with OP diet contained statistically decreased levels of fatty acids, while exhibited the most potent biological activity against platelet aggregation induced by platelet activating factor (PAF). In other words, the OP-fed sea bream had stronger cardioprotective properties when compared to the FO-fed one.

These data have suggested that OP could be used as a partial substitute of fish oil in fish feed improving its cardio protective proper-ties (Nasopoulou et al., 2011). In further

experiments, the OP diet and FO diet (i.e. pellets) have been analysed for a number of nutritional parameters and the results are given in Table 1 (Nasopoulou et al., 2013a).

Values are means of three individual meas-urements; results are expressed as mean ± SD (95% confidence limits); data of FO diet are from our previous work and are given here to enable easy comparison; † indicates

table 1: Chemical composition of olive pomace (oP) and fish oil (Fo) diet (% wet weight) (nasopoulou et al., 2013a)

Ingredient oP diet Fo diet *

Crude protein 44.95 ± 1.3 46 ± 4.3

Fat 19.4 ± 1.7 21 ± 2.1

Moisture 8.6 ± 0.6 9.1 ± 1.3

Dietary fibre 5.2 ± 0.3† 1.8 ± 0.3†

ash 6.0 ± 0.9 8.3 ± 1.4

energy (MJ/Kg) 21.8 ± 2.1 23 ± 2.6

Protein digestibility (%) 89 ± 4.4 90 ± 6.2

Vitamin a (IU/Kg) 7 000 ± 210† 20 000 ± 410†

Vitamin D (IU/Kg) 3 150 ± 110 3 000 ± 120

Vitamin e (mg/Kg) 180 ±17† 258 ± 19†

Vitamin K3 (mg/Kg) 10 ± 0.7† 33 ± 7.3†

Vitamin C (mg/Kg) 200 ± 20 168 ± 14

Cu (mg/Kg) 7.5 ± 1.1 7.0 ± 1.1*Data of FO diet from previous study†Statistically significant according to Wilcox on test

28 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | November-December 2013 November-December 2013 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | 29

FEATURE

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is commonly unavailable by traditional means, such as subsea cameras.

The modelThe model has been under development

since 2004, and since then has been expanded from 2D to 3D, and merged with a fish behav-iour and foraging model (Føre et al., 2009). The initial distribution of pellets across the cage surface using commercial rotary spread-ers is based upon experimental data from Oehme et al. (2012).

The model discretizes the cage into cubes, and the transport of feed between the cubes is calculated based on the transport equation (Alver et al. 2004). Feed is removed from the model when fish consume feed, or feed escapes outside the defined cage volume. Figure 1 shows the output from the model across three depths and a cross section of the cage at three different points in time.

The model is currently being enhanced by incorporating results from pellet diffusion experiments, where a range of different pel-let sizes and densities (produced at Nofima Feed Technology Centre, Bergen, Norway) were released in a large tank to observe their natural diffusion and sinking properties. Pellets with a diameter of 3, 6, 9 and 12 mm with low, medium and high density were tested to cover the range of feed most frequently used in commercial salmon farming.

These experiments were conducted to determine the natural spread or diffusion inherent to the pellets, and further experi-ments to quantify the speed and variations in the vertical motion of pellets in the water column are planned. The final results of these experiments will be incorporated into the model, and preliminary results suggest that the physical properties of pellets have a substantial influence on their hydrodynamic properties.

To validate the model, a full-scale experi-ment is planned at a farming site, where feed density will be measured at points inside the cage with the entire array of environmental forces and fish acting upon the feed.

Aid for the operatorToday, the feeding regime is for the most

part controlled by the fish farm operator, which commonly possesses expert knowledge of the location. This often results in a well-run site with a high food utilisation (low FCR), and minimal feed loss. There are however substantial variations in performance between locations.

The feeding system commonly presents the operator with a range of numerical displays representing various environmental parameters, as well as live video from one or more subsea cameras located inside the cage. The camera adds insight to the process by

providing information on (for example) fish feeding behaviour and the local pellet density.

However, a camera can only capture a lim-ited volume of the cage at a time, and displays an unfiltered image with an array of concurrent information. This may represent a challenge, if for instance the operator wishes to observe the density of feed in an area. Presence of fish and debris in the image may then obstruct the view, making a visual assessment of feed den-sity difficult. Consequently, the operator must make decisions based on limited information from a subsection of the cage.

The pellet distribution model could be used as a tool to illustrate the parts of the cage that are of interest to the operator at particular points in time. A 3D view similar to Figure 2 can then be presented, showing an overview of the cage containing fish and feed, in addition to a range of environmental parameters important for feeding.

A model with a suitable interface will have an advantage over exclusive camera-based control in that the entire cage can be viewed within a single image and that the operator can remove fish or feed from the view as desired.

Furthermore, the model allows the view to be zoomed and rotated to observe better an area of interest. The model is meant to be used in conjunction with cage cameras, and can aid in automatic camera placement at

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Maintaining ingredient quality in extruded feeds

Fine particle filtration in aquaculture

Effect of probiotic, Hydroyeast Aquaculture

– as growth promoter for adult Nile tilapia

VOLUME 16 I S SUE 4 2 013 - J U LY | AUGUST

INCORPORAT ING F I SH FARM ING TECHNOLOGY

EXPERT TOPIC – channel catfish

IAF13.04.indd 1 24/07/2013 14:33

They are what they eat Enhancing the nutritional value of live feeds

with microalgae

Controlling mycotoxins with binders

Ultraviolet water disinfection for fish

farms and hatcheries

Niacin – one of the key B vitamins for sustaining

healthy fish growth and production

VOLUME 16 I S SUE 3 2 013 - MAY | J UNE

INCORPORAT ING F I SH FARM ING TECHNOLOGY

IAF13.03.indd 1 13/05/2013 16:03

Transforming aquaculture production using

oxygenation systems

Nutritional benefits of processed animal proteins

– in European aquafeeds

Towards aquafeeds with increased food security

Bioenergetics – application in aquaculture nutrition

VOLUME 16 I S SUE 2 2 013 - MARCH | APR I L

INCORPORAT ING F I SH FARM ING TECHNOLOGY

IAF13.02.indd 1 04/04/2013 16:17

Chicken viscera for fish feed formulation

Profitable aquafeed moisture control

The shrimp feed industry in China– an overview

Spray-dried plasma– from porcine blood in diets for Atlantic

salmon parrs

VOLUME 16 I S SUE 1 2 013 - J ANUARY | F EBRUARY

INCORPORAT ING F I SH FARM ING TECHNOLOGY

IAF13.01.indd 1 23/01/2013 10:51

VOLUMEN 15 ED I C I ÓN 6 2 012

REVISTA ACUÍCOLA INTERNACIONAL DESTINADA A LA INDUSTRIA DE ALIMENTOS ACUÍCOLAS

Reseña de la industria de vacunación de peces en el RU

¿Por qué se deben chequear los niveles de seleniometionina en

las levaduras de selenio?

Nueva tecnología de extrusión para la producción de alimentos

micro-acuáticos para camarones

TEMA EXPERTO– - - Salmón

IAF12.06_spn.indd 1 14/12/2012 11:23

VOLUME 15 I S SUE 5 2 012

THE INTERNATIONAL MAGAZINE FOR THE AQUACULTURE FEED INDUSTRY

The use of algae in fish feeds as alternatives to fishmeal

Gustor Aqua and Ecobiol Aqua:– enhancing digestion in a different manner

Fishmeal & fish oil– and its role in sustainable

aquaculture

Options and challenges of alternative protein and energy

resources for aquafeed

EXPERT TOPIC– Shrimp

IAF12.05.indd 1 04/10/2012 09:36

www.aquafeed.co.uk

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INTERNATIONAL AQUAFEED DIRECTORY 2012/13

SCIENCE DFO SCIENCE SCIENCE

Saltwater mariculture-aquaculture inQuebec may soon welcome a newarrival: the Spotted Wolffish, a threatened and little-known species thattastes delicious.In Quebec, commercial fish farms currently limit themselves to farmingfreshwater fish, while the maricultureindustry has focused until very recentlyon molluscs. In other parts of the world,saltwater fish farms are located right inthe ocean. Doing so significantly reducesfarming costs and makes them profitable. In Quebec, installing aquaculture equipment in the ocean is adicey prospect because of ice cover inwinter. Previously, experiments withfarming saltwater fish in tanks revealedthe need for technical expertise as wellas the high cost of production. Today,however, research advances are showingthe potential of the Spotted Wolffish.This new mariculture candidate wasfirst noticed in the early 2000s. At thetime, teams from the Maurice-Lamontagne Institute in Mont-Joli,Quebec, collected their first SpottedWolffish as part of the research projectsthey were conducting with the

Université du Québec à Rimouski andthe Quebec ministry of agriculture, fisheries and food.First of all, the Spotted Wolffish is afish that adapts well to the conditions itis kept in and is easy to domesticate. Itdevelops quickly at very low temperatures and is not very sensitive tochanges in the salinity of the water.Spotted Wolffish can be farmed in highdensities, something that is crucial forthe profitability of an aquaculture operation (see Figure 2). As well, eventhough the Spotted Wolffish does notreproduce spontaneously in captivity,new generations can be produced everyyear using captive broodstock. And let’snot forget another important quality thisfish possesses: it tastes great. Aside from these obvious advantages,it is important to find out how thisspecies grows in captivity so that itspotential benefit to Quebec’s aquacultureindustry can be properly assessed. Forthat reason, Denis Chabot, a researcher atthe Maurice-Lamontagne Institute, wasapproached by the Société de développement de l’industrie maricole(SODIM) to carry tests using water tanks.

The studies were also conducted in theresearch centre’s aquaculture facilities,which allowed the farming to be done ona large scale. This zootechnical demonstration, the final results of whichwill be known sometime in 2011, wascarried out in collaboration with NathalieLe François, a researcher at the Biodômede Montréal and associate professor atthe Université du Québec à Rimouski. The first wolffish, hatched at the endof fall 2008 in the Centre aquacole marinde Grande-Rivière, were delivered to theMaurice-Lamontagne Institute in May2009. Since their arrival in the tank,these roughly 400 fish have been handled very carefully. Every month, theresearchers measure their growth rate, inconditions kept as close as possible tothose found in commercial fish farmingoperations. These measurements arecompared with data gathered in Norwayand Iceland, where Spotted Wolffishhave been raised for experimental andcommercial aquaculture for about 10years now. Preliminary results fromMont-Joli show a growth rate that isslightly less than that observed inNorway, a country that has had considerable experience in farming thespecies; thus, rearing conditions at theMaurice-Lamontagne Institute still havesome room for improvement. Feeding poses one of the biggest challenges for obtaining optimal growthin farmed Spotted Wolffish. The commercial feed used until now wasintended for salmonids and has not beenmodified. The feed has too much fat andwolffish that are fed this type of food tendto develop liver abnormalities.Researchers also question whether itoffers enough protein for the particularneeds of the species. Another problem:the feed does not float and sinks to thebottom of the tank, which is problematicwhen it comes to feeding fish speciesraised in high densities. Ideally, the feed

Farming saltwater fish in Quebec:The Spotted Wolffish shows promise

Figure 2: Spotted Wolffish in farming tankPhoto: Arianne Savoie, Fisheries and Oceans Canada

pg16_DFO_wolffish.qxd 24/8/12 12:30 Page 16

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24 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | November-December 2013 November-December 2013 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | 25

FEATURE

visual assessment shows that the traditional acidifier calcium formate is extremely soluble and therefore not suitable for use in aquafeed in its pure form. The following trial used an acidifier which is established both in some land-based systems and aquaculture production.

Acidifier: shrimp trialThis trial investigated the effects of a spe-

cially formulated acidifier on shrimp survival and vibrio spp. counts (a key pathogen for the species) in white shrimp (Chalour, 2012). White shrimp (L. vannamei) were reared from postlarvae 12 (P12) stage for 60 days. The pelleted feed contained an ascending quantity of the investigated acidifier from 0 (control), 0.3, 0.6, 0.9 to 1.2 percent.

The acidifier in the pelleted feed had a linear positive effect on shrimp survival lead-ing to a 10 percent improvement of mortality rate in the group treated with the highest dos-

age of the investigated product (Table 1). Vibrio counts (Graph 1) and total bacteria counts (not shown) also showed sig-nificant improvements. This trial showed the efficacy of a specifically selected acidifier in a pelleted aquaculture feed, even a species without acid digestion.

Example 2: Second generation phytogenic product

While acidifiers are well-established tools in diet formu-lation, the same approach to identify suitable additives for aquafeeds can also be taken for phytogenic products. The first phytogenics employed one plant or plant component targeting a single function. Second

generation phytogenic substances, unlike their predecessors, have been selected for maxi-mum synergy between several components focussing on substance classes like flavonoids.

An example of these new functions are the anti-inflammatory effects as exhibited by flavonoids, which are currently a topic of great interest in land-based livestock nutrition.

With the trend to make fish farming more sustainable by using fewer potentially anti-inflamma-tory polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) from fish oil, alternative additives have to be found which can provide the anti-inflammato-ry effects required to ensure a healthy and functional intestinal mucosa and gut epithelium.

Recent trials have focused on land-based livestock (Gessner et al. 2011) but NF-KB, the mas-ter regulator of inflammation, is preserved with similar functions across all vertebrate species and has been shown to be a key ele-ment in inflammation mediation in pylogenetically distant fish species (Zang et al., 2012). A positive effect as the downregu-lating of the NF-KB response in mammals might therefore have a similar beneficial effect in fish.

The main aim of the tested phytogenic additive based on flavo-noids is intestinal health, palatability of feed, enhancing digestion and adsorption of nutrients through improved antioxidant status and antimicrobial effects.

The product chosen as an example for this group was from the Anta®Phyt range, which does already have a product for aquatic species and therefore has all the required specifics such as stability in water, suitability for all water temperatures, favourable technical

Figure 2: Vibrio count per ml shrimp hemolymph

40 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | November-December 2013

FEATURE

November-December 2013 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | 41

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characteristics and stability to all feed process-ing systems.

As it is a new concept on land there is only a limited body of expe-rience, however, the results suggest very positive effects on production characteristics on poultry and pigs in par-ticular (Holl, 2013). To evalu-ate whether the concept, which won the 2012 innovation award at Victam in Bangkok, could live up to expectations, a carp trial with the blends was undertaken in southern Germany.

Carp trial (Blässe et al. 2013)

A feeding trial was conducted with carp having an initial body weight of 90 g for ten weeks (until 200 g). Carp (C. carpio) were ran-domly allocated into eight tanks.

The diet was based on typi-cally southern German regional diets comprised of fishmeal, soy protein, wheat, corn and peas (Table 2).

Average daily gain (ADG) was monitored for carp fed a diet with the phytogenic additive (dosage 0.4 percent; four tanks) and negative controls with carp fed the diet without any additive (four tanks).

Carp fed the diet with the additive showed higher body weight from week 2 to 10, increasing final weight by 5 per-cent compared to the control. Additionally, average daily gains were increased by 11 percent during the 10-week period for the carp the additive.

So the new group of phy-togenic additives also hold prom-

ise for aquacultures and could be exploited further.

ConclusionsThere is good body

of research into live-stock feeds on land; there is no need to reinvent the wheel when looking for suit-able and economically beneficial additives for aquaculture. After removing those addi-tives unsuitable for the aquatic environment (i.e. those not stable

in water or unsuitable to the production process) there are many potential candidates remaining that have promise for aquacul-

ture. The present article selected two prod-ucts from two additive groups (acidifier and phytogenic product) that have shown their potential in aquacultures. This highlights the validity of this approach rather than to start to entire selection of potential additives for scratch to search the existing (acidifiers) or upcoming (phytogenic) additives in land-based farming systems for potential candidates for aquacultures, having the potential to make the development process both faster and more efficient. This of course does not stop the need to search for specific additives to address challenges to aquacultures such as attractants or sea lice control through feed, but the two approaches can rather inform each other rather than compete.

Graph 1: Effect of phytogenic additive on growth of common carp

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40 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | November-December 2013 November-December 2013 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | 41

FEATURE

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Animal co-product hydrolysates:

– a source of key molecules in aquaculture feeds

Prevalence of mycotoxins in aquafeed ingredients:

– an update

Volume 16 I s sue 6 2 013 - NoVemBeR | DeCemBeR

INCORPORAT ING f I sh fARm ING TeChNOlOGy

New functional fish feeds to reduce

cardiovascular disease

Pellet distribution modelling: – a tool for improved feed delivery in sea cages

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