norris dam project paper
TRANSCRIPT
Lauren Harris
Dr. Alderman
Norris Dam
GEOG 499
1
Lauren Harris
Dr. Alderman
GEOG 499
12/8/16
Norris Dam
Every person has a place they call home. Whether it’s a big or small house, it is still the
place where people like to kick off their shoes and relax especially after a long day of work. A
home has many memories. For my parents, 537 Tennessee Circle is where I took my first steps.
Each home has a special memory that stays with you for years to come. Over time people change
and places change too. For the people of Norris lake that is just what happened to them. They
had a home that was gone when the dam was being built, but in return they gained electricity and
a new home. Each person has their own opinion of the environment and geography. Environment
and geography go hand in hand. In this paper, I want to discuss the environment and how it is
changing and also tie in Norris Dam to geography and how it affects the environment and the
people around them.
Many people agree that the environment is changing and countless people think the
environment is fine. Many people have different perceptions on climate change. Some people
believe that climate change is happening and some do not believe so. By using the term
environment, I am explaining the use of natural resources that are used in the world today. When
you look around in a certain place, for example your kitchen or bathroom, you can notice all the
different things that are made possible by the environment. For example, the water we drink
every day, the water we use to run our dishwasher or flush our toilet. Everything that we do can
produce waste. The waste we produce can have a lasting impact on the world in which we live.
2
All the waste that is being produced has to go somewhere, and that somewhere is in the ocean.
As we have seen in many discussions, our trash can end up in the ocean. Everything leads to the
ocean. Most of our trash ends up in the ocean. There is a video from national geographic called
the great garbage patch. It explains that there is so much trash in the ocean, it almost looks as if
there is another continent. Some people do not realize that their everyday routine of throwing
their trash away can have a lasting impact on the world. Before I started thinking about the
effects on the environment, I did not think about the water I was using, leaving the water on
while brushing my teeth, or where my plastic water bottle is going. There are so many important
factors that can be discussed. When people begin looking at the bigger picture, they might begin
to change their ways for the better and start helping by protecting our planet. When I first started
at the University of Tennessee, I decided to major in anthropology. I decided that I could not see
me having a bright future solely with this degree, so I decided to minor in anthropology. My love
for geography leads me into majoring in this field. In this paper, I want to combine my love for
geography and my love for environmental anthropology. We might not think so at first, but
geography is a part of our everyday lives. When we need to go to a new place, we pull out our
phones and get on our GPS. The environment and geography can play a huge role together,
because some researchers say that humans are destroying our environment. Geographers can
look more into this by mapping certain locations and using soil patterns to look for changes in
the environment.
There are a number of ways geographers can provide useful tools. One way the
environment can be helped is by creating dams, because they provide a useful source of energy.
But, not everything in the world can be completely helpful to the environment. There are also
some negative impacts that can be affected by the dam. Tennessee Valley Authority in
3
Tennessee has created many dams in the area, and surrounding states that are very useful for
creating the power we have today. The TVA is a very complicated company because of the
variety of different roles it has. TVA is not a company designed to help the environment by
building dams; they also do various tasks that are too complicated to describe. Before I spoke
with the employees of TVA, I did not realize how important the company actually is. They have
helped the community by creating these dams, which are designed to last a long time. To
understand the importance of the dams, we must first have some background into the TVA.
According to the article by Susie Hatmaker, she gives her readers background
information on the TVA. She states “Roosevelt amended to the TVA Act a broader, more
ideological vision that included social development to change rural life in the region” (Hatmaker
23). The reason why TVA was created was to improve the environment for east Tennessee and
surrounding areas because at that time east Tennessee was a poverty-stricken state. One dam in
particular that I focused my research on is the Norris Dam. The Norris Dam has created many
opportunities for East Tennessee. The dam has generated many jobs, and has helped the
community grow into what it is today, but there is also a downfall to creating the dam, because
Norris Dam was the first dam created by TVA and many people lost their homes. With my
research, I will discuss the positive and negative aspects on the environment and people of the
Norris Dam.
The construction of this dam helped the economy during the Great Depression.
According to Ronald Reed Boyce’s article, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt stood before the
U.S. Congress and explained the entire Tennessee Valley drainage would be a great help for the
Great Depression (Boyce 23). I do agree with this because, the construction of this dam created
thousands of jobs for unemployed people. These people could now provide for their families,
4
although this project did cause uproar within the area. According to the article: “When a New
Deal is Actually an Old Deal: The Role of TVA in Engineering a Jim Crow Racialized
Landscape” states that TVA was “one of the first in a long line of government programs and
agencies intended to provide relief and recovery from the Great Depression” (Alderman Brown
103). During the Great Depression, many people were poverty stricken. They had nothing. My
Grandma was born during this time and she told me that this was the worst experience she has
ever went through. She said that they did not have much of anything. My Grandma would keep
everything after the Great Depression, because she was used to having nothing. She would
collect butter containers and save them. The TVA was created to help people through these
already hard times. People also had to face other problems. According to Alderman and Brown
article they state “Nevertheless, by the time that the TVA was founded in the 1930s, Jim Crow
was firmly established and African Americans in the South were suffering from separate (and
unequal) schools, transportation and public accommodations; deprivation of political and
economic rights; and frequent instances of lynching and false imprisonment” (104). These
people were already going through an extremely hard time they did not need to have any more
trouble on their hands. This did not stop it from happening. It helps knowing other important
events that were going on in this time because it paints a bigger picture. Things are not always as
great as they seem to be but the TVA did provide some hope that things could begin to look up.
“When President Roosevelt signed the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) Act on May 18th,
1933, he launched the largest, most ambitious, and unquestionably most controversial regional
development planning project in U.S. history-and the only such project ever undertaken in the
nation” (Boyce 23). This project of creating TVA was a hard decision for the president to decide
on whether to move forward and create the TVA because the country was in a depression and
5
money was scarce, but Roosevelt took a huge leap of faith and the Dam is still a huge success to
the area and the nation today. Norris Dam is
located in Anderson and Campbell County
on the Clinch River, which is twenty-five
miles northwest of Knoxville (Norris Dam
2).
http://jerrybryan.com/hiking/
norrisdamriverbluff.html
https://www.tva.gov/Environment/Environmental-Stewardship/Water-Quality/Reservoir-Health-Ratings/Norris-Reservoir
https://www.tva.gov/Environment/Environmental-Stewardship/Water-Quality/Reservoir-Health-Ratings/Norris-Reservoir
According to the book “Norris Dam:
Tennessee Valley Authority” the author
relates how in 1933 work on building the
Norris Dam began. The authors also
comment on the way the dam was built. The
construction of the Norris Dam would take four years to build such an extravagant structure.
(Norris Dam: Tennessee Valley Authority 4). To create a dam, it takes a lot of labor and different
6
people specialized in different elements. Many people have to work hard to get the job done at
the right time for the project to move forward. Geographers had a huge influence on the project.
According to the article “Geographers and the Tennessee Valley Authority” Boyce states “The
geographers in the Division of Land Planning and Housing undertook five major tasks: data
gathering and mapmaking, regional analyses and syntheses, farming and farmstead analyses,
town economic- based and trade-area analyses, and recreational studies” (25-26). Geographers
had an important role in map making and helping to use data for TVA. Most of the workers
lived around the dam, but others had a commute to get there. According to the “Norris Dam:
Tennessee Valley Authority” the author informs us how special roads and homes were needed to
be built due to the influx of people coming into the area to work on the dam. (Norris Dam:
Tennessee Valley Authority 7). This gives an excellent example of the magnitude of planning
that this kind of project requires. This project was so important to a number of people, they had
to make it assessable for people to get in to work. The advantages to this monumental task are
many. According to Barton M. Jones’s article, he says that it will develop power during certain
months of the year; it will help with navigation and water flow and it will help power hydro-
electric plants down the Tennessee River (Jones 24). Jones describes that the dam can have a
multitude of different uses for the environment, which is helpful when building a large structure
like this because it is not taking up a lot of space and money for one special purpose. The dam is
very resourceful with abundance of purposes for the area. When first researching the dam, I did
not realize that dams were very resourceful and performed various tasks. I thought they were
solely used for power purposes and not storage purposes. One of the most important purposes for
the dam is to create power. Before TVA was created many east Tennesseans did not have power.
When I talked to the TVA employees they mentioned that people, in the area, were very poor,
7
and they did not have electricity. TVA helped create power to improve the community.
According to the book “Norris Dam: Tennessee Valley Authority” the author tells us that water
power converts to electrical energy in two steps- the turbines transform it into mechanical
energy, which the generators apply to electricity (Norris Dam: Tennessee Valley Authority 23).
There is a lot of work that goes into the water being converted into energy.
If it was not for geographers, it would take TVA longer to build the dam. “The Tennessee
Valley Authority (TVA) was the largest, most comprehensive, and most controversial regional
development and planning project in U.S. history. Geographers were involved from its inception
and made impressive contributions” (Boyce 23). TVA relied on the geographers to help construct
the dam. They needed to know how this would affect the environment in the area. TVA had
goals for this dam, “The goals of the TVA were to improve agriculture, industry, and commerce
and to elevate the general standard of living in the region. Farming, the primary activity, was
especially depressed, and TVA legislation required that fertilizer and power be available to
farmers at the lowest possible prices” (Boyce 23-25). The geographers had multiple tasks to help
prepare the dam for the area. According to the article by Ronald Reed Boyce, “Geographers and
the Tennessee Valley Authority,” Boyce states, “The geographers in the Division of Land
Planning and Housing undertook five major tasks: data gathering and mapmaking, regional
analyses and syntheses, farming and farmstead analyses, town economic-base and trade-area
analyses, and recreational studies” (Boyce 25-26). I believe that the roles of the geographers
were essential to creating the Norris Dam. TVA would have planned accordingly, of course, but
if the geographers were not there to assist, they could have miscalculated measurements or all
sorts of possibilities could occur. There is a possibility that the TVA could have destroyed the
8
area if it was not for the geographers and their experience with variables such as the type of soil
and terrain in the area.
Current Year Observed Midnight Elevations Previous Year Observed Midnight Elevations Balancing Guide Flood Guide Expected Elevation Range
https://www.tva.gov/Environment/Lake-Levels/Norris/Norris-Operating-Guide
This operating guide shows us an insight on what else the Norris Dam is used for. One
place that holds many different sources of information about the dam is the Norris Dam
Museum. I went to the Norris Dam Museum, in Norris, Tennessee and I was greeted by a sweet
lady, who was a volunteer for the museum. The museum is only opened two days a week, so it is
operated by volunteers. When I entered the room, I was greeted by a kind smile and a sweet
introduction into the museum. She was kind enough to explain to me that she was a previous
employee at Norris Dam, from where she had retired from working there for 50 years. She loved
working for an important company. She described the feeling of walking around, being held by
the love of your life, on top of the dam. She explained how it was every woman’s dream, in her
time period to walk across the dam. She said that the dam had to be big because of all the power
it was producing for the surrounding areas. According to the book “Norris Dam: Tennessee
9
Valley Authority” the author states the specifications of Norris Dam, “maximum height 265 feet,
length 1,872 feet, thickness at base 204 feet, reservoir area 34,200 acres, and power installation
132,000 horsepower” (Norris Dam: Tennessee Valley Authority 5). She went into detail about
the admirable company she worked for called TVA. She said that they produced a multitude of
jobs for people in the community. The museum is a wonderful place to obtain information about
the Norris Dam from people who are touched by the dam personally. An important aspect of
geographers, is getting to meet different people who have been touched by a project. In
geography, you can interview people and get connected with their past. As a geographer, you can
learn the concepts of the community. You are not just involved or work for yourself, you are
there to help the community. Talking to this woman, who had so much passion for this project,
made me feel passionate about the project too. When you walk through the museum you will
notice all the pictures on the walls and the little sign in book that the lady will ask you to sign.
The sign in book is only filled with a few signatures, because a lot of people are unaware of the
museum. As you begin your tour of the 3 rooms, it begins to tell the story of Norris Dam. There
is a picture of Franklin D. Roosevelt signing the paperwork for the TVA. This was a monumental
feat during the 1930s. There are also various pictures of the dam being built. It was also an ample
process of creating the dam because they had to direct the water in another direction, so they
could build the dam without the disturbance of the water and cut out some of the river. The
museum also holds several maps that are effective for looking at the places the dam has helped
create. There was also a newsletter that was produced by a member in the town and it describes
how the community felt about the dam. There were mixed emotions from the community
members, happy and sad ones. They liked the fact that many people would be getting jobs in a
community that needed the jobs, but they were also focused on the fact of moving.
10
With the construction of the Dam, many people would have to be moved because they
were located near the river. For many people, the land they owned had been in the family for
many generations. It was home for them. When researching, I stumbled across a newspaper
article dated April 29th, 2012. The newspaper article first starts out discussing the heart
wrenching feeling it is to hear a knock on your door and being asked to leave (Fowler 1). John
Rice Irwin describes how he felt when his family has learned about the eviction. He was a
toddler at the time, in 2012 he was 81, and he is still devastated by the loss of his family home
(Fowler 1). He states that he still remembers “how the eviction shook family members to the
core” (Fowler 1). TVA relocated his family to a new location, but that does not replace the
feeling of having a home that has been in the family for many generations. Hearing that news has
to be very devastating, especially if he still remembers it from when he was a toddler. The land
that his family lost is irreplaceable. It could have been the last thing that was received from a
dying family member and holds a special memory in their hearts forever. It is also hard to learn
that you will no longer have a “home” that is yours. According to the book “Norris Dam:
Tennessee Valley Authority” the author states “The clearing line now marks the level of Norris
Reservoir, Roads and railroads were relocated, new bridges were built, more than a hundred
thousand acres of land were purchased, and 4,000 families were aided in reestablishing
themselves elsewhere. Almost a hundred cemeteries with 5,219 graves were removed, while
1,200 men were employed 2 years in clearing timber from the land to be flooded” (Norris Dam:
Tennessee Valley Authority 30). Quite a few people did not realize that some citizens lost their
homes; cemeteries were also moved to a new location. This can also have an effect on people
because many people go visit their families buried in cemeteries. For example, my grandfather
passed away this May and my grandmother goes to visit him every day. If the cemetery were to
11
be moved my grandma would have such a hard time with this, because that is where she is used
to going to visit him. Archaeologists did come into the area and carefully remove the bodies and
took them to a safe place and the artifacts found were preserved in state universities’ (Norris
Dam: Tennessee Valley Authority 31). It would still be hard on families to have their loved ones
relocated. They have already lost so much; they do not need the stress of something else.
Kenneth E. Hendrickson Jr’s article states,” The 2,700 families living in the five-county area of
Tennessee affected by the construction of the Norris Dam were characterized by President
Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933 as “forgotten Americans” whose lives were to be enhanced. They
were to be given better farms, homes, and schools; they were to receive the benefits of
electricity; and new industries were to improve the general economic conditions of their region”
(Hendrickson 457). The people that were affected by the dam building were promised many
things, but this does not replace the fact that they lost so much. It gives a better example knowing
that President Roosevelt called them “forgotten Americans” because he knew that they were
losing all that they had, in hopes that TVA would provide them a better life in the future. The
article explains how these people’s homes had become a “TVA suburb” because many
employees’ homes were being built (Hendrickson 457). It does not seem right that the family
home they had were becoming homes for TVA employees.
People have also voiced an opinion of the negative impacts that dams create. There is not
just one concern that people are faced with. Susie Hatmaker, in her article, describes the negative
opinions that she faces with TVA. In her article, she describes the Kingston coal ash spill that
occurred in 2008 (Hatmaker 23). She explains that TVA is responsible for this. This was the
worst coal ash spill in the history, and it occurred in Tennessee. People were displaced from their
homes because of the careless acts of the TVA employees. She describes one person that had
12
furniture floating in the coal ash filled river (Hatmaker 22). She also discusses the reasoning
behind the construction of the TVA, because people needed a place to store “material excess”
left behind from the war (Hatmaker 23). She also goes as far to say that the construction of the
Norris Dam left plenty of citizens homeless (Hatmaker 25). Susi Hatmaker leaves her readers
with a negative opinion about the work TVA has done.
Another example about a negative impact dams give on the environment is written in
Timothy Mitchell’s article. He explains the hardship that people in Egypt went through in 1942
and that there were many factors that effected Egypt. The war, mosquitoes, and the Aswan Dam
played important roles with the disaster in Egypt (20). The dam was built to help the land, but it
harmed the land more by not providing the rich soil it needed. Rich soil provides farmers with
the needed essentials to grow fruits and vegetables, without this they could not produce many
crops. Also, the dam made way for chemicals that also hurt the community (31). Mitchell states
“The war had increased river traffic with Sudan, and the building and rising of the Aswan Dam
had created new breeding places for the insect along the route” (Mitchell 22). The mosquitoes
were benefiting from the dam. They were then spreading a harmful virus called malaria, which
took the lives of many people. Since the water was being dammed, this caused more harm
because it was disturbing the flow of water (Mitchell 24). The level of the water being raised and
lowered also causes problems related to the dam. Mitchel also states that “The TVA, the child of
earlier technical and political failures, came to epitomize the new possibilities of development
and planning, especially in arid regions such as the Middle East” (Mitchell 44). The TVA wanted
to build another larger dam above the Aswan Dam (Mitchell 45). This only resulted in
complications because they ignored the problems that were already occurring with the Aswan
13
Dam. It only made the environment in that area worse. Mitchell is trying to explain that the TVA
is not a perfect company and they do make mistakes.
There are many different environmental aspects that can help create the world in which
we live. Most of these factors can be pleasant or unpleasant. We have learned in class that the
environment is in serious trouble, because of many different factors. According to one article
“The Anthropocene: Are Humans Now Overwhelming the Great Forces of Nature?” the authors
inform us that with global warming and other harmful effects, made by humans, raises a concern
for the future of the Earth (Steffen: 614). This article describes that the time we are living in
today is called the Anthropocene. Numerous people have their own opinions on if we are living
in this time, but people need to understand that the world is changing to accommodate the
growing population it is not accustomed to. This article argues that humans are changing the
world, because we are experiencing climate change which is causing warmer weather. One key
factor that can help the environment is to be familiar with the ways that are harmful to the
environment. Water is a major concern in the world today. There are people throughout the
world who do not have clean drinking water. In the article “The medical Anthropology of
Water” the authors state “In 2002, 1.1 billion people or 17% of the global population, lacked
access to improved water sources (Whiteford: Padros 1). This is a major concern because people
need to have water in order to survive. There are abounding issues that are arising today that
concern the environment. Another issue we see today concerning water in California is that they
are in a massive drought. This means people have to limit the amount of water they are using, but
the farmers are not. According to the “New York Times” article “California farmers produce
more than a third of the nation’s vegetables and two-thirds of its fruits and nuts” (New York
Times 3). This does not seem fair that Californians are in a major drought and people are still
14
eating many foods that come from California. You may be wondering how all this information
ties into the Norris Dam. The Norris Dam is an important piece of the environment because it
helps use the water that is provided by the environment and turning it into a product that is used
to help people not only in this area, but in other states as they eat the food we produce here.
Because we are in a declining environment, everything that is produced in the world that helps
the environment is imperative. The world may be in a water crisis or in a drought, but if we all
use the resources we have, the world would be a better place. On the negative side, in 2008 there
was a major ash spill that was caused from a dam operated by TVA. Knowing about events that
have caused problems can help to fix future problems from occurring. According to the article
“Kingston coal ash spill: 5 years, $1 billion cleanup tab and no regulations later” the authors
state “When a dike failed at TVA’s Kingston Fossil Plant, 5.4 million cubic yards of coal ash
cascaded into the Emory and Clinch rivers and smothered some 300 acres of land” (Kingston
Ash Spill 2). We have to consider both the positive and negative impacts on the environment
with every project we engage in.
These people who lived where Norris Lake is today had to give up these life styles when
they were evicted from their homes. Some of these items they worked really hard to get and they
earned them. They could get these items in their new location, but this area was home to over
3,000 families. People work hard to make a house a home and it can take time. I can only
imagine how devastating it was for these families to be forced out of their homes and start all
over. I am sure that these homes were full of memories as well as the are itself. I constructed this
graph to show you what these families lost in the comfort of their homes. According to the
article, TVA: Electricity for All, there were a lot of families flooded by the Dam. The article
states:
15
The 3,500 families in the area to be flooded by the Norris Dam included property owners
and tenant farmers (families who grow cash crops on other people’s lands so they could
have a place to live). Conditions in the valley were difficult for both groups. Even during
the best of times there was not enough money raised by local taxes to support adequate
schools, public health services, hospitals, and road construction. Data collected on 2,841
in the Norris Basin—including 1864 property owners and 977 tenants—revealed that:
no electrici
ty
outhouse
trave
l for w
ater
battery operated ra
dios
photographs
read newspaper
automobiles
owned trucks
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
People of Norris Dam
Home Owners Tenants
This graph shows what the people had and did not have before the dam was build. Many people
lost their homes when the dam was built, but they got electricity and a new house when the dam
was built.
16
Numbers from http://newdeal.feri.org/tva/tva06.htm
While researching the Norris Dam, I came across some positive and negative effects. The
construction of the dam was an excellent source of improvement to the economy during the
times of the Great Depression. It provided a great source of power and energy to the area. Of
course, the fact that people were uprooted from their homes is devastating, but it was a great way
for people to work and provide for their families. A helpful resource on learning more
information about Norris Dam is from the Museum. By going to the museum, one is able to
understand the complicated process of constructing a dam. The TVA, I also learned, is a very
complicated company because they do perform a variety of tasks that can be helpful and harmful
to the environment. It was sad to read about the fact that graves were moved and homes were
destroyed. The home is where we lay our foundation and create memories that we cherish for
years. Of course, the grave site is where we lay our loved ones to rest for eternity. Moving these
sacred areas are difficult for the families involved. It does make me feel grateful of all the
sacrifices people made in order to help us and the economy. When researching other aspects of
the environment I came across two writers that voice their opinion of the negative contribution of
the TVA dams. We are obligated to our future generations to carefully evaluate large projects
like the TVA dam and make educated decisions to protect what we have left and preserve as
much as we can from the environment.
17
Photos of Norris Dam
http://www.easttnvacations.com/lib/image/upload/NorrisDam.JPG
http://norrislaketennessee.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/620120426145233001_t607.jpg
http://newdeal.feri.org/images/p56.gif
18
Works Cited
Alderman, H Derek and Brown, N Robert. “ When a New Deal is Actually an Old Deal: The Role of TVA in Engineering a Jim Crow Racialized Landscape.” Chapter 105.
Boyce, Ronald Reed. "Geographers and the Tennessee Valley Authority*." Geographers and the Tennessee Valley Authority 2004. Accessed November 18, 2015. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1931-0846.2004.tb00156.x/abstract.
Fowler, Bob. "Norris Dam: Families Uprooted, Jobs Created." Knoxville News-Sentinel, 2012.
Hatmaker, Susie. On Mattering: A Coal Ash Flood and the Limits of Environmental Knowldge. Vol. 4. Envirmental Humanities, 2014. 19-39.
Hendickon, Kenneth E. Accessed November 18, 2015. http://www.jstor.org.proxy.lib.utk.edu:90/stable/pdf/1900288.pdf?acceptTC=true.
Jones, Barton M. "Norris Dam: Storage and Flood Control…Link in Tennessee Valley Program…Will Produce Power…Unique Engineering Problems… Economic Significance." http://www.nature.com.proxy.lib.utk.edu:90/scientificamerican/journal/v152/n1/pdf/scientificamerican0135-24.pdf.
"Kingston Coal Ash Spill: 5 Years, $1 Billion Cleanup Tab and No Regulations Later." December 22, 2013. Accessed November 29, 2015.
Mitchell, Timothy. "Rule of Experts Egypt, Techno-Politics, Modernity." 19-53.
Norris Dam. (Washington: Gov. Print. Off.), 1936. 1-45.
Steffen, Will, Paul J Crutzen, and John R McNeil. "The Anthropocene: Are Humans Now Overwhelming the Great ..." BioOne. 2007. Accessed November 29, 2015. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1579/0044-7447(2007)36[614:TAAHNO]2.0.CO;2.
Whiteford PhD MPH, Linda M, and Cecilia Vindrola Padros MA. "The Water Crisis and Health:The Role of Medical Anthoropology." The Medical Anthropology of Water. Accessed November 29, 2015.
"Your Contribution to the California Drought." Your Contribution to the California Drought. Accessed November 29, 2015. http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/05/21/us/your-contribution-to-the-california-drought.html.
“TVA: Elecetricity for All.” http://newdeal.feri.org/tva/tva06.htm
19