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500 Learning About ParagraphsChapter 19

C H A P T E RC H A P T E R

What Is a Paragraph?A paragraph is a group of sentences that relates one main idea.Usually, a paragraph is part of a longer piece of writing; however,before you learn to write a multiparagraph essay, you must firstunderstand the characteristics of individual paragraphs.

Why Use Paragraphs?What would happen if cars were not equipped with turn signals?Obviously, more accidents would occur. Turn signals aredesigned to inform one driver when another driver plans to turnor change lanes. In the same way, paragraphs also serve as sig-nals: They tell the reader when the writer is switching to a newmain idea. Without paragraphs, main ideas would run into eachother, confusing the reader. So remember, as a writer, you are inthe driver’s seat—be courteous and signal when you switch to anew main idea by creating a new paragraph.

What Are the Parts of aParagraph?Paragraphs usually contain a main idea, a topic sentence, and supporting sentences. In addition, some paragraphs end with aclincher sentence.

Learning AboutParagraphs

GO TO: go.hrw.comKEYWORD: EOLang

(page 501): Identify themain idea. Identify the

topic sentence.

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The Main IdeaHave you ever met some of your friends for a game of base-ball? Even if you do not have enough players, you always havea pitcher and a catcher. Without a pitcher and a catcher, youdo not have a baseball game.

Paragraphs are like that, too. They may not have a topicsentence and a clincher sentence, but they must have a mainidea. Without a main idea, you do not have a paragraph.

The main idea is the topic around which the entireparagraph is organized. Look back at the paragraphunder the heading “Why Use Paragraphs?” on page 500.What is the main idea? It is that paragraphs are similar toturn signals. The other sentences in the paragraph givespecific details about the characteristics that make turn sig-nals and paragraphs similar.

The Topic SentenceThe topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph. Itcan occur anywhere in the paragraph, but it is usually the firstor second sentence.

However, a topic sentence can come later in the para-graph, or even at the end. A topic sentence that comes later ina paragraph can often pull the ideas together and help thereader see how they are related. Sometimes the topic sen-tence summarizes, as in the following paragraph.

What Are the Parts of a Paragraph? 501

The first skateboard was probably constructed inthe 1930s. This skateboard was a homemade contrap-tion consisting of a two-by-four and the metal wheelsfrom a roller skate. Eventually in 1958, Bill Richardsand his son Mark made a deal with the Chicago RollerSkate Company to produce skateboards, and the mod-ern skateboard was born. Today, skateboarding is asport enjoyed across the country. From garage hobbyto national sport, skateboarding has certainly come along way.

PEANUTS reprinted by permission of

United Feature Syndicate, Inc.


Many paragraphs have no topic sentence. This is especiallytrue of narrative paragraphs that tell about a series of events. Thereader has to add the details together to figure out what the mainidea is. Look at the following paragraph. What is the main idea?

Each sentence in the previous paragraph describes a separateaction. However, if you put them all together, they suggest themain idea: Colin Fletcher disturbed the animals and they fled.

Identifying Main Ideas and Topic Sentences

Throughout your school career, you will be asked to read some-thing and figure out what the main idea is. Sharpen your skills byidentifying the main ideas in the following paragraphs. If theparagraph has a topic sentence, tell what it is. If there is not atopic sentence, summarize the main idea in your own words.

Exercise 1


1. In the sun’s family of planets, the earth isunique in its possession of oceans. Indeed, it isremarkable that oceans exist at all. They do onlybecause the largest part of the earth has a surfacetemperature in the small range within whichwater remains a liquid: in short, between 32o F(below which, under ordinary conditions, waterfreezes) and 212o F (when it boils and becomes a gas).

Leonard Engel, The Sea

T I P S & T R I C K S

You should generally use atopic sentence when writ-ing a paragraph. A topicsentence will ensure thatthe reader will understandyour main idea.

When the coyote had finished drinking, it trotted a few paces, to above the steppingstones,and began to eat something. All at once it lookedup, directly at me. For a moment it stood still.Then it had turned and almost instantly vanished,back into the shadows that underlay the trees.From behind the trees, a big black hawklike birdwith a red head flapped out and away. Up in thelake, the herons took wing. They, too, circled awayfrom me, angled upriver.

Colin Fletcher, The Secret Worlds of Colin Fletcher


Supporting SentencesIn addition to a main idea and a topic sentence, effective para-graphs also have supporting sentences. Supporting sentencesgive specific details that explain or prove the main idea. Thesesentences may use sensory details, facts, or examples.

Sensory DetailsWhen you use words that appeal to one or more of your fivesenses—sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell—you are usingsensory details. Vivid sensory details help your reader form aclear image of the subject.

Notice the sensory details in the paragraph on the next pagefrom an article titled “Sweet Temptation.” For example, in thefirst three sentences, you can “see” the rows of apple trees sway-ing in the wind on a hot Kentucky day. What other sensorydetails can you find?

What Are the Parts of a Paragraph? 503

2. I arrived in San Francisco, leaner than usual,fairly unkempt, and with no luggage. Mothertook one look and said, “Is the rationing that badat your father’s? You’d better have some food tostick to all those bones.” She, as she called it,turned to, and soon I sat at a clothed table withbowls of food, expressly cooked for me.

Maya Angelou, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings

3. Although living with a disability can be dif-ficult, many disabled people lead independentlives. Gemma is one of those people. Left legallyblind and deaf at age nine from an operation toremove a brain tumor, Gemma had to learn toovercome her disabilities. With the help of acane, a hearing aid, and a magnifying glass to help her read, Gemma is able to be self-sufficient. She lives in an apartment by herself.She has a job, and she attends classes to learnnew computer skills.

Identify supporting sentences. Support,develop, and elaborateideas in writing. Developdescriptions with sensorydetails.


FactsA fact is a statement that can be proved true by direct observationor by checking a reliable reference source. For example, if you saythat Washington, D.C., is the capital of the United States, you statea fact that can be proved. However, if you say that Washington,D.C., is the best city in the world, you state an opinion. Opinionscannot be proved.

Look at how the facts in the following paragraph support themain idea that a volcano was erupting. Many of the facts are sta-tistics, or numbers. In the first sentence, for example, factsinclude the date and time of the boom, as well as the height ofthe peak. Can you find other facts? How might they be proved?


Reference Note

For more about facts andopinions, see page 676.

My earliest childhood memory is of the swayinglimbs of Golden Delicious apple trees. Rows of themstood next to a dirt road that separated our orchardfrom the front yard. The Kentucky summer sky hunghot behind those high twigs, their leaves leatherygreen on top, soft as down underneath. The apples,little bigger than shooter marbles then, played hide-and-seek with a child’s eyes.

Frank Browning,“Sweet Temptation,” Reader’s Digest

Those who camped overnight on March 28atop 3,926-foot-high Mitchell Peak were wakenedabout 2:00 A.M. by a loud boom and whistlingsounds. In the brilliant moonlight they watched agreat plume of steam rise from the crater. Anothereruption at 3:45 A.M. blew ash three miles into thesky and was followed by three quakes registering4.0 on the Richter intensity scale. Later observerslearned the volcano had blown out a second crater.Three small mudflows, not lava, dribbled a thou-sand feet down the slope. The east and south slopesturned gray from the ash projected by gases roilingfrom the magma far below the surface.

Marian T. Place, Mount St. Helens: A Sleeping Volcano AwakesEvaluate facts used in a

text.

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ExamplesExamples are a third kind of supporting idea. They are specificinstances or illustrations of a general idea. Soccer and footballare examples of team sports played with a ball. Getting groundedis an example of what might happen if you disobey your parents.In the following paragraph the author gives examples of howpeople in Japan make use of limited space.

Collecting Supporting Details

Have you ever collected baseball cards, seashells, or stamps? Yousearch and choose only the ones you think are best. Now you aregoing to collect supporting details for topic sentences. Think ofat least two details to support each of the following main ideas.For each idea, a type of support—sensory details, facts, or exam-ples—is suggested.

1. Staying healthy is partly under your control. (facts)2. When I walk around my neighborhood (or city), there is

always something going on. (sensory details)3. No one in my class is just like me. (examples)

The Clincher SentenceNot only does a good paragraph contain a main idea, a topic sen-tence, and supporting details, but it may also end with a clinchersentence. A clincher sentence, also known as a concluding

Exercise 2

505What Are the Parts of a Paragraph?

If anyone on earth knows how to get the mostout of cramped quarters, it is the Japanese. . . . Atypical Japanese washing machine is so light andsmall it can be moved easily with one hand fromone room to another. Many Japanese sleep onquilted mattresses called futons . . . [which] canbe rolled up after use. . . . Aisles in many shopsare so narrow that a visitor needs a shoehorn tomove around in them. . . . Pizzas are the size ofapple pies; coffee isn’t served in mugs but in deli-cate cups; [and] newspapers have only betweenfour and a dozen pages.

John Langone, In the Shogun’s Shadow

You do not need to includea clincher sentence in everyparagraph. If you do, youmay disrupt the rhythm ofyour composition. Consideradding a clincher sentenceto the last body paragraphof your composition.

Evaluate examples usedin a text. Summarizemain ideas. End with aclear conclusion.


sentence, pulls together the preceding sentences by emphasizingthe main idea. Ending with a clincher sentence is an effective wayto ensure that the reader gets the overall point of the paragraph.Notice how the author of the following paragraph uses a clinchersentence to bring the paragraph to a close.

Developing a Clincher Sentence

Provide a clincher sentence for each of the following paragraphs.Remember that a good clincher sentence brings the paragraph toa close by emphasizing the main idea.

1. Without the inventiveness of ThomasEdison, we would be without many of thedevices that make our lives more enjoy-able. Everyone knows, of course, that heinvented the light bulb. The usefulness ofthis invention needs no explanation.However, many do not know that Edisoninvented other things as well. Edison notonly invented the movie camera, but healso invented the phonograph.

2. As a student, you should find out whatkind of study environment is right for youbecause the wrong study conditions canlead to poor grades. Some students musthave a quiet environment in which to study.The noise of the TV or radio, the whirringof a fan, or the movement of people cancause these students to lose concentration.

Exercise 3


What most people don’t realize is that [sharkattacks] almost never happen. In a particularly bad year, as many as one hundred people may be attacked by sharks. Of those attacks, a smallminority—15 percent at most—prove fatal. Farmore people are killed by bees, poisonous snakes,and elephants, as well as bathtub falls and lightningstrikes. It’s much more dangerous to drive to thebeach than to venture into the water once you get there.

Michael D. Lemonick, “Under Attack,” Time

H E L P

To complete Exercise 3, look for themain idea of the para-graph. Once you havedetermined the main idea,consider the supportingdetails. How can you bringthe main idea and support-ing details together in onesentence?


As a result, they often have ineffectivestudy sessions. However, some studentsactually seem to need what is called “back-ground noise.” In other words, thesestudents need to hear the hum of the TV or radio in the background to study effectively.

What Makes a Good Paragraph?Although a paragraph may have a main idea, a topic sentence,and supporting sentences, the reader may still not understand itfully. What may be missing is unity, coherence, or elaboration.

UnityWhen a paragraph has unity, all the sentences relate to the mainidea. For example, in a paragraph explaining the origin of base-ball, every sentence should give some information about base-ball’s beginnings. Including a sentence about this year’s best teamwould ruin the paragraph’s unity. That sentence is not about theparagraph’s main idea—how baseball began.

As you read the following paragraph, notice how each sen-tence is directly connected to the main idea: how sailors oncebelieved in mermaids.

What Makes a Good Paragraph? 507

Another monster that was equally dreaded bysailors was the beautiful mermaid. Like the sirens,mermaids were thought to be half woman and halffish. Such creatures were said to carry a mirror inone hand and a comb in the other, and from timeto time they would run the comb through theirlong sea-green hair. Most sailors were convincedthat it was very bad luck to see a mermaid. At best,it meant that someone aboard their ship would diesoon afterward. At worst, it meant that a terrificstorm would arise, the ship would sink, and manyof the crew would drown.

William Wise, “Strange and Terrible Monsters of the Deep,” Boys’ Life

Evaluate the unity of atext.


Identifying Sentences That Destroy Unity

In each of the following paragraphs, one sentence should makeyou say, “What is that doing there?” Find the sentence thatdestroys the unity of each paragraph. Remember that in a unifiedparagraph, all details are directly related to the main idea.

1. The disappearance of Amelia Earhartremains a mystery. Earhart, who was the first woman pilot to fly across the Atlantic Ocean, crashed into thePacific Ocean while attempting to flyaround the world. She was born inAtchison, Kansas, in 1897. Some searchersbelieve that she survived the crash intothe Pacific, because radio distress callswere received. An intensive search for thesource of the signals was made. Searcherswere not able to find her, however.Finally, the distress signals ceased. Inspite of continued searches by airplaneand ship, no clue about what became ofAmelia Earhart has yet been found.

2. After being a city dweller for almosttwelve years, I was forced to move to thecountry. At the time, I hated the idea ofliving in the “wide-open spaces.” Afterall, what could a teenager do on a farmlocated fifteen miles from the nearesttown? Farming, once commonplace, seems tobe in danger of extinction as more peopletake jobs in large cities. The simplepleasures of the city were miles away.Casual jaunts to the arcade were out ofthe question. A simple stroll to the mall—once fifteen minutes away by foot—wasquite impossible. I felt as if I wouldnever again have fun. But one day, as Iexplored deep into the quiet woods behindour house, I realized something important:Those wide-open spaces I had once hatedheld countless possibilities.

Exercise 4



CoherenceIn addition to having unity, a paragraph also needs to be coherent. A coherent paragraph is one in which all of the sen-tences logically fit together. When a paragraph has coherence, thereader can easily see how all of the details are connected. You canuse two methods to create coherence in your writing. First, youcan order details in a way that makes sense to the reader. Second,you can show how the details are connected by using appropriatetransitional words.

Order of DetailsOrganizing your details in a specific order is one way to be sureyour paragraph is clear and coherent. Use one of the four pat-terns listed below.

Chronological Order When you put ideas in chronologicalorder, you arrange them in the order in which they occur.

• Using chronological order to write a narrative A narrativecan be a fictional account of an event. For example, a novel isa fictional narrative. However, a narrative can also be anaccount of a factual event. Your history book is filled withnarratives that actually happened, such as the story of theRevolutionary War. All narratives, whether fiction or fact,have one thing in common: They use chronological order toexplain a series of related events. As you read the paragraphon the next page, notice that Nancy Mohr uses chronologicalorder to relate a factual narrative.


Chronological presents details in the order in whichorder they occur

Spatial order presents details according to theirlocation in space

Order of arranges details from the least to importance most important, or the reverse

Logical order groups related details together

Evaluate the coher-ence of a text. Writecohesively and coher-ently. Organize writingby chronological order.


• Using chronological order to explain a process Manywriters use chronological order to explain a process, such ashow to do something or how something occurs. Explaining aprocess using chronological order often involves explaininghow something develops over time. For instance, a writermight explain how erosion helped form the Grand Canyonover millions of years. Explaining a process using chronologi-cal order can also involve telling the reader how to completea certain task step by step. For example, notice how the writerof the following paragraph uses chronological order toexplain how to teach a dog commands.


In 1482, the duke of Milan commissionedLeonardo da Vinci to create the biggest horse statueever. Made to honor the duke’s father, it was to betwenty-four feet high. Leonardo spent years sketch-ing a great charger, eventually sculpting a full-sizedmodel in clay and leaving notes about how to castit—the bronze would weigh eighty tons! But then aFrench army threatened and the metal was neededfor cannon. When Milan fell to the French in 1499,French archers used the clay horse for target prac-tice. For more than four centuries it was lost to his-tory until Leonardo’s sketches were rediscovered inSpain in 1966.

Nancy Mohr, “A Long Shot Pays Off,” Smithsonian

For the command “Sit,” hold the leash in yourright hand and gently press on the dog’s hindquar-ters with your left hand. At the same time, say “Sit.”When he or she is in the correct position, stroke andpraise your dog. When your dog will sit on com-mand without having to be pushed, he or she isready to learn “Stay.” Move a couple of feet in front of the dog, still holding on to the leash. If the dogtries to follow, you say “No” firmly and repeat theword “Stay.” Repeat this process, moving farther awayfrom the dog each time. . . .

Pam Jameson, Responsible Pet Care

Write to explain.


• Using chronological order to explain causes and effectsChronological order is often used to explain a cause-and-effect chain. A cause-and-effect chain occurs when an initialcause triggers an effect which itself becomes a cause, and soon. Think of a cause-and-effect chain in terms of a row ofcarefully arranged dominoes. If you push the first domino inthe row (cause), it will fall into the second domino and makeit fall (effect/cause). The second domino will make the thirddomino fall, and so on with a series of causes and effectsuntil the final domino topples (the final effect). Notice in thefollowing paragraph that the first “domino” (the hotweather) begins a chain of related causes and effects.

Using Chronological Order to Develop Paragraphs

Follow the directions for each item, making sure to arrange supporting details in chronological (time) order.

1. Choose one of the topics listed below and list at least five detailsthat would need to be included in a paragraph about it.a. the Boston Tea Party b. my happiest moment

2. List at least five steps to explain the process involved in completing each task.a. how to make a sandwichb. how to use the Web or library to find a book on dogs

Exercise 5


Bees create their own air conditioning.When the weather becomes especially hot andthe temperature inside the hive threatens tomelt the wax, one group of bees stations itselfat the entrance to the colony while anotherremains inside. Both groups then flap theirwings simultaneously, sometimes at a rate offour hundred flaps per second. Thus they cre-ate a cross-draft that pulls the hot air out ofthe hive and draws the cooler air in.

David Louis, 2201 Fascinating Facts

Cause

Effect/Cause

Effect/Cause

Effect

Identify and understandcause-and-effect organization.


3. Pick one of the following topics and list a chronological chainof causes and effects.a. not getting enough exerciseb. being tardy for class

Spatial Order Spatial order is often used in descriptiveparagraphs because it helps the reader visualize the subject. Thefollowing writer describes her room by moving from the left wallto the right wall, allowing the reader to see how the details fittogether in space.

Using Spatial Order to Develop Paragraphs

How would you describe your room, your favorite store, or theinside of your locker? Choose one of the following subjects andlist at least six supporting details to describe the subject. Then,arrange the details in spatial order.

1. an amusement park or city park

Exercise 6


My apartment is so small that it will no longerhold all of my possessions. Every day when I comehome from school, I am shocked by the clutter. Thewall to my immediate left is completely obscuredby art and movie posters that have become sonumerous they often overlap, hiding even eachother. Along the adjoining wall is my sound sys-tem: CDs and tapes are stacked several feet high ontwo long tables. The big couch that runs across theback of the room is always piled so high withschoolbooks and magazines that a guest usuallyends up sitting on the floor. To my right is a largesliding glass door that opens onto a balcony—atleast it used to, before it was permanently blockedby my tennis gear, golf clubs, and ten-speed bike.Even the tiny closet next to the front door is burst-ing with clothes—both clean and dirty. I think thetime has come for me to move.

Jean Wyrick, Steps to Writing Well

Organize writing by spatial order.


2. the inside of your dream house or apartment3. your school on the first or last day of the school year

Order of Importance Another way to organize writing is to arrange supporting details according to their order ofimportance. As a writer, you might decide to begin a paragraphwith the supporting detail that “packs the most punch” and endwith a weaker idea. For example, in a paragraph about the effectsof air pollution, you might choose to begin by explaining that airpollution can lead to disease and death in humans. Then, youmight decide to end the paragraph by stating that air pollutioncan also cause eye irritation, nausea, and headaches. However,you can also do the opposite by beginning your paragraph with aless forceful idea and ending it with a stronger one, as in the following paragraph.

Using Order of Importance to Develop Paragraphs

Choose one of the following topics and list at least three supporting details for each. Then, arrange these details accordingto how important they are. You may choose to order the detailsfrom least important to most important, or the reverse.

1. the qualities that make a good friend2. the reasons we should take care of the environment3. what would happen in your perfect day

Exercise 7


Daniel “Chappie” James, Jr., lived by the“Eleventh Commandment” created by his mother,Lillie: “Thou shalt never quit.” Although segrega-tion, prejudice, and the narrow-mindedness ofboth whites and blacks placed obstacles in his path,James never gave up. He had a distinguished mili-tary career as one of the original Tuskegee Airmenand as a combat pilot in Korea and Vietnam, andwas an inspirational speaker during times of greatturmoil in America. In 1975, he became America’sfirst African American four-star general.

“Never Give Up,” Cobblestone


It is important to remem-ber your options when youare writing. To helpremember the four ordersthat give your writingcoherence, think aboutmaking your writing“SLIC.” SLIC stands forSpatial order, Logical order,order of Importance, andChronological order.

Organize writing byorder of importance.


Logical Order Logical order involves arranging supportingdetails into related groups. A logical pattern of organization canhelp the reader understand the connection between details. Forexample, a writer of an informative paragraph about wolvesmight decide to group details about their diet in the first three tofive sentences. Then, she might group details about their socialbehavior in the last several sentences.

When you compare or contrast two things, you use logicalorder to group similarities and differences. For example, thefollowing paragraph contrasts butterflies and moths by using alogical order. Notice how related details about moths and butter-flies are grouped together. Details about when they fly, how theyhold their wings, and what their antennae look like are eachgrouped together and discussed separately. Also, notice the pat-tern the authors use: A statement about butterflies is alwayspaired with a contrasting statement about moths. This patternmakes the paragraph easier to understand.

Using Logical Order to Develop Paragraphs

Ordering supporting details ideas into related groups can helpthe reader better understand your topic. Choose one of the following topics and list four to six details about it. Then, orderthose details into related groups.

1. the difference between elementary school and middle school2. things to consider when shopping for school clothes3. good pets and bad pets

Exercise 8


There are three main differences between butterflies and moths. Butterflies are out by daywhile moths usually fly at night, but this is not aninfallible guide since some moths fly by day.Second, moths spread their wings sideways at rest,whereas butterflies hold them together over theirbacks, though again there are exceptions. Third, thebutterfly’s antennae are long and slender, whereas amoth’s are shorter and feathery.

Gerald Durrell with Lee Durrell, The Amateur Naturalist

Old World swallowtailbutterfly

Atlas moth

Organize writing by logical order. Identify

and understand comparison-contrast

organization.


Transitional Words and PhrasesThe second way to create coherence is to use transitional wordsand phrases. Transitional words and phrases can help createcoherence by showing how related details are connected. The fol-lowing chart lists some common transitions.


(continued)

Transitional Words and Phrases

Chronological Order

Showing Time

after finally soon

at last first then

at once later thereafter

before meanwhile when

eventually next while

Showing Cause-and-Effect Relationships

as a result for sobecause for this reason so thatconsequently since therefore

Spatial Order

above beneath inside

across beside into

among beyond near

around by next to

before down over

behind here there

below in under

Order of Importance

first mainly thenlast more important to begin with

Use transitions to connect ideas.Organize writing bychronological order.Identify and understandcause-and-effect organization.Organize writing by spatial order.Organize writing byorder of importance.


In the following paragraph, notice how the underlined transi-tions help create coherence by showing how ideas are related toone another.


(continued)

Logical Order

Comparing Ideas

also just as moreover

and like similarly

another likewise too

Contrasting Ideas

although in spite of on the other hand

but instead still

however nevertheless yet

In ancient times, it was a very expensive processto dye cloth or any other material. With no chemi-cal dyes or synthetic products, artisans had to makedyes from products found in nature. For this rea-son, explorers in the Americas must have beenquite excited when they discovered that the nativesknew how to make a dye extract . . . from a com-mon tree, known as the brasil. European merchantssoon developed a great trade in brasil wood. ThePortuguese, who, as a result of the treaty ofTordesillas, laid claim to the land where these treesgrew, named the area Terra de Brasil or “Land ofRed-dye-wood.” Soon cartographers and othersbegan to refer to the land as Brasil. Speakers ofEnglish later adopted the name and the way it waspronounced. However, because an s between twovowels sounds like a z in Portuguese, Englishchanged the spelling of Brasil to Brazil.

“Word Stories: Brazil,” Calliope

Think about what kind ofconnection each transi-tional word or phrase inthis paragraph makesbetween ideas. What dothe transitions tell youabout how the piece isorganized? In your ownwriting, try to use transi-tions that will give readersclues about the pattern of organization you havechosen.

Organize writing by logical order.

Identify and understandcomparison-contrast

organization.


Identifying Transitional Words and Phrases

Can you find the words and phrases that connect the writer’sdetails? Make a list of all the transitional words and phrases youcan find in this paragraph about bartering in ancient times.

ElaborationHave you ever seen a mosaic? A mosaic begins as an outline of apicture or design. The artist then elaborates on, or works out ingreater detail, the outline by inlaying small, colorful bits of col-ored stones or glass into mortar, which is like cement. What oncewas only a simple outline grows into a detailed picture.

Writing a paragraph is much like producing a mosaic. Youbegin with a main idea and a few supporting details. Then, piece

Exercise 9


In the days before the invention of papermoney and strip malls, people had to trade forgoods and services. However, one could imaginethe problems this system produced. For example,say that Kino, a fisherman living in ancient times,realizes he needs a new coat to keep him warm atsea. How does he get it? First, he takes twenty fishfrom his basket so that he can trade for the coat.Then, he makes the day’s journey to the coat-maker’s shop. When he arrives, an unforeseenproblem arises that makes Kino shiver: The coat-maker hates fish but loves carrots. As a result, thecoatmaker will supply Kino with a coat for tenbushels of carrots. Consequently, Kino walks aboutthe region—in the cold, as luck would have it—and finally finds a carrot farmer willing to take thefish. Kino at last returns to the coatmaker andtrades the carrots for the coat. However, after all ofthis, another problem that distresses Kino arises:The long journey has completely worn out Kino’sshoes, and, unfortunately, the shoemaker likes neither fish nor carrots.

Support, develop, andelaborate ideas in writing.


by piece, you craft the paragraph by adding more details andexplanation. If you, as the writer, fail to elaborate on your mainidea, the reader is left with an unclear picture of the subject.Notice that the following paragraph contains a main idea and afew supporting details but fails to paint a complete picture.Could you clearly and accurately describe a hyena to someoneelse based on what you read in this paragraph?

The spotted hyena is an able hunter. Ithas powerful jaws and sharp teeth. Thespotted hyena has strong, short hind legs.Hunting in large packs allows the spottedhyena to overwhelm much larger prey. Onlythe fittest, smartest, and strongest sur-vive in the wild.

Now consider the following paragraph. Notice the many differ-ent types of additions and changes the writer made to create athorough and vivid description of a hyena.

The spotted hyena, a meat-eating mammal that roams theplains of Africa, is a fierce andable hunter. The spotted hyena is similar to a gray wolf in someways: It has powerful jaws andsharp teeth. However, unlike thewolf, the spotted hyena hasstrong, stubby hind legs. Huntingin large packs allows the spottedhyena to overwhelm much largerprey, such as the gazelle, adeerlike animal. The moment agazelle becomes separated fromthe herd, the pack quickly movesin for the kill. Hovering aroundthe prey in an ever-tighteningcircle, the menacing group soundsa shrill, piercing cry beforesetting upon its victim. Only thefittest, smartest, and strongestsurvive in the wild.


Definition

Adjective

Comparison

Contrast

Adjective

ExampleFact

Sensorydetails


The following is a list of strategies that will help you elaborate on, or further explain, your main ideas.

• Use highly descriptive words, including vivid adjectives andadverbs and precise verbs and nouns.

• Give a detailed definition of the subject or detail.

• Provide an example that illustrates your point.

• Use comparison to explain how what you are describing issimilar to something else. Metaphors and similes are types ofcomparisons.

• Use contrast to explain how what you are describing is different from something else.

• Include a fact to support your main idea.

• Use a statistic to support your main idea. Statistics are facts in numerical form.

• Use sensory details, descriptive language that appeals to oneor more of the five senses.

• Use cause and effect to explain how one thing causesanother, or how one thing results from another.

Elaborating Details

Using the strategies for elaboration listed above, rewrite the following paragraph by adding more detail. Remember to createa clear, well-defined “word picture” for the reader. Be ready toexplain the elaboration strategies you used and why you usedthem.

My day is filled with activity. I wakeup very early, eat breakfast, and go toschool. Once in the classroom, I am on avery tight schedule. Each class has itsown routine. I am glad when the lunchbell finally rings because I finally havetime to relax. However, all too soonlunch is over and I am in the classroomfor the rest of the afternoon. Whenschool is out, I go home, eat, do myhomework, and go to bed. The next day, Ido it all again.

Exercise 10


Reference Note

For more on metaphorsand similes, see page 555.

Use descriptive strategies. Support,develop, and elaborateideas in writing. Writecomparison-contrastessays. Use sensorydetails. Analyze causesand effects.


What Are the Types ofParagraphs?The following chart lists the four types of paragraphs.

The type of paragraph you choose to write will depend onwhether your purpose for writing is to inform or explain, influ-ence or persuade, express, or entertain. For example, if your pur-pose is to influence the audience, you would most likely write apersuasive paragraph.

Narrative ParagraphsA narrative paragraph uses chronological order to tell a story or relate a sequence of events. Consider the following narrativeparagraph about a mystery involving the early American settle-ment of Roanoke.

In 1587, Sir Walter Raleigh, an ambitiousEnglish adventurer, launched a second colony atRoanoke. The original location of the colony wasto be in the Chesapeake Bay area, but unexpectedwinds caused the ships to veer off course and landat Roanoke Island. Upon their arrival, 118 men andwomen, under the leadership of John White, builtshelters and began to fish and hunt for game. The

(continued)

Types of Paragraphs

Narrative used to tell a story or relate a sequence of events

Expository used to inform or explain, often by including facts, definitions, or instruc-tions on how to do something

Descriptive used to describe a person, place, thing, or idea; often used to express or entertain

Persuasive used to influence others to agree with the writer’s opinion or to take action


Create various kinds oftexts in the different

writing modes.Determine the writer's

purpose.


Expository ParagraphsThe word expository is related to the word expose, a verb thatmeans “to allow to be seen, or to reveal.” For example, newspaperreporters try to expose the truth. When writing an expositoryparagraph, the writer seeks to reveal information about a sub-ject. An expository paragraph can list facts, show cause andeffect, compare and contrast, or explain instructions. The follow-ing paragraph compares the settlements established at Roanokeand Jamestown.

What Are the Types of Paragraphs? 521

Some early American settlements were in poorlocations. Roanoke, for example, was on an islandthat proved hard to reach. Rough ocean currentsand storms made the voyage difficult for ships tobring much-needed supplies. The site for a latercolony, Jamestown, also had problems. Jamestownsat on a marshy, disease-ridden piece of land.Because of its location, Jamestown’s settlers had toendure increased incidents of illness as well as asalty water supply. However, despite the negatives,Roanoke and Jamestown shared one importantadvantage: The semihidden location of bothcolonies aided against surprise attacks.

(continued)

colonists seemed to thrive in their new home.However, between 1587 and 1590, something mys-terious happened to the settlers. When a ship fromEngland arrived at Roanoke in 1590, all of thecolonists were gone without a trace. The only clue tothe whereabouts of the colonists was a curiousinscription etched on a tree: the word “Croatoan.”Since Croatoan was the name of a nearby island, theship set sail for it. Once there, the sailors sangEnglish songs in a vain attempt to signal them, butno one responded. After an extensive search, theship returned to England. The fate of the originalsettlers of Roanoke remains a mystery to this day.

The Granger Collection, New York.


Descriptive ParagraphsA descriptive paragraph creates an accurate picture of the subject by including sensory details and adjectives. In the following paragraph, Esther Forbes describes Colonial Boston.Notice how she paints a “picture” by appealing to the senses ofsight and hearing.

Persuasive ParagraphsShould your town or city have a curfew for teenagers? Shouldschool lunch periods be longer? Who was the better president:Washington or Lincoln? A persuasive paragraph seeks to con-vince the reader to agree with an opinion or to take a certaincourse of action. Study the following excerpt from PatrickHenry’s famous “Give me liberty or give me death” speech. Inthis speech, Henry uses an emotional appeal to convince hisaudience to arm the Virginia militia for war against England.


Boston slowly opened its eyes, stretched, andwoke. The sun struck in horizontally from theeast, flashing upon weather vanes—brass cocksand arrows, here a glass-eyed Indian, there a cop-per grasshopper—and the bells in the steeplescling-clanged, telling the people it was time to beup and about.

Esther Forbes, Johnny Tremain

The battle is not won by the strong alone. It iswon by the alert, the active, the brave. Besides, wehave no choice. Even if we were cowardly enoughto desire it, it is now too late to back down fromthe conflict. There is no retreat but in submissionand slavery! Our chains are forged! Their clankingmay be heard on the plains of Boston. The war isinevitable—and let it come! I repeat, let it come!

Patrick Henry, Sketches of the Life and Character of Patrick Henry

Reference Note

For more on emotionalappeals, see page 723.


Identifying Types of Paragraphs

Using newspapers, magazines, books, or Web sites, find an exam-ple of each of the four types of paragraphs. Identify each para-graph as narrative, expository, descriptive, or persuasive. Then,answer the following questions.

1. What is the writer trying to influence his audience to do orbelieve in the persuasive paragraph? Support your response.

2. List two or three of the sensory details you found in thedescriptive paragraph.

3. What was the main idea of the expository paragraph?4. List, in order, the main supporting details of the narrative

paragraph.

How Are Paragraphs Used inLonger Pieces of Writing?By now, you know that a paragraph is a group of sentences thatcommunicates one distinct idea. However, a paragraph usuallydoes not stand on its own. Instead, most writing is composed ofseveral paragraphs that relate to one topic.

To help you learn when to begin a new paragraph, study thefollowing tips. Begin a new paragraph when

• you express a new main idea

• you explain a different part or aspect of your subject

• the setting—time or location—of your piece changes

• a different character or person speaks (as in dialogue)

• you provide another kind of support for your opinion

Dividing a Composition into Paragraphs

The paragraph indentations have been removed from the articleon the next page. With a small group of classmates, read the selec-tion and discuss where to start and end paragraphs. Be prepared toexplain your answers. Be aware that there may be more than oneway to divide the selection.

Exercise 12

Exercise 11

How Are Paragraphs Used in Longer Pieces of Writing? 523



In the winter of 1692, several young women inSalem, Massachusetts, were stricken with seizures.The community attributed the seizures to demonicpossession. Most people there believed in the Devil’sexistence and ability to possess humans. They alsobelieved that the Devil empowered human agents,called witches, to cause this possession. Members ofthe village community pressed the possessed femalesto name those responsible for their afflictions. Oncethe young women began identifying witches in theirmidst, hundreds of residents of Salem and othertowns came forward to testify that they too were victims of witchcraft. They claimed witches had usedsupernatural powers to kill their children, sickentheir farm animals, and otherwise harm their fami-lies and property. Witchcraft accusations and trialshad taken place in New England many times prior to1692. What made the Salem trials so unusual was thenumber of people involved. In a matter of months,over two hundred persons were named as witches. Atleast fifty-nine were tried, thirty-one convicted, andnineteen hanged. As in earlier times, older womenwere the main targets. For a long time, many histo-rians considered the Salem outbreak a bizarre andirrational event and argued that the young womenwere mentally disturbed. Other accusers, most ofwhom were adult men, were thought either to havebeen carried away with the hysteria of the momentor to have deliberately accused people they resented.The older women who were convicted and executedas witches were simply viewed as convenient targets.Recent historians have challenged this view of the trials, emphasizing how the trials were rooted in thesocial and cultural climate of New England. The religious, economic, and family life of New England’ssettlers all fostered an environment in which witch-craft fears flourished and accusations were anaccepted way of dealing with personal conflict and community tensions.

Dr. Carol Karlsen


Writing a Narrative Paragraph

A narrative paragraph is used to tell a story or relate a sequenceof events. The subject of a narrative paragraph can be real or fictional. Write a narrative paragraph on one of the followingtopics. Remember to arrange your details in chronological order.

• an eventful birthday or other special occasion

• your favorite year in school so far

• the funniest thing that ever happened to you

Writing an Expository Paragraph

The purpose of an expository paragraph is to reveal informationabout a subject. Use an expository paragraph either to explain atopic of your choice or to explain a process.

Writing a Descriptive Paragraph

Write a descriptive paragraph about one of the following topics.Do not forget to appeal to the reader’s senses. Also, be sure tocreate coherence by putting your ideas in spatial order.

• your bedroom

• your favorite place

• a beautiful sunset

• a friend or relative

Writing a Persuasive Paragraph

Write a persuasive paragraph on a topic of your choice. Remem-ber that the goal of a persuasive paragraph is to convince thereader to agree with you. To convince the reader, use reasons tosupport your opinion. If you have trouble finding a topic, answerone of the following questions.

• What school policy would you change or enact if you could?

• What is your opinion on an issue you have seen on the newsor read about in the newspaper?

• Who is the greatest historical figure of all time?

Review D

Review C

Review B

Review A

How Are Paragraphs Used in Longer Pieces of Writing? 525


When you are writing, tryusing a cluster diagram tobrainstorm supportingdetails about your topic.Simply draw a circle in thecenter of a piece of paperand write your topic withinit. Then, draw three morecircles around your topic,labeling them “sensorydetails,” “facts,” and“examples.” Use lines toconnect these detail circlesto your topic circle. Then,connect three more circlesto each of your detail cir-cles and try to think of adetail to put in each circle.Look at the model below.

detail

detail

detail

detail

detail

detail

detail

detail

detail

examples

Topic

factssensorydetails


nl eol se08 fm i - voorhees.k12.nj.us · the main idea have you ever met some of your friends for a...

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