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No Encyclopedia Left Unopened:Researching No Child Left Behind (NCLB)in the Reference ShelvesWendell G. Johnson aa University Libraries, Northern Illinois University , DeKalb, ILPublished online: 26 Mar 2010.

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No Encyclopedia Left Unopened: Researching No Child Left Behind (NCLB) in the Reference Shelves

No Encyclopedia Left UnopenedW. G. Johnson

WENDELL G. JOHNSONUniversity Libraries, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL

This article surveys reference works published in the general field ofeducation since the enactment of the No Child Left Behind Act of2001 (NCLB) on January 8, 2002. The study examines the introduc-tion of each work to determine its audience and measure this againstits treatment of NCLB. Topical encyclopedias can assist patrons inpreliminary research on this major piece of legislation. After narrow-ing down the research topic, patrons can be referred to an electronicdatabase for further, more detailed information on NCLB.

KEYWORDS No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, education—reference books, education—standards—United States, federallegislation

INTRODUCTION

Students from a variety of disciplines require information regarding the NoChild Left Behind Act of 2001 (P.L. 107-110), or NCLB. Research of this lawfor various assignments is done by not only advanced students in educationand the social sciences (in part, sociology and political science), but alsothose enrolled in first-year English, speech, and communications classes.The purpose of this article is to survey reference works published in thegeneral field of education since the enactment of NCLB on January 8, 2002.The study examines the introduction of each work to determine its audi-ence and measures this against its treatment of NCLB.

The literature on NCLB is vast. Students (and other patrons) will needassistance in narrowing the focus of their research. The reference works

Address correspondence to Wendell G. Johnson, University Libraries, Northern IllinoisUniversity, DeKalb, IL 60115. E-mail: wjohnso1@niu.edu

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included in this study are those located on the reference shelves of manydoctoral-extensive Carnegie 1 classification universities. The Library of Con-gress call numbers for each reference work are taken from the Cataloging-in-Publication (CIP) data when provided. In cases when the CIP data was notcontained in the reference works, the call numbers were taken from WorldCat.Many of these works are also available in electronic format (particularly thosepublished by Sage Publications). There are few born digital, non-commercialreference works that undergo a rigorous review process. This study doesnot include open-access, non-peer reviewed resources because many class-room instructors will not accept these as part of the bibliography for researchassignments. After consulting the topical encyclopedias (whether in print orelectronic format), researchers can be referred to electronic databases forfurther information.

NCLB

The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 was the reauthorization of the Ele-mentary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965. ESEA, which isrevised every five years, focused on providing federal education funding foreconomically disadvantaged students. In turn, ESEA was reauthorized andrevised in 1994 as the “Improving America’s Schools Act,” the direct precursorof NCLB. The name of the most recent legislation comes from its preamble:NCLB “closes the achievement gap with accountability, flexibility, andchoice, so that no child is left behind.” Its purpose is to “ensure that all chil-dren have a fair, equal, and significant opportunity to obtain a high-qualityeducation and reach, at a minimum, proficiency on challenging stateacademic achievement standards and state academic assessments.” Its mainelements, according to O’Neill and Johnson (2007), include:

• Standards for academic proficiency and average yearly progress (AYP)toward those standards;

• Schools must report annually on how they intend to reach AYP;• Assessment of academic achievement for all students in public schools;• Schools are held responsible for underperformance;• Higher professional standards for teachers and paraprofessionals;• Schools have greater flexibility for spending federal funds;• Special education students and students with limited English proficiency

are included in AYP; and,• NCLB mandates apply to charter school.

Each reference work examined touches on various aspects of NCLB.This article researches the general question: What is the purpose of a partic-ular reference work and does it meet its own mandate in its treatment of

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NCLB? The study serves as a tool for evaluating reference works and as aguide for librarians in fielding questions about NCLB.

THE REFERENCE LITERATURE

The first edition of the Encyclopedia of Education sought to provide a com-prehensive description of education both within the United States and through-out the world (Deighton 1971). The second edition of the Encyclopedia ofEducation (Guthrie 2003a; LB 15.E47) contains more than 850 articles coveringa variety of topics such as K-12 education, higher education, educationalpolicy and legislation, learning and instruction, teacher preparation, andteaching. It retains the comprehensive scope of the first but was rewritten toreflect the societal and institutional changes in the field of education overthe past 30 years.

One of these changes, of course, was NCLB. Guthrie (2003b)describes the original ESEA and relates it to NCLB. ESEA provided accessto public schooling to low-income students. However, by the beginning ofthe 21st century, mere access to public education was no longer sufficientand measurable learning outcomes came to be expected. Presciently,Guthrie predicted that NCLB would prove difficult to implement. The orig-inal ESEA already provided many obstacles and Guthrie thinks that themore complicated NCLB will encounter yet greater challenges. The secondedition of the Encyclopedia of Education was published too soon afterNCLB was enacted to provide much analysis. However, the Encyclopedia’sdiscussion of ESEA provides valuable background information on the genesisof NCLB.

The Encyclopedia of Education and Human Development (Farenga andNess 2005; LB15.E473) is divided into seven sections, each with severalchapters. The editors claim two general concerns have influenced the fieldof education: the role of politics and government and the impact of knowl-edge or how humans learn. Mention is made of NCLB throughout the book.However, the Encyclopedia does not contain a discrete chapter on the legis-lation. Given the highly politicized nature of NCLB, and the editors’ remarksconcerning the role of government in education, this omission is somewhatsurprising. The Encyclopedia is arranged more as a three volume textbookthan as a reference work.

The Encyclopedia of School Psychology (Lee 2005; LB1027.55.E523) pro-vides non-psychologists with the background information they need tounderstand concepts related to psychology in the schools (Lee 2005). On avery basic level, the Encyclopedia of School Psychology seeks to answerquestions parents have about the intersection of school psychology witheducation and to provide information about the world of the child andadolescent in schools.

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Discussion of NCLB is found throughout the Encyclopedia of SchoolPsychology, including perspectives on disabled students, the allocation offunds, and the issue of non-compliance. Jennifer Freeland’s (2005) entry“The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001” focuses on the achievement gapbetween minority and non-minority students and those who live in low-wealth and high-wealth areas and the consequences for schools that fail tomake AYP. Each school must ensure that “poor and minority children arenot taught at higher rates than other children by inexperienced, unquali-fied or out of field teachers” (20 U.S.C. § 6301). Schools failing to makeAYP must develop a two-year school improvement plan, notify parents ofpublic school choice, and obtain technical assistance for reform.Freeland’s (2005) article also explains the items listed on the annual reportcards sent by school districts to parents. The Encyclopedia of SchoolPsychology is a valuable resource for parents seeking information aboutthe ramifications of NCLB.

The third edition of the Handbook of Research on EducationalCommunications and Technology (Specter et al. 2008; LB 1028.3) repre-sents a complete reworking of the second edition published under thedirection of David H. Jonassen (Jonassen 1996). Before embarking on thisnew project, the editorial board surveyed the membership of the Associa-tion for Educational Communications and Technology about the generaluse of the Handbook of Research on Educational Communications andTechnology (Specter et al. 2008). The results of the survey indicate that itis used by doctoral students beginning the literature review for their dis-sertations, by faculty as a resource of teaching courses, and by researchersseeking a quick review on a particular topic.

The Handbook of Research on Educational Communications and Tech-nology (Specter et al. 2008) is geared toward professional researchers, bothbudding and established, and not toward K-12 classroom practitioners,which may explain why NCLB is only mentioned three times in its 800-pluspages. In her entry “K-12 Library Media Centers,” Neuman (2008) points outthat NCLB fails to mention school library media programs. This is unfortu-nate because research has demonstrated that a strong school media center(or library) goes hand-in-hand with a school’s academic performance. TheHandbook of Research on Educational Communications and Technology(Specter et al. 2008) mentions that NCLB has brought about a resurgence inexperimental studies, which is a focus of this reference work.

The Encyclopedia of Information Technology Curriculum Integration(Tomei 2008; LB1028.3.E63) features more than 150 articles related toworldwide issues and trends in teaching and learning with technology. TheEncyclopedia of Information Technology Curriculum Integration (Tomei2008) employs a taxonomy to stratify and organize its entries, with articlesarranged under the rubrics Literacy, Collaboration, Decision Making, Infu-sion, Integration, and Tech-ology (the term is supplied by the editor, and is

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taken to mean the study of technology). Practical applications and learningoutcomes are provided with each rubric of the taxonomy.

In “No Child Left Behind,” Yamamoto (2008) addresses the necessityfor teacher training and the need to assist disabled students. Technology,when properly used, helps foster critical thinking in students. However,technology must be integrated into the curriculum. Used in isolation, tech-nological literacy cannot help students meet the state standards mandatedby NCLB. Technology is not a substitute for solid pedagogy and contentknowledge. Yamamoto (2008) contends that the determining factor regard-ing students’ success in using computers is the quality and training of theteachers.

Technology can be used to help students with disabilities fulfill theassessment demands of NCLB. Speech-generating devices provide audioand visual feedback and can be used to help autistic learners. Students withattention deficit disorders, hyperactivity, or dyslexia can organize theirthoughts by creating multimedia. Students with speech impairments canmake great progress with audio-visual PowerPoint presentations. Yamamoto(2008) suggests that curriculum-centered technology training aligned withNCLB standards will help train teachers to deal with diverse students, partic-ularly those with disabilities.

The editor of the Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology (Salkind2008; LB1050.9E63) concedes that there are hundreds of books available onthe topic of educational psychology. Most of the information on the fieldtends to be found in scholarly tomes with discussion beyond the reach ofthe general library patron. The 275 articles in the Encyclopedia of Educa-tional Psychology seek to explain complex issues such as vouchers, earlyintervention, cultural diversity, and the educational role of athletics, withoutbeing overly technical. The Encyclopedia of Educational Psychology hopesto address educated readers who are uninformed about educationalpsychology.

One of the principles of NCLB is that school districts must use scientifi-cally based instructional programming to improve the performance of stu-dents (Yell 2008). The entry on NCLB in the Encyclopedia of EducationalPsychology is valuable for the information it provides to non-professionalson two facets of the law: scientifically based instruction and highly qualifiedteachers. According to NCLB, local educational bodies must pay attention toeducational research to ensure that their teachers are using the propermethods in the classroom. NCLB defines scientifically based research as“research that applies rigorous, systematic, and objective procedures toobtain relevant knowledge” (NCLB § 1208[60]). This research generallyfollows the scientific method (research that is empirical and states a hypoth-esis that justifies its conclusions), avails itself of assessment, and has beenaccepted for publication in a peer-reviewed journal or vetted by a panel ofindependent experts. There are three basic requirements of highly qualified

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teachers: a minimum of a bachelor’s degree; full state teacher certification orlicensure for the subject area in which they teach; and demonstrated subjectcompetency. Anyone teaching in more than one core subject must qualifyfor an endorsement in each subject area taught.

The Praeger Handbook of Education and Psychology (LB1051.P635)seeks to explore the nature of educational psychology at the beginning ofthe twenty-first century. The editors of The Praeger Handbook of Educationand Psychology find the “mechanistic tradition” of educational psychology,which includes both behaviorism and cognitivism, harmful to marginalizedstudents, whether because of race, class, gender, or ethnicity (Kinchloe andHorn 2007). In its place, the contributors offer an educational orientationthat focuses less on general empirical data and more on the process ofcreating meaning—in many regards the definition of constructivism.

The Praeger Handbook of Education and Psychology contains an excel-lent analysis of the effects NCLB has had on the development of curriculaand school assessment (Horn 2007). Although there is no national K-12curriculum in the United States, NCLB has resulted in the creation of state-wide curricula so that states can meet NCLB requirements and keep receivingfederal funds. The implementation of a state-wide standardized curriculumand assessment is fostering a move toward a national curriculum andassessment of K-12 students. The ultimate accountability mechanismbecomes the standardized test score, subordinating other indicators such asclass rank, grade point average, and further assessment tools. Failure to per-form to predetermined NCLB demands can have dire consequences forlocal schools: loss of local control, dismissal of teachers, loss of funding,and failure of students to graduate.

The documented outcomes dictated by NCLB lead to curriculardisplacement, reductionism, and re-alignment. Curricular displacementoccurs when certain subjects are dispensed with so that more time can bespent in instruction in areas assessed by NCLB. For example, physical,driver, and vocational education and family and consumer science aredisplaced from the curriculum so that additional instruction can be devotedto test preparation. When the time approaches for the standardized tests,some schools may require teachers to devote class time to remedial activityrelated to the test and to the development of test-taking strategies. Curricu-lum reductionism occurs within specific tested disciplines. Tested content isoften divided between essential and non-essential knowledge. Essentialknowledge is defined as material that is likely to be on the standardizedtest. Classroom instruction will be oriented toward this perceived “essential”information, often at the expense of integrating “non-essential” knowledgeinto the greater curriculum. Curriculum alignment refers to the practice ofensuring that the standardized written, prescribed curriculum is actuallytaught and tested. Teaching extraneous information (that which is not partof the written curriculum) is not given time in the classroom so that it does

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not compete with the mandated, assessed material. No impromptu orcreative material is to be introduced into the curriculum.

With its emphasis on quantitative research-based strategy, NCLB hasalso changed the dynamic of assessment. Qualitatively based teacher assess-ments, authentic assessments, and the use of multiple assessments havebecome subordinated to standardized tests. Students’ performance is mea-sured not only by whether they correctly answer the questions, but also byarbitrary cut scores (a number on a performance scale that indicateswhether the test has been passed). The problem with cut scores is that thegovernment can change them at any time without explanation.

Researchers should be referred to The Praeger Handbook of Educationand Psychology (Kinchloe and Horn 2007) for an in-depth discussion of theeffect that NCLB has had on the K-12 curriculum in the United States.Perhaps no other reference work contributes such targeted information ororiginal discussion to the issues connected with NCLB as does The PraegerHandbook of Education and Psychology (Kinchloe and Horn 2007). As Horn(2007) points out, teachers can become certified based solely on narrowcontent specialization and with a minimum of pedagogical knowledge.Without explicitly saying so, The Praeger Handbook of Education andPsychology (Kinchloe and Horn 2007) demonstrates that NCLB is at cross-purposes with the constructivist learning theory so prevalent today in Americaneducation.

Early childhood education (ECE) “refers to services provided tochildren during the period from birth too the age of compulsory schooling”(New and Cochran 2007, xxv). Early Childhood Education (LB1139.23.E272)provides the non-specialist with information on historical and contemporaryissues from around the world. Volumes 1 to 3 contain 300 entries dealingwith ECE in the United States. Volume 4 has 100 entries that provide anoverview of ECE in other countries. Early Childhood Education containsmultiple perspectives on early childhood curriculum and pedagogy, andconfronts controversial issues such as NCLB.

NCLB was a precursor to further federal legislation in education.Shortly after the passage of NCLB, President Bush announced “Good Start,Grow Smart,” his ECE initiative, which subsequently led to the Head StartReauthorization and Program Improvement legislation and included provi-sions for testing four-year olds. Although the main focus of NCLB was onelementary and secondary schools, observers think its emphasis on test-driven accountability measures and quantitative definitions of outcomes hasbeen carried over into ECE by federal and state governments (Hyun 2007).Ohio and Florida, for example, have developed preschool standards in thearea of social studies. Many feel that the performance standards dictated byHead Start are more appropriate for elementary school students than pre-schoolers (New and Cochran 2007). Early Childhood Education containsmaterial on NCLB and ECE not found elsewhere on the reference shelves.

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The Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership and Administration wantsto embody a comprehensive knowledge base of educational leadership andschool administration (English 2006; LB2805.E527). Its 600 entries by 260contributors describe the field as it is taught in universities today. In thePreface, the Encyclopedia hints at the controversy surrounding NCLB whenit warns against establishing a set of standards “that draw the accreditationborders too tightly around preparation programs” (xxxvi).

The Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership and Administration(Lunenberg 2006) supplies information for school administrators on severalaspects of NCLB not found in other reference works. Regarding “highly quali-fied teachers,” the Encyclopedia of Educational Leadership and Administrationpoints out that NCLB has different sets of qualifications for new teachers andfor those teachers already under contract. Also, NCLB establishes separate cri-teria for elementary and secondary teachers. In both cases, after determiningthat teachers meet the minimum requirements (Bachelor’s degree, full statecertification, and demonstrated competency in the assigned teaching field), thestate must develop a uniform state standard evaluation. The Department ofEducation established guidelines for the development of uniform state standardevaluations, but school districts do not have to obtain approval from the federalgovernment before developing them. NCLB also mandated qualifications forparaprofessionals, which generally includes an Associate’s degree. Exceptionsto the qualifications are made for paraprofessionals whose primary responsibil-ity is to serve as a translator. Another component of NCLB addressed by theEncyclopedia of Educational Leadership and Administration is the unsafeschool choice option, or the “persistently dangerous school.” Schools deemeddangerous must offer students the opportunity to transfer to another school anddevelop a plan for corrective action. Schools not offering their students a safelearning environment will be held to increasingly rigorous sanctions. Anyschool failing to make progress in this regard is subject to federal restructuring.

The Encyclopedia of Bilingual Education (Gonzalez 2008; LC3703.E52)contains 300 articles written by specialists in the field and aims at a generalreadership rather than a highly specialized one. “Bilingual education is theuse of two languages in the teaching of curriculum content in K-12 schools”(xxv), as opposed to the traditional model of second language acquisition,where the emphasis is on the acquisition of a specific language.

The editor, Josué Gonzalez (2008), imagines a journalism studentasking a reference librarian for assistance and hopes that the librarian“suggests our encyclopedia . . . because the entries allow this user to draftan outline for his assignment” (xxvi). He reminds readers that this encyclo-pedia is oriented toward bilingual education in the United States since itreflects an “American” way of thinking about language and education.

NCLB receives substantial treatment in the Encyclopedia of BilingualEducation (Menken 2008). NCLB considers English language learners (ELLs)a subgroup that must make measurable academic progress. Each state was

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required to construct an assessment system that includes ELLs by the end ofthe 2000-2001 academic year, and all students (which includes ELLs) mustachieve the level of “proficient” by the 2013-2014 academic school year.Hence, performance by ELLs on standardized tests affects the overall perfor-mance appraisals of the individual teachers and school districts.

The assessment provisions of NCLB are provided in Titles I and III ofthe law, which mandate English language proficiency for ELLs. No exemp-tion is made for short-term residents of the United States who have not hadextensive instruction in English. Accommodation has been made in thatELLs are permitted extra time to take the standardized test and may use abilingual dictionary when doing so. Title I dictates that local educationagencies must assess the English language proficiency of ELLs annually andidentify all languages other than English that are present in the schools.Title III requires the governing bodies of the schools to report on adequateyearly progress (AYP) to ensure that ELLs are meeting the same academiccontent standards of native-English speakers.

As Wright (2008a) points out, ELLs are referred to as limited English-proficient (LEP) students in NCLB. Prior to 2002, under the guidelines of ESEA,school districts were given flexibility in assessing LEP students. Title I changedthat, and under NCLB LEP students are assessed regardless of their English lan-guage proficiency. Wright (2008a) feels that Title I related mandates may bedoing more harm than good. Title I indirectly discourages bilingual education,and as a result of a curriculum that emphasizes teaching-toward-the-standardizedtest, many school districts have shifted resources away from other programs.Furthermore, schools with large numbers of LEP students will find it difficult tomeet AYP targets. As Wright (2008a) points out, LEP students can arrive in theschool district at any time during the academic year, thus rendering AYP expec-tations nearly impossible to meet. Finally, according to Wright (2008a), theDepartment of Education has failed to offer adequate assistance. The Depart-ment of Education web site points out the difficulties of Title I compliance, butotherwise does not directly address the crisis and offers no solutions.

In his entry, “No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, Title III,” Wright(2008b) discusses the pros and cons of Title III for LEP students. On thepositive side, Title III ensures that federal funds for LEP students are reachingthe most eligible recipients. School districts can no longer ignore the linguisticneeds of their LEP students. The accountability standards of Title III highlightthe need for training that focuses on English language development, whichmay eventually lead to greater availability of English as a second language(ESL) programs in the local schools. On the negative side, Title III focuseson English to the extent that it ignores the benefits of bilingualism. Its goalis to mainstream all LEP students into all-English classes and to ensure thatthey pass state tests in English. The testing and accountability requirementsof Title III actually mitigate against the expansion of bi-lingual programs.The Encyclopedia of Bilingual Education (Menken 2008) provides information

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for researchers of all levels regarding the implications of Titles I and III ofNCLB for bilingual education and ESL programs.

The Sage Handbook of Special Education (Florian 2007; LC3965) speaksto an international, professional audience. The Sage Handbook of SpecialEducation presents a range of perspectives on the nature of special educationand on appropriate responses to disability within education. Three principlesguide its discussion: a rejection of the medical relevance of medical categoriesof disability; a disavowal of behaviorism; and a commitment to social justice.

NCLB dictates that all students, including those with disabilities, have anequal opportunity of meeting state standards (Rouse and McLaughlin 2007).School districts are permitted to make special accommodation for studentswith significant cognitive disabilities and apply alternative achievement stan-dards. These standards must meet four conditions. They must be aligned withthe state’s academic content standards; describe at least three different levelsof attainment (basic, proficient, and advanced); describe the competencies foreach level; and contain assessment scores. Schools are discouraged fromassigning too many students with disabilities to alternative performance stan-dards, and exempt students may not exceed 1% of the total number of stu-dents tested. Lately, the Department of Education has permitted those with“persistent academic difficulties” (91) to be assessed with modified standards.

Previous editions of the Encyclopedia of Special Education; A Referencefor the Education of Children, Adolescents, and Adults with Disabilities andOther Exceptional Individuals (Reynolds and Fletcher-Janzen 2007; LC 4007)appeared in 1987 and 2000. The third edition takes account of federal andstated demands for evidence-based practice. New in the third edition is exten-sive treatment of psychometric design and the inclusion of internationalspecial education, reflecting the current global trend in education.

Unfortunately, NCLB receives scant attention in the Encyclopedia of SpecialEducation (Reynolds and Fletcher-Janzen 2007). Of particular interest to thosein special education is that the requirements of the National Assessment of Edu-cation Progress Test, which measures reading and math, applies to all students,including those enrolled in special education programs (Applequist 2007).Department of Education guidelines permit schools to use alternative assess-ment procedures for 1% of their respective student populations. This waiveradversely impacts schools with higher than average special education students.More pertinent information regarding legislation and special education can befound in the entry on the Individuals with Disabilities Education ImprovementAct of 2004, or IDEA (Lowe, Reynolds, and Applequist 2007).

ELECTRONIC DATABASES

After consulting the topical reference works, researchers can be referred tospecialized electronic databases. Most, if not all, reference librarians have

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broad experience with ERIC. Two additional databases devoted to educa-tion provide up-to-date information and are an excellent source for currentstatistics on NCLB. Child Development and Adolescent Studies providesresources regarding the growth and development of children through theage of 21 and includes coverage of civil rights and welfare issues. Profes-sional Development Collection is designed for professional educators andgives access to more than 350 peer-reviewed journals and 200 educationalreports. These two Ebsco products allow full-text access and work well withBoolean operators. The databases provide more articles when using fullsearch terms rather than acronyms; for example, “No Child Left Behind” inplace of “NCLB” and “limited English proficiency” instead of “LEP.”

CONCLUSION

A survey of the recent reference works in the field of education demon-strates the broad scope of NCLB and possibilities for researching this legisla-tion. We do not always find discussion of NCLB where we might expect it;for example, the Handbook of Research on Teaching the English Language Arts(Flood et al. 2003) does not contain extensive treatment of the legislation. It isnot a surprise that certain reference works do not discuss NCLB, such asGender and Education: An Encyclopedia (Bank 2007) and Youth, Educa-tion, and Sexualities: An International Encyclopedia (Sears 2005), becauseNCLB does not touch on issues of gender or sexual orientation. Other finereference works were published prior to the enactment of NCLB (e.g., Stan-dards and Schooling in the United States [Kinchloe and Weil 2001] and Literacyin America [Guzzetti 2002]), and future editions of these reference workswill certainly contain discussion of NCLB. Two valuable, updated resourcesare schedule for future publication: Encyclopedia of African American Edu-cation (Lomotey 2009), which presents information on public policy affectingthe education of African Americans, and Encyclopedia of the Social andCultural Foundations of Education (Provenzo 2009), which examines therole of teaching and learning in a societal context. The various componentsof the legislation are treated throughout the reference literature. The refer-ence interview will serve to determine which aspect of NCLB the patron isinvestigating and which titles contain the desired information.

REFERENCES

Applequist, K. 2007. No Child Left Behind Act (2001). In Encyclopedia of specialeducation: A reference for the education of children, adolescents, and adultswith disabilities and other exceptional individuals (3rd ed.), ed. C. Reynoldsand E. Fletcher-Janzen, 1444–1446. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

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Bank, B., ed. 2007. Gender and education: An encyclopedia. Westport, CT: Prager.Deighton, L., ed. 1971. Encyclopedia of education. New York: Macmillan.English, F., ed. 2006. Encyclopedia of educational leadership and administration.

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.Farenga, S., and D. Ness, eds. 2005. Encyclopedia of education and human devel-

opment. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe.Flood, J., D. Lapp, J. Squire, and J. Jensen, 2003. Handbook of research on teach-

ing the English language arts (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence ErlbaumAssociates.

Florian, L., ed. 2007. The Sage handbook of special education. London: SagePublications.

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