Notes

Where references have been consolidated, they are given in the same order as the quotations in the text. For the convenience of the reader, in notes on the main novels discussed I have given, in addition to part or chapter numbers, page references to the most widely available paperback editions.

INTRODUCTION 1. I. Calvina, 'The Baron in the Trees', in Our Ancestors, tr.

A. Colquhoun (1959; London: Picador, 1980) pp. 73--284. 2. H. Arendt, Crises of the Republic (New York: Harcourt Brace

Jovanovich, 1969; 1972) pp. 4-36.

CHAPTER 1 IMAGINING HISTORY

1. D. Hume, Essays Moral, Political and Literary (1741-2; London: Oxford University Press, 1971) pp. 558--62.

2. R. Aron, Politics and History (1978; New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1984) pp. 87-101.

3. R. G. Collingwood, Essay on Philosophical Method (1933), quoted in L. 0. Mink, Historical Understanding, ed. B. Fay, E. 0. Golob and R. T. Vann (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1987) pp. 226-7 (Collingwood's description of the way in which philosophical concepts 'leak or escape' from any limited empirical application obviously also applies to the art of the philosophical novelist); E. M. Forster, obituary of Lawrence, repr. in R. P. Draper (ed.), D. H. Lawrence: The Critical Heritage (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1970) pp. 343--7; and R. P. Warren, '"The Great Mirage": Conrad and Nostromo', Selected Essays (1941; New York: Random House, 1958) pp. 57-8.

4. M. Polanyi, Personal Knowledge (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1958; 1983) pp. vii-viii. The 'historically possible' is Warren's phrase for the 'sense of documentation' which, in his view, conditions the novelist. See 'The Uses of History in Fiction', a transcription of a Southern Historical Association conference discussion, in Robert Penn Warren Talking: Interviews, 195()...1978, ed. F. C. Atkins and J. T. Hiers (New York: Random House, 1980).

5. For example, T. Eagleton's Literary Theory (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1983) pp. 199-200, though he is, of course, only helping to popularise a view propounded by many others.

6. K. Popper, The Open Society and its Enemies, II (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1945; 1986) 374.

259

260 Notes

7. H. S. Hughes, Consciousness and Society (1958; Brighton: Harvester Press, 1986) p. 17.

8. H. Putnam, Reason, Truth and History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981; 1985) pp. 105-7 and 119-23. See also F. A. Olafson, The Dialectic of Action (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979) p. 7; and R. G. Collingwood, 'The Limits of Historical Knowledge' (1920), in R. W. Winks (ed.), The Historian as Detective: Essays on Evidence (New York: Harper and Row, 1968) pp. 516--17.

9. See for example F. Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (London: Methuen, 1981; 1983) pp. 286--94; Putnam, Reason, Truth and History, pp. 158-61; and Popper, The Open Society, II 215-17.

10. Popper, The Open Society, II, 224-5 and 239-40. 11. See for example Putnam's analysis, and also L. Trilling, Mind in the

Modern World (New York: Viking Press, 1972) and U. Eco, 'Crisis? What Crisis?' in B. Bourne, U. Eichler and D. Herman (eds), Voices: Writers and Politics (Nottingham: Spokesman, 1987) pp. 17-18.

12. Polanyi, Personal Knowledge, pp. 300 and 311. 13. Trilling, Mind in the Modern World, pp. 32-3. 14. Putnam, Reason, Truth and History, pp. 50-5. 15. Ibid., pp. xi, 148--9, 153-4 and 167-70. 16. As some proponents of romanticism seem to think: see, for

example, D. Morse, Perspectives on Romanticism (London: Macmillan, 1981) p. 288.

17. Trilling, Mind in the Modern World, p. 40. 18. This is usefully discussed in B. Parekh, Hannah Arendt and the

Search for a New Political Philosophy (London: Macmillan, 1981) pp. 103-30.

19. W. Dray, The Historical Explanation of Actions Reconsidered', in P. Gardiner (ed.), The Philosophy of History (London: Oxford University Press, 1974) p. 89.

20. K. Burke, A Grammar of Motives (1945; Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1974) p. 172.

21. C. Butler, Interpretation, Deconstruction and Ideology (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984) p. 133.

22. Hume, Essays Moral, Political and Literary, p. 558. 23. B. Crick, In Defence of Politics (1962) rev. edn. (Harmondsworth:

Pelican, 1971) p. 23. 24. M. Stanford, The Nature of Historical Knowledge (Oxford: Basil

Blackwell, 1986) pp. 16--17, 111 and 125-7. 25. Though some have objected, Popper seems to me quite right to

identify a strong romantic tendency in the 'wishful thinking' of Marxism's mystical collectivism (see Popper, The Open Society, II, 333-4).

26. G. R. Elton, The Practice of History (London: Fontana, 1969) p. 80; Stanford, The Nature of Historical Knowledge, pp. 79-80.

27. Robert Penn Warren, All the King's Men (1946; San Diego, Calif.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1984) pp. 383-4 (ch. 9).

Notes 261

28. Crick, In Defence of Politics, pp. 23-31, 54-5 and 183. 29. R. G. Collingwood, The Idea of History (1946; Oxford: Oxford Uni­

versity Press, 1983) p. 219: 'historical knowledge is not concerned only with a remote past'.

30. L. 0. Mink, 'Narrative Form as a Cognitive Instrument', in R. H. Canary and H. Kozicki (eds), The Writing of History: Literary Form and Historical Understanding (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978) pp. 148-9.

31. L. Braudy, Narrative Form in History and Fiction (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1970) pp. 1-7. The shared concerns are also very thoroughly considered by Olafson, as is the divergence of history from literature.

32. See L. Gossman, 'History and Literature: Reproduction or Signifi­cation', in Canary and Kozicki (eds), The Writing of History, pp. 3-40; and P. Waugh, Metafiction: The Theory and Practice of Self-Conscious Fiction (London: Methuen, 1984; 1985). The humanistic case against such arguments is presented in, for example, D. R. Schwarz, The Humanistic Heritage: Critical Theories of the English Novel from James to Hillis Miller (London: Macmillan, 1986) and R. Tallis, In Defence of Realism (London: Edward Arnold, 1988).

33. Collingwood, The Idea of History, pp. 245-6. 34. J. Passmore, 'The Objectivity of History,' in Gardiner (ed.), The

Philosophy of History, p. 159, and Collingwood, The Idea of History, p. 246, are among the many who consider the extent to which history itself employs a 'correspondence' or a 'coherence' theory of truth.

35. P. Waugh, Metafiction, p. 48. 36. H. White, 'The Historical Text as Literary Artifact', in Canary and

Kozicki (eds), The Writing of History, pp. 41-9; and Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-Century Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973; 1985).

37. White, Metahistory, pp. 3, 7-8 and 11. 38. Ibid., pp. 3 and 49; H. White, Tropics of Discourse (Baltimore:

John Hopkins University Press, 1978) p. 61. For commentary on White's methods of analysis see for example The Nature of Historical Knowledge, Stanford, pp. 153-5; and Olafson, The Dialetic of Action, p. 38.

39. White, Metahistory, pp. 21, 433-4 and 26. 40. Jameson, The Political Unconscious, pp. 52-3. 41. Putnam, Reason, Truth and History, p. 160. Although White is not

making claims for the superior validity of a Marxist position, he is very specifically seeking to 'rescue' Marxism from the charges that it is reductive, 'conceptually overdetermined', and internally inconsistent.

42. Paul Johnson (ed.), The Oxford Book of Political Anecdotes (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986; 1987) p. 240.

43. W. Booth, A Rhetoric of Irony (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974) p. ix.

44. D. J. Enright, The Alluring Problem: An Essay on Irony (Oxford: Oxford

262 Notes

University Press, 1986) p. 15. Enright's chapter on romantic irony seems to me the best brief account available, though my judgement is undoubtedly influenced by the fact that I share his view: 'I find the theory of romantic irony hard to grasp and its relevance in practice (i.e. to anything outside itself) even harder to perceive.'

45. Again, I would be hard put to recommend a better discussion of true irony as the natural enemy of nihilism than Enright's chapter 'Milosz and the Case Against'.

46. White, Metahistory, pp. 231-2 and 433. 47. Putnam, Reason, Truth and History, p. 167. Iris Murdoch, The

Sovereignty of Good over other Concepts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1967) pp. 22-4, argues that 'It is a task to come to see the world as it is', even though 'it is an empirical fact about human nature that this attempt cannot be entirely successful'.

48. Enright, The Alluring Problem, p. 19. 49. Crick, In Defence of Politics, pp. 32-3. Crick defines anti-political

doctrines as those which refuse to recognise other forces and ideas and which argue 'that some of these groups must be eliminated urgently, illegally, and unpolitically if other great benefits are to follow'.

50. J. Conrad, Heart of Darkness (1902; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987) p. 32 (ch. 1).

51. D. C. Muecke, The Compass or Irony (London: Methuen, 1969) pp. 6 and 247; and ibid., pp. 25--8, on 'traditional' and 'modern' irony.

52. Conrad, Heart of Darkness, p. 48 (ch. 1). 53. D. Riesman, Individualism Reconsidered (1954), discussed in Booth,

A Rhetoric of Irony, p. 58. 54. Conrad, Heart of Darkness, p. 121 (ch. 3). 55. Booth, A Rhetoric of Irony, p. 240 (in using this phrase, he is, of

course, contrasting 'stable ironies' with 'general irony', or life seen as 'fundamentally and inescapable ironic').

56. Popper, The Open Society, II, 375. This constant reference back to experience and effort to identify sources of error is a central aspect of our 'common sense', as Booth, for example, argues in Modern Dogma and the Rhetoric of Assent (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1974) p. 100.

57. Booth, A Rhetoric of Irony, pp. 39-43. 58. See for example G. Kateb, Hannah Arendt: Politics, Conscience,

Evil (Oxford: Martin Robertson, 1983) p. 188; and Eric Bentley's defence of a conception of satire centred on its capacity to 'create unhappiness': 'On the Other Side of Despair' (1964), in D. J. Palmer (ed.), Comedy: Developments in Criticism (London: Macmillan, 1984) pp. 135--50. See alsoP. M. Spacks, 'Some Reflections on Satire' (1968), in R. Paulson (ed.), Satire: Modern Essays in Criticism (Eaglewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971) pp. 362-4.

59. White, Metahistory, pp. 433-4; and L. O'Sullivan, 'The Moderns: Herbert Marcuse and Hannah Arendt - "Critics of the Present'", in Political Thought from Plato to NATO (London: Ariel Press, 1984;

Notes 263

1985) pp. 184-5. It will be clear from this that, unlike White, I regard radical and anarchist ideas of history as inherently 'unrealistic' in their emphasis on transcendence and cataclysmic transformation, on 'remaking' history in order to bring into being conditions which they would regard as utopian. The word 'utopia' is devalued if it is also applied to conservative views of present institutions, which only entail a judgement that current social forms are what men can, in White's phrase, '"realistically" hope for ... for the time being.'

60. On Frye's romanticism, see for example Schwarz, The Humanistic Heritage, pp. 139-48.

61. Stanford, The Nature of Historical Knowledge, p. 140. 62. R. Scholes and R. Kellogg, in The Nature of Narrative (New York:

Oxford University Press, 1966) pp. 242-4, consider the establishment of authority by means of first- and third-person narratives.

63. Popper, The Open Society, 11, 270. 64. U. Eco, Reflections on The Name of the Rose, tr. W. Weaver (1983;

London: Seeker and Warburg, 1985) pp. 5~. See also T. Todorov's chapter The Typology of Detective Fiction' in The Poetics of Prose, tr. R. Howard (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977); and P. Waugh Metafiction, pp. 82-4. Winks (ed.) collects numerous examples of analogies in historical work to the conventions of the detective genre in The Historian as Detective.

65. See D.l. Gross vogel, Mystery and its Fictions (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979); and M. Holquist, 'Whodunit and Other Questions: Metaphysical Detective Stories in Post-War Fiction', New Literary History, III (Autumn 1971) 135-56.

66. See F. Kermode, 'Novel and Narrative', in John Halperin (ed.), The Theory of the Novel: New Essays (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974) pp. 155-74.

67. White, Metahistory, p. 25 (on anarchism). 68. Ibid., p. 9. 69. R. Paulson, The Fictions of Satire (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University

Press, 1967) p. 76. 70. Schwarz, The Humanistic Heritage, pp. 145-6 (on the contrast

between Frye and Auerbach). 71. E. Waugh, Scoop (1938; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987) pp. 155-6

(bk 2, ch. 4). 72. J. Heller, Good as Gold (1976; London: Corgi, 1987) pp. 265-6,

146-7 and 271-2 (chs. 6, 4 and 7). 73. M. Gurewitch, Comedy: The Irrational Vision (Ithaca, NY: Cornell

University Press, 1975) pp. 15-18, discussing a view of comedy much influenced by Frye and obviously strongly present in White's system of classification. It is a view which, as Gurewitch says, has been very contagious in contemporary comic theory.

74. See for example C. E. Schutz, Political Humour (Rutherford, NJ: Associated University Press, 1977) pp. 26-32 and 299-301. Schutz argues that 'for humour to be politically creative it must be critically realistic' - that is, it must 'know and experience an objective reality

264 Notes

before it can critically assess and creatively construct alternatives to it'. (It will be clear here that I am not following Meredith in separating the Comic Spirit from satire and irony).

75. Heller, Good as Gold, pp. 364-5 (ch. 8). 76. R. E. Palmer, Hermeneutics (Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University

Press, 1969) p. 104, discussing the work of Dilthey; and M. Polanyi, The Study of Man (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958) p. 85. I am indebted here to the whole of Palmer's account in Hermeneutics, and to W. Booth, Critical Understanding: The Powers and Limits of Pluralism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979) pp. 259-68.

77. Polanyi, The Study of Man, pp. 96-7. 78. Burke, A Grammar of Motives, pp. 33--4, quotes George Russell:

'We become the image of the thing we hate.' 79. J. Conrad, Under Western Eyes (1911; Harmondsworth: Penguin,

1985) p. 79 (pt 1, ch. 2). 80. Ibid., pp. 80-1 (pt 1, ch. 2). 81. N. Frye, Anatomy of Criticism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University

Press, 1957; 1973) p. 237. 82. Aron, Politics and History, p. 5; Stanford, The Nature of Historical

Knowledge, pp. 137 and 126. 83. Alain (pseud. Emile-Auguste Chartier), The Gods, tr. R. Pevear

(London: Chatto and Windus, 1975) p. 9. 84. Collingwood, The Idea of History, pp. 218-19.

PART 1 'THE END OF CLEAR THINKING AND THE TRIUMPH OF IRRATIONALISM': BRITISH FICTION, 1910-40

1. S. Toulmin, Introduction to R. G. Collingwood, An Autobiography (1939; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982) pp. xviii-xix.

2. Collingwood, Autobiography, p. 167. 3. Ibid., pp. 89-95, 46-52 and 150-67. 4. T. Parsons, The Structure of Social Action (1949), quoted in Hughes,

Consciousness and Society, p. 32. 5. Hughes, Consciousness and Society, pp. 15-37. Hughes's book

remains, I think, the best survey of the intellectual history of this period.

6. H. Arendt, Men in Dark Times (1955; London: Jonathan Cape, 1970) p. 17.

7. Conrad, Author's Note, Under Western Eyes, p. 51. 8. K. D. Bracher, The Age of Ideologies: A History of Political

Thought in the Twentieth Century, tr. Ewald Osers (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1984; University Paperback, 1985) pp. 5-6.

9. Collingwood, Autobiography, p. 48. 10. E. Waugh, Scoop, pp. 175-6 (bk 2, ch. 5).

Notes 265

11. Gurewitch, Comedy, p. 84. 12. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, p. 316 (pt. 4, ch. 3).

G. Steiner, The Death of Tragedy (1961; New York: Hill and Wang, 1963) pp. 6-7. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 183 and 225 (pt 2, ch. 4; pt 3, ch. 2). Ibid., pp. 225-6 and 332 (pt 3, ch. 2; pt 4, ch. 4); and see Steiner, The Death of Tragedy, pp. 124--39, on the conflict between the romantic-revolutionary temperament and the tragic sensibility. D. H. Lawrence, Kangaroo (1923; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986) pp. 101 and 341-2 (chs. 5 and 16). Ibid., p. 148 (ch. 7); S. C. Pepper, World Hypotheses (1966), cited in White, Metahistory, p. 23. 'Cognitive responsibility' is Pepper's phrase. F. Bacon, The Advancement of Learning (1605), Second Book, IV, para. 2. Holquist, in New Literary History, III, 139-47, referring to H. Haycraft, Murder for Pleasure: The Life and Times of the Detective Story (1941). Holquist, in New Literary History, III, 139-47. L. Gossman, 'History and Literature: Reproduction or Signifi­cation', in Canary and Kozicki (eds), The Writing of History, pp. 28--30. One of the clearest and most sympathetic considerations of the objections to Collingwood's contentions is given in W. Dray, Perspectives on History (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980) pp. 9-26. The description here of the classic elements in the detective story is in the main borrowed from Holquist in New Literary History, III, 141-2. A. Toynbee, A Study of History, IX (1954), quoted in Dray, Perspectives on History, pp. 21 and 127. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, p. 55 (pt 1, opening pages). See for example the discussion of modernism and the 'insub­stantiality' of reality in 'The Name and Nature of Modernism', in M. Bradbury and J. McFarlane (eds), Modernism (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976; 1985). For example, Lawrence, Kangaroo, pp. 290-4 (ch. 13). The film of Kangaroo (Kangaroo Productions, 1986) was directed by Tim Burstall; screenplay by Evan Jones. Lawrence, Kangaroo, p. 148 (ch. 7). Trilling, Mind in the Modern World, pp. 18--19. Ibid., pp. 35-40. J. Conrad, Author's Note, Victory (1915; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1987) p. 12. Hughes, Consciousness and Society, pp. 27-9, strongly argues the continuing viability of Enlightenment traditions; and see for

12.

12.

12.

12.

12.

12.

12.

12. 12.

12.

12.

12.

12. 12.

12. 12.

12. 12. 12.

12.

12.

11.

pp. 101 and 341-2 (chs. 5 and 16).

266 Notes

example C. Watts, A Preface to Conrad (London: Longman, 1982) p. 75.

CHAPTER 2 COLLINGWOOD AND WAUGH: THE PHILOSOPHER'S DETECTIVE AND BOOT OF THE BEAST

1. M. Hodgart, Satire (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1969) p. 225. 2. J. C. Fest, Hitler, tr. R. and C. Winston (Harmondsworth: Penguin,

1973; 1982) pp. 3-9. 3. Toulmin, Introduction to Collingwood, Autobiography, p. x; and

Collingwood, The Idea of History, pp. 263--6. 4. E. Waugh, Remote People: A Report from Ethiopia and British Africa,

1930-31 (1931; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986) pp. 138-40. 5. Waugh to Katharine Asquith, 4 Aug [1936], in The Letters of Evelyn

Waugh, ed. Mark Amory (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1980) p.109.

6. E. Waugh, Waugh in Abyssinia (1936; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985) p. 169.

7. Toulmin, Introduction to Collingwood, Autobiography, p. xviii. 8. Ibid., p. xiii. This is, of course, a view which has been subsequently

popularised by many, most notably, perhaps, by T. S. Kuhn. 9. See S. Cavell, The Claim of Reason: Wittgenstein, Skepticism, Morality,

and Tragedy (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979) p. 354. Cavell finds the sources of both scepticism and tragedy in human failures to 'see' in this way.

10. H. Butterfield, History and Human Relations (London: Collins, 1931) pp. 101-30, considers at length how essential this process is to an understanding of historical character.

11. Collingwood, The Idea of History, pp. 215 and 244-5. 12. Ibid., pp. 303 and 231; Collingwood, Autobiography pp. 112-16. 13. Todorov, The Poetics of Prose, pp. 10-12 and 49. 14. Collingwood, The Idea of History, pp. 267 and 272. 15. I. Berlin, 'Historical Inevitability,' in Gardiner (ed.), The Philosophy

of History, pp. 176-7. 16. G. Burton, in Todorov, The Poetics of Prose, p. 44. 17. Todorov, The Poetics of Prose, p. 51. 18. Collingwood, The Idea of History, p. 274. 19. Compare the historical example in Dray, 'The Historical Explanation

of Actions Reconsidered', in Gardiner (ed.), The Philosophy of History, pp. 69-70.

20. See for example Todorov, The Poetics of Prose, pp. 46-7. 21. Collingwood, The Idea of History, p. 281. 22. Eco, Reflections, p. 57; and Collingwood, The Idea of History,

p. 280. 23. H. Meyerhoff (ed.), The Philosophy of History in our Time (New

York: Doubleday Anchor, 1959) p. 65. See also A. J. Ayer, Philosophy in the Twentieth Century (1982; London: Unwin Paperbacks, 1984)

Notes 267

pp. 191-213; Olafson, The Dialectic of Action, pp. 195--202; and Dray, Perspectives on History, pp. 9-26.

24. F. Kermode, 'Novel and Narrative', in Halperin (ed.), The Theory of the Novel, pp. 159-60.

25. Ayer, Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, p. 211. 26. Collingwood, The Idea of History, p. 243. 27. Collingwood, Autobiography, p. 115. 28. Ibid., p. 151. 29. Collingwood, The Idea of History, pp. 216 and 309-10; and Auto-

biography, pp. 156--66. 30. Collingwood, Autobiography, p. 167. 31. Toulmin, Introduction to Collingwood, Autobiography, p. x. 32. Collingwood, Autobiography, p. 155. 33. E. Waugh, Scoop, p. 185 (bk 2, ch. 1). 34. E. Waugh, Waugh in Abyssinia, pp. 40 and 46. 35. See for example J. Dugan and L. Lafore, Days of Emperor and

Clown (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1973) pp. 56--7 and 122. 36. Collingwood, The Idea of History, p. 327. 37. E. Waugh, Waugh in Abyssinia, pp. 41, 12 and 25, and chs. 4-5, passim. 38. Ibid., p. 169. On Waugh's encounter with the Viceroy, Graziani, see

Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini's Roman Empire (1976; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1979) p. 80; on his conception of Ethiopia, see Dugan and Lafore, Days of Emperor and Clown, and P. Schwab, Haile Selassie I: Ethiopia's Lion of Judah (Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1979).

39. This involves arguing, for example, that Baldwin's 'mastery' of the forces of disorder is intended by Waugh as a positive alternative. See, for example, J. F. Carens, The Satiric Art of Evelyn Waugh (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1966) ch. 12.

40. E. Waugh, Waugh in Abyssinia, p. 32. 41. Ibid., pp. 78-81. 42. E. Waugh, Scoop, p. 43 (bk 1, ch. 3). 43. Collingwood, The Idea of History, p. 309.

E. Waugh, Scoop, p. 42 (bk 1, ch. 3). 45. Ibid., pp. 135 and 177 (bk 2. chs. 3 and 5). 46. Ibid., p. 146 (bk 2, ch. 4). 47. Ibid., pp. 43 and 155 (bk 1, ch. 3; bk 2, ch. 4). Boot's ardour seems

to me purely mock-heroic, and not, as some suggest, a semi-serious embodiment of empirical images (for example, Carens, The Satiric Art of Waugh, pp. 146--7).

48. E. Waugh, Scoop, pp. 65--6 (bk 1, ch. 5). 49. Ibid., p. 99 (bk. 2, ch. 1). 50. Ibid., pp. 102 and 81-2 (bk 2, ch. 1). 51. Collingwood, Autobiography, p. 115. 52. E. Waugh, Scoop, pp. 169-71, 101 and 155 (bk 2, chs. 5, 1 and 4). 53. Grossvogel, Mystery and its Fictions, pp. 16--51. 54. Frye, Anatomy of Criticism, p. 239. 55. E. Waugh, Scoop, p. 210 (bk 3, ch. 2). 56. Stanford, The Nature of Historical Knowledge, p. 53; Dray, Perspectives

on History, pp. 9-26.

37.

Waugh, Waugh

45.

268 Notes

57. E. Waugh, Scoop, p. 171 (bk 2, ch. 5). 58. Gurewitch, Comedy p. 84. 59. E. Waugh, Scoop, pp. 179-80 (bk 3, ch. 1).

CHAPTER 3 IRONY AS HISTORICAL REALISM: UNDER WESTERN EYES

1. This preoccupation can be related to Conrad's stylistic preference for 'definite images' over abstractions. He has been criticised for 'failing' to distinguish varieties of ideological doctrine, but this can be seen as a deliberate strategy for directing attention towards the abstractions of ideology as such rather than towards its specific forms. See E. K. Hay, The Political Novels of Joseph Conrad (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1926; 1927) pp. 17-18 and 283. Z. Najder, 'Conrad and Rousseau: Concepts of Man and Society', in N. Sherry (ed.), Joseph Conrad: A Commemoration (London: Macmillan, 1976) p. 87, also discusses Conrad's concentration on lived history and 'the individuality of phenomena rather than their universal validity'.

2. Jameson, The Political Unconscious, p. 60. 3. J. Burckhardt, Reflections on History (London: George Allen and

Unwin, 1943; 1950) p. 174. 4. White, Metahistory, pp. 233 and 261. 5. P. Gay, Style in History (London: Jonathan Cape, 1974) pp. 176-8.

One of the best summaries of Burckhardt's contribution as a historian is to be found in Gay's chapter 'Burckhardt: The Poet of Truth'.

6. Burckhardt to Heinrich Schreiber, 2 Oct 1842, in Gay, Style in History, pp. 174-5.

7. White, Metahistory, p. 230; Gay, Style in History, pp. 176-82. 8. Lawrence to Edward Garnett (30 Oct [-2 Nov] 1912, in The

Letters of D. H. Lawrence, ed. J. T. Boulton, I (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979) 465.

9. Letter to the New York Times, 2 Aug 1901, in Watts, A Preface to Conrad, p. 113.

10. I. Howe, Politics and the Novel (New York: Horizon Press, 1957) p. 92; and see Jameson, The Political Unconscious, p. 286, on Utopian transfiguration.

11. Conrad, Author's Note, Under Western Eyes; and pp. 345 and 327 (pt 4, chs. 5 and 3).

12. A. Fleishman, Conrad's Politics: Community and Anarchy in the Fiction of Joseph Conrad (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1967) pp. 48 and 232-7; D. R. Schwarz, Conrad: 'A/mayer's Folly' to 'Under Western Eyes' (London: Macmillan, 1980) pp. 109-10; and B. Ford, Introduction to Under Western Eyes, pp. 45-6.

13. Jameson, The Political Unconscious, pp. 226, 234-5, 280, 288-9 and 269. Jameson is very insistent about the predominantly negative function of the Marxist critical apparatus, but his 'positive' underlying assumptions keep reasserting themselves,

Notes 269

particularly when he feels compelled to justify his 'strong' readings.

14. Ibid., pp. 284-6 and 294. 15. Ibid., pp. 221-3. See also E. Said, 'Conrad and Nietzsche', and

A. Busza, 'Rhetoric and Ideology in Conrad's Under Western Eyes', in Sherry (ed.), Conrad, 67 ff. and 113 ff., on Conrad's use of perspectival interpretation in combination with irony.

16. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, p. 270 (pt 3, ch. 4). 17. As Booth, A Rhetoric of Irony, pp. 209-10, suggests in his (largely

comic) catalogue of the varieties of 'ironic works'. 18. Olafson, The Dialectic of Action, pp. 189££ ('Understanding and

Interpretation'). 19. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 324 and 75 (pt 4, ch. 3; pt 1,

ch. 2). Both kinds of 'corruption' emerge in Razumov's interview with Mikulin: for example (in pt 1, ch. 3), there is Razumov's reflection, 'Mistrusted - not misunderstood - was the right symbol of these people. Misunderstood was the other kind of curse' (p. 121); and Mikulin' s 'unflinching' admission, 'I assisted personally at the search of your rooms. I looked through the papers myself' (p. 130).

20. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 282, 190 and 216 (pt 4, ch. 1; pt 2, ch. 4; pt 3, ch. 1).

21. Ibid., p. 117 (pt 1, ch. 3). 22. Stanford, The Nature of Historical Knowledge, p. 171. 23. This is the argument put forward in, for example, R. Siegle, The Politics

of Reflexivity: Narrative and the Constitutive Poetics of Culture (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986) pp. 66--121 ('Conrad, Early Modernism, and the Narrator's Relation to His Material').

24. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 139-44 (pt 2, ch. 1). 25. Ibid., p. 162 (pt 2, ch. 4). 26. Ibid., pp. 158, 146 and 220-8 (pt 2, chs. 3 and 2; pt 3, ch. 2). Hay,

The Political Novels of Conrad, p. 285, also notes that 'contemptuous as she is of Peter Ivanovitch, Natalia is yet dedicated to the same centuries-old dream of a future miraculously redeemed for the world by Russia'.

27. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 162 and 69-70 (pt 2, ch. 4; pt 1, ch. 1).

28. Ibid., pp. 77 and 184 (pt 1, ch. 2; pt 2, ch. 4). 29. Ibid., pp. 343, 202 and 187 (pt 4, ch. 5; pt 2, chs. 5 and 4).

See also p. 164 (pt 2, ch. 4): 'Her unconsciously lofty ignorance of the baser instincts of mankind left her disarmed before her own impulses.'

30. Ibid., pp. 209-10 and 321 (pt 3, ch. 1; pt 4, ch. 3). 31. Ibid., p. 327 (pt 4, ch. 3). 32. Ibid., pp. 333, 329 and 344-6 (pt 4, chs. 3-5). In one of his

letters, Conrad talks of an 'abnegation carried to an extreme' as 'not only profoundly immoral but dangerous, in that it sharpens the appetite for evil in the malevolent' - Letters of Joseph Conrad to Marguerite Poradowska, 1890-1920, tr. J. A. Gee and P. J. Sturm (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1940) p. 42 (5 Mar 1892).

270 Notes

33. J. Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy (1860; Oxford: Phaidon, 1981) pp. 81 and 92-3; and see Gay, Style in History, pp. 158-61.

34. Conrad, Author's Note, Under Western Eyes, p. 50. 35. M. Oakeshott, Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (1962; London:

Methuen, 1977) p. 153; and see J. H. Plumb, The Death of the Past (London: Macmillan, 1969) p. 17.

36. See for example Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 120-4 (pt 1, ch. 3).

37. Ibid., pp. 282-3, 128 and 290-3 (pt 4; ch. 1; pt 1, ch. 3). Hay, The Political Novels of Conrad, p. 284, notes that the servants of the autocracy, like the revolutionists, are characterised by attachment to 'the Russian messianic myth', the dream of Russia's sacred mission - which is true as long as one keeps in mind the care with which Conrad distinguishes between nai"ve and 'astute' upholders of the myth.

38. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 147-51, 308-10 and 238 (pt 2, ch. 2; pt 4, ch. 2; pt 3, ch. 2). Peter Ivanovitch's role as a false spiritual leader is also suggested by his appearance- 'a monk, or a prophet, a robust figure of some desert-dweller' (p. 308). Natalia's instincts prevent her from being 'completely candid' with Peter Ivanovitch, but she does hover on the edge of allowing him to 'guide' her (for example, p. 156; pt 2, ch. 3). See White's Metahistory on the ironist's view of metaphoric reductions.

39. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 167-9, 182 and 230-7 (pt 2, ch. 4; pt 3, ch. 2).

40. Ibid., pp. 214-15 and 219 (pt 3, ch. 1). 41. Ibid., p. 268 (pt 3, ch. 4). 42. Ibid., p. 273 (pt 3, ch. 4). 43. Ibid., pp. 242-56 (pt 3, ch. 3). 44. Ibid., Author's Note, p. 50. See also Letters from Joseph Conrad,

1895-1924, (ed.) E. Garnett (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1928) pp. 232-3, on Conrad's aim of speaking 'with perfect detachment, without some subtle hidden purpose, for the sake of what is said, with no desire of gratifying some small personal spite - or vanity'. There is a good discussion of the 'uses' of history in Stanford, The Nature of Historical Knowledge, pp. 160-1.

45. Conrad to Garnett, 20 Jan 1900, in The Collected Letters of Joseph Conrad, (ed.) F. R. Karl and L. Davies, II (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986) 246. See also Hay, The Political Novels of Conrad, p. 15, on Conrad's opposition to those who believed it possible to withdraw altogether from political commitment: 'Man cannot retire', being a fundamentally political animal.

46. Conrad, Author's Note, Under Western Eyes, p. 50; and p. 223 (pt 3, ch. 2).

47. Hay, The Political Novels of Conrad, p. 292; and Conrad, Under Western Eyes, p. 68 (pt 1, ch. 1). Slightly higher claims for Razumov's intellect are made by, for example, Ford in his Introduction to Under Western Eyes, p. 28.

Notes 271

48. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 108 and 57 (pt 1, ch. 3 and opening pages).

49. Ibid., pp. 122, 112, 60-1, and 340-1 (pt 1, chs. 3 and 1; pt 4, ch. 4). 50. Ibid., pp. 65-8 (pt 1, ch. 1). 51. Ibid., pp. 69, 102-12, 207, and 71-82 (pt 1, chs. 1-3; pt 3,

ch. 1). Busza, in Sherry (ed.), Conrad, p. 113, plausibly suggests that Razumov's experience of 'grace' in this snow-bound scene is a parody of the Dostoevsky hero's mystical submersion in the 'sacred communion of all life'.

52. Burke, A Grammar of Motives, pp. 33--4; S. Bok, Secrets: On the Ethics of Concealment and Revelation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982; 1986) p. 21; and see, for example, Meyerhoff, The Philosophy of History in our Time, p. 227, and Booth, Modern Dogma, p. xvi.

53. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 104 and 69 (pt 1, chs. 1-2). Several critics suggest that Razumov's 'famous credo' can be 'taken as a confession of faith on Conrad's part'. See for example Fleishman, Conrad's Politics, pp. 228-9, and J. Baines, Joseph Conrad: A Critical Biography (1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986) pp. 437-8. Though there are aspects of the declaration which one can assume to agree with Conrad's views (such as the contrasting of historical continuity and tradition with violent, ideological changes), the use of capitalised abstractions suggests how dangerous any such 'programmatic' definitions can be.

54. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 71, 106 and 130 (pt 1, chs. 2-3). 55. Ibid., pp. 114, 211-16 and 332-4 (pt 1, ch. 3; pt 3, chs. 1 and 4). 56. Ibid., pp. 58 and 129 (pt 1, opening pages and ch. 3); and see Bok,

Secrets, pp. 36--7, on the inevitable tension between concealing and revealing secrets.

57. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, p. 63 (pt 1, ch. 1). 58. Ibid., p. 219 (pt 3, ch. 1). 59. Ibid., pp. 57, 210 and 188 (pt 1, opening pages; pt 3, ch. 1;

pt 2, ch. 4). 60. Ibid., p. 204 (pt 2, ch. 5). 61. Ibid., pp. 327-8 (pt 4, ch. 3). 62. Ibid., pp. 276--7, 298-9, 316 and 330-8 (pt 3, ch. 4; pt 4,

chs. 2-4). Readings, such as those of Fleishman, which attach more positive 'communal' meanings to Razumov's end, strike me as wishful thinking.

63. Ibid., pp. 328 and 321 (pt 4, ch. 3). 64. Hay, The Political Novels of Conrad, pp. 296--7, considers some

of these objections. 65. Bok, Secrets, p. 40. 66. Schwarz, Conrad, p. 204. 67. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 179 and 131 (pt 2, chs. 4 and

1). See also Fleishman, Conrad's Politics, p. 121. 68. White, Metahistory, pp. 250-1 (on Burckhardt). 69. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 134-5 and 217-18 (pt 2, ch. 1;

pt 3, ch. 1). 70. Ibid., pp. 281 and 199-200 (pt 4, ch. 1; pt 2, ch. 5).

272 Notes

71. Burckhardt to Heinrich Schreiber, 1 Aug 1860, in Gay, Style in History p. 177.

72. Hay, The Political Novels of Conrad, p. 278; Fleishman, Conrad's Politics, pp. 218--19.

73. On solipsistic fears and anti-intellectualism, see Watts, A Preface to Conrad, pp. 82-8, and Siegle, The Politics of Reflexivity, pp. 89-92.

74. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 55 and 203 (pt 1, opening pages; pt 2, ch. 5). The professor explains how he has inferred, say, mental characteristics from the evidence which has come his way: for example, he reflects (p. 293; pt 4, ch. 1) on the skills of Mikulin; and (p. 179; pt 2, ch. 4), on how he came to know so much about Madame de S-- from an informant who spoke 'as a person who trusts her sources'. See also Gay, Style in History, p. 155.

75. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 55 and 257 (pt 1, opening pages; pt 3, ch. 3); and see Olafson, The Dialetic of Action, p. 218.

76. White, Metahistory, pp. 232-3. 77. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, p. 136 (pt 2, ch. 1). 78. Ibid., pp. 281 and 56 (pt 4, ch. 1; pt 1, opening pages). 79. Ibid., 134, 144-5 and 300 (pt 2, ch. 1; pt 4, ch. 2). This is not,

as Schwarz (Conrad, pp. 196ff) suggests, a handicap which he overcomes in the course of telling his story; nor is it true that he ceases to feel 'helpless' and 'unrelated' at the end.

80. Conrad, Under Western Eyes, pp. 151-2 and 343 (pt 2, ch. 2; pt 4, ch. 5); and, for example, p. 162 (pt 2, ch. 4): 'I had no illusions as to my power. I was but a Westerner ... .'

81. J. Conrad, Notes on Life and Letters (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1924) p. 17.

82. White, Metahistory, pp. 262-3; and J. Burckhardt, Judgements on History and Historians, tr. H. Zohn (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1959) p. 215.

83. J. Conrad, Author's Note, Within the Tides (1915; Edinburgh: John Grant, 1925) pp. vii-viii.

84. P. M. Spacks, 'Some Reflections on Satire' (1965), in Paulson (ed.) Satire, p. 364.

CHAPTER 4 JUMPING OVERBOARD: LAWRENCE, KANGAROO, AND THE RETREAT FROM HISTORY

1. B. Russell, The Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, II (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968) 20-3 and 53-4.

2. Booth, Modern Dogma, ch. 2. 3. P. Delany, D. H. Lawrence's Nightmare: The Writer and his Circle in

the Years of the Great War (Hassocks, Sussex: Harvester Press, 1979) pp. 114-17 and 132-6; and Booth, Modern Dogma, pp. 57-60.

4. Lawrence to Dollie Radford, 6 Aug 1915, in The Collected Letters of D. H. Lawrence, ed. H. T. Moore, I (London: Heinemann, 1962) 363.

Notes 273

5. Lawrence, Kangaroo, pp. 71 and 365 (chs 4 and 17). 6. Lawrence to E. H. Brewster, 2 Jan 1922, in Collected Letters,

II, 681; and Kangaroo, pp. 106 and 78-9 (chs. 5 and 4). 7. Russell, Autobiography, II, 53-4. 8. Ibid., p. 23. 9. Ibid., p. 22.

10. V. de Sola Pinto, 'D. H. Lawrence', in G. A. Panichas (ed.), The Politics of Twentieth-Century Novelists (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1971) pp. 48-9; J. Meyers, D. H. Lawrence and the Experience of Italy (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1982) pp. 129-30; J. Carey, 'D. H. Lawrence's Doctrine', in S. Spender (ed.), D. H. Lawrence: Novelist, Poet, Prophet (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1973) pp. 122-34; and F. Kermode, Lawrence (London: Fontana, 1973; 1981) pp. 25 and 29-30. See also S. Sanders, D. H. Lawrence: The World of the Major Novels (London: Vision Press, 1973) p. 170, on the numerous critics who have insisted on distinguishing the 'mythic visions of a writer from the political shapes they take'.

11. E. Nehls, D. H. Lawrence: A Composite Biography, I (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1957-9) p. 162; and D. H. Lawrence, Phoenix: The Posthumous Papers of D. H. Lawrence, ed. E. D. McDonald (London: Heinemann, 1936; 1961) pp. 476-7.

12. Kermode, Lawrence, p. 99. 13. For example, Lawrence, Kangaroo, p. 360 (ch. 17), and Fantasia

of the Unconscious (1922; Hardmonsworth: Penguin, 1986) p. 76. 14. See B. Hochman, Another Ego: The Changing View of Self and Society in

the Work of D. H. Lawrence (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1970) p. 169.

15. M. B. Howe, The Art of the Self in D. H. Lawrence (Athens, Ohio: University of Ohio Press, 1977) p. 2.

16. Carey, in Spender (ed.), Lawrence, p. 133. 17. Russell, Autobiography, II, 54. 18. P. L. Thorslev, Romantic Contraries: Freedom versus Destiny (New

Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1984), ch. 4, discusses in detail these two ways of construing the romantic retreat.

19. Bracher, The Age of Ideologies, pp. 223-4. Bracher argues that modern development has time and again been disturbed by 'the romantic relapse into a particularly pronounced Protestant inward-turned German idealism'.

20. The general pattern is well described in Polanyi, Personal Knowledge, pp. 235-7, and Bracher, The Age of Ideologies, p. 100. Some of the tensions within romanticism are suggested by the fact that it can be persuasively argued to be the source both of egoistic individualism and of totalitarian collectivism. See for example C. Woodring, Politics in English Romantic Poetry (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970) pp. 39-40.

21. D. H. Lawrence, Studies in Classic American Literature (1923; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986) p. 79; and D. J. Schneider, D. H. Lawrence: The Artist as Psychologist (Lawrence, Kans.: University of Kansas Press, 1984) pp. 55-6.

274 Notes

22. Lawrence, Kangaroo, p. 166 (ch. 8), and see p. 296 (ch. 13): 'A man must know how to give up his own earnestness, when its hour is over .... '

23. Ibid., pp. 33, 311 and 104 (chs. 2, 14 and 5). 24. Ibid., pp. 194, 110 and 77-8 (chs. 9, 5 and 4). 25. Ibid., p. 195 (ch. 9). 26. Ibid., p. 305 (ch. 14). 27. Ibid., p. 181 (ch. 8). 28. D. H. Lawrence, Women in Love (1921; Harmondsworth: Penguin,

1988) p. 433. 29. Lawrence, Kangaroo, pp. 195--6 (ch. 9). 30. Ibid., pp. 18-20 (ch. 1). 31. Ibid., p. 11 (ch. 1). 32. Ibid., pp. 107-8 (ch. 5). 33. Ibid., pp. 107, 116, 128 and 122 (chs. 5-6). 34. See for example R. Aldington, Introduction to Kangaroo (Penguin

edn) pp. 9-10; and Meyers, Lawrence and the Experience of Italy, pp. 119-23.

35. Possible explanations are discussed in R. Darroch, D. H. Lawrence in Australia (Melbourne: Macmillan, 1981) chs. 5-6.

36. Lawrence, Kangaroo, p. 33 (ch. 2). 37. Ibid., pp. 81-2 (ch. 4). 38. Woodring, Politics in English Romantic Poetry, p. 10. 39. Lawrence to Dollie Radford, 6 Aug 1915, in Collected Letters 1, 362. 40. Lawrence, Kangaroo, pp. 281-2 and 236-7 (ch. 12). 41. Ibid., pp. 215-17 and 223-5 (ch. 11). 42. This is, for example, the argument of M. Wilding, Political Fictions

(London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1980) pp. 180--1. 43. Lawrence, Kangaroo, pp. 372, 147-9 and 357-9 (chs. 17 and 7).

See also ch. 11 (pp. 231-2) for Somers' recognition that Kangaroo's embrace is only the expression of a 'great general emotion .... ' He wants to force me'.

44. Ibid., pp. 167-8 (ch. 8). Somers' 'demon' is 'what I identify myself with' (p. 153; ch. 6).

45. D. H. Lawrence, Pychoanalysis and the Unconscious (1921; Harmonds-worth: Penguin, 1986) pp. 235--6.

46. Lawrence, Kangaroo, p. 161 (ch. 7). 47. Ibid., pp. 234-5 (ch. 11). 48. Lawrence, Psychoanalysis and the Unconscious, pp. 237-8. 49. Lawrence, Kangaroo, pp. 125 and 233 (chs. 6 and 11). 50. Ibid., pp. 138-9, 220 and 152-3 (chs. 6, 11 and 7). 51. Ibid., p. 234 (ch. 11). 52. Ibid., pp. 44-9 (chs. 2-3); and see for example Bok, Secrets,

pp. 38-40, on aggressive or coercive intent behind initiation into secrets.

53. Lawrence, Kangaroo, pp. 104-5 (ch. 5). 54. Ibid., pp. 106-7 (ch. 5). 55. Ibid., pp. 320--1 (ch. 15). 56. Darroch, Lawrence in Australia, pp. 55--66. There is some sleight of

Notes 275

hand in the way Darroch weaves together quotations from the novel and evidence about the organisation on which it may be based, but his case is by no means wholly improbable.

57. Lawrence, Kangaroo, pp. 242, 258, 276-8 and 310-11 (chs. 12 and 14).

58. See for example R. Otto, The Idea of the Holy, tr. J. W. Harvey (London: Oxford University Press, 1923; 1950) p. 31: 'The "mystery" is for [the man fascinated by numinous experiences] not merely something to be wondered at but something that entrances him ... bewilders and confounds ... captivates and transports ... '; and Bok, Secrets, pp. 6-7.

59. Lawrence, Kangaroo, p. 113 (ch. 5). 60. Wilding, Political Fictions, pp. 167-70 and 180-1. 61. Lawrence, Kangaroo, pp. 19-20 (ch. 1). 62. Ibid., pp. 379, 127-9, 143 and 148 (chs. 18 and 6-7). 63. Ibid., p. 123 (ch. 6). 64. Ibid., pp. 126 and 205--7 (chs. 6 and 10). 65. Ibid., pp. 150-1 (ch. 7). 66. Ibid., pp. 359-60 and 232-3 (chs. 17 and 11). 67. Ibid., p. 360 (ch. 17). 68. Wilding, Political Fictions, pp. 182-3. 69. Lawrence, Kangaroo, pp. 340-1, 229-30 and 334 (chs. 16 and 11). 70. Ibid., p. 229 (ch. 11). 71. Ibid., p. 308 (ch. 14). 72. Ibid., pp. 264 and 307-8 (chs. 12 and 14). 73. Ibid., pp. 361-2 (ch. 17). 74. Ibid., pp. 366 and 375 (ch. 17). 75. Ibid., pp. 374-5 (ch. 17). 76. Ibid., pp. 367 and 375 (ch. 17); and Phoenix, p. 608. 77. Thorslev, Romantic Contraries, p. 89. 78. Ottoline Morrell to Bertrand Russell (? Mar I Apr 1916), quoted in

Delany, Lawrence's Nightmare, p. 179 (from letters in the Bertrand Russell Archive, McMaster University).

79. D. H. Lawrence, Apocalypse (1931; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981) pp. 46-51 (chs. 7-8); and Thorslev, Romantic Contraries, p. 100, on Hegel's insistence that consciousness is 'ever an end, and never a means'.

80. Lawrence, Apocalypse, p. 48; Schneider, Lawrence, p. 50. The implications of this are cogently discussed in Thorslev, Romantic Contraries, p. 102.

81. Lawrence, Kangaroo, pp. 40, 43 and also, for example, pp. 72-3 (chs. 2 and 4).

82. Ibid., pp. 325-6 (ch. 16). 83. Ibid., pp. 199, 38, 66-7 and 202 (chs. 10, 2 and 4). 84. Ibid., pp. 170-1, 311 and 367 (chs. 8, 14 and 17). 85. Russell, Autobiography, II, 20. Russell's very different conception

of individuality is evident throughout, for example, his book called Power (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1938).

86. Lawrence, Kangaroo, p. 211 (ch. 10). The novel contains several

example

276 Notes

(rather feeble) jokes at the expense of the realistic novel and of readers' conventional expectations (for example, pp. 308 and 312-13, chs. 14-15).

87. Nietzsche's views are summarised in Schneider's discussion of the comparisons with Lawrence: Lawrence, p. 50. The relationship between Lawrence's broad interpretation and rejection of the 'love' mode and his hostility to these aspects of modern life is usefully treated in Hochman, Another Ego, pp. 154-7.

88. Lawrence, Kangaroo, p. 324 (ch. 16). 89. Ibid., pp. 324-8 (ch. 16). 90. Ibid., p. 45 (ch. 2). 91. Ibid., pp. 295, 309 and 263-4 (chs. 12-14). See also Thorslev's

discussion in Romantic Contraries, p. 91, which refers back to the archetypal patterns of Maud Bodkin.

92. Lawrence, Phoenix, p. 637; Kangaroo, pp. 308-9 (ch. 14); Apocalypse, p. 126; and Thorslev, Romantic Contraries, p. 93.

93. Lawrence, Kangaroo, pp. 308-9 (ch. 11); and Phoenix, p. 761. 94. Lawrence, Kangaroo, p. 319 (ch. 15); and see Phoenix, pp. 299-301. 95. Lawrence asserts this 'self' so strongly that some on the left

have confused it with an assertion of the bourgeois individualism he so vehemently opposed (see for example Sanders, Lawrence, pp. 168-9).

96. Lawrence, Kangaroo, p. 311 (ch. 14). 97. Ibid., p. 383 (ch. 18). 98. Ibid., pp. 197-8 (ch. 10). 99. Ibid., pp. 179, 198-9 and 172 (chs. 8 and 10). 100. Ibid., pp. 184, 112 and 361-2 (chs. 8, 5 and 17). 101. Ibid., pp. 300 and 319 (chs. 14-15). 102. Lawrence to Russell, ? 19 Feb 1916, in Collected Letters, I, 432-3,

quoted in Russell's own account; and Kangaroo, pp. 225-31, 139-40 and 293 ( chs. 11, 6 and 13).

103. The implications of this view in a range of Lawrence's other work is discussed in Hochman, Another Ego, passim.

104. Lawrence, Kangaroo, pp. 328-30 (ch. 16). 105. Ibid., pp. 333 and 360 (chs. 16-17); Hochman, Another Ego,

pp. 193-4, argues that these ideas began to crystallise in his correspondence with Russell, and, as suggested above, the dispute between Somers and Kangaroo re-enacts some important features of this controversy.

106. Lawrence, Kangaroo, p. 334 (ch. 16). 107. Ibid., pp. 195-6 (ch. 9). 108. It is useful, I think, to see that Lawrence does want to represent

this as a synthesis, rather than (as Wilding, for example, suggests in Political Fictions) as a question of moral leadership versus practical power.

109. Lawrence, Apocalypse, p. 48. 110. Burckhardt, 'The Age of Revolution', Judgements pp. 215 and 232,

discussed in White, Metahistory, p. 249.

Notes 277

111. White, Metahistory, p. 251. 112. Lawrence, Kangaroo, p. 154 (ch. 7).

PART 2 ALL THE KING'S AND PRESIDENT'S MEN: POLITICAL INTELLECTUALS IN POST-WAR AMERICA

1. I. Howe, 'This Age of Conformity,' Partisan Review, XXI, no. 1 (1954) 8-15.

2. W. C. Pratt, 'Critics, Scholars, Scribes, and Partisans: Reflections upon Intellectuals in our Era', Midwest Quarterly, XXVI (1984-5) 164-5. The idea of a 'new priesthood' was popularised by T. H.

White in a series called 'The Action Intellectuals' (Life, Summer 1967).

3. A. Schlesinger, Jr, The Politics of Hope (1949; London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1964) p. 290.

4. R. B. Fowler, Believing Skeptics: American Political Intellectuals, 1945-1964 (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978) pp. 5--12, 162 and 151. Fowler is referring specifically to Schlesinger's The Vital Centre (1949), but he also has in mind writers such as Hannah Arendt, Edward Shils, Harold Lasswell, Sidney Hook, and Eric Hoffer.

5. As Fowler notes (Believing Skeptics, pp. 44-5), they viewed reason as empirical rather than metaphysical or architectonic.

6. L. Hartz, The Liberal Tradition in America: An Interpretation of American Political Thought since the Revolution (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1955) p. 58. Hartz says of this ethos, 'It was so sure of itself that it hardly needed to become articulate, so secure that it could actually support a pragmatism which seemed on the surface to belie it. American pragmatism has always been deceptive because, glacierlike, it has rested on miles of submerged conviction ... ' (pp. 58-9).

7. H. Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951; London: George Allen and Unwin, 1966) p. 458; A. Kaplan, 'American Ethics and Public Philosophy' (1958), quoted in Fowler, Believing Skeptics, p. 14; and L. Fiedler, An End to Innocence (1948; Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, 1955) pp. 24 and 191.

8. Warren, The Legacy of the Civil War: Meditations on the Centennial (New York: Random House, 1961) p. 71.

9. M. J. Morton, The Terrors of Ideological Politics: Liberal Historians in a Conservative Mood (Cleveland: Press of Case Western Reserve University, 1972) pp. 134-5; and Howe in Partisan Review, XXI, no. 1, pp. 23-5. See also Fowler, Believing Skeptics, pp. 44-5, 59--6 and 154-5. The self-consciously political implications are evident in, for example, Murray Kempton's assertion that the greatest error of Communism was to teach the falseness of sin (Part of our Time, 1955).

4.

278 Notes

10. The phrase is from M. Krieger, The Classic Vision: The Retreat from Extremity in Modern Literature (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1971) p. 42 - a wide ranging study (in which Warren is included) of the sort of vision which accepts the 'barnyard imper­fection of the race' but remains 'positive' as well as 'knowing', not seeking 'to subdue the stinking animal ... by organizing the race in accordance with ethical universals' (p. 47).

11. R. W. Corrigan (ed.), Tragedy: Vision and Form (New York: Harper and Row, 1981) pp. 12-13.

12. Steiner, The Death of Tragedy, pp. 8-9. 13. H. Adams, The Human Use of Human Beings (1954), discussed in

Orrin E. Klapp, 'Tragedy and the Climate of American Opinion,' in Corrigan (ed.), Tragedy, pp. 252-62; R. H. Chambers (ed.), Twentieth Century Interpretations of 'All the King's Men' (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977) pp. 4-5; and Howe, in Partisan Review, XXI, no. 1, pp. 24-5.

14. One should note, however, that this conservative suspicion of liberalism's naive utopianism would have seemed an incredible distortion of the dominant spirit of liberalism to such 'chastened liberals' as Schlesinger and Daniel Bell (see, for example, Fowler, Believing Skeptics, pp. 59-60).

15. W. H. Auden, 'The Christian Tragic Hero: Contrasting Captain Ahab's Doom and its Classic Greek Prototype', in Corrigan (ed.), Tragedy, pp. 164-7. Auden's example is Melville, who (like Warren) did not necessarily believe the Christian dogmas, but whose con­ception of man's nature 'is, historically, derived from them'.

16. Steiner, The Death of Tragedy, p. 7. 17. A. Schlesinger, Jr, 'On the Inscrutability of History', Encounter,

XXVII (November 1966) pp. 10-17, in Winks (ed.), The Historian as Detective, pp. 524-7. As Winks notes (p. 524), with Schlesinger's arguments we leave 'the realm of the detective and turn to that of the judge'.

18. Schlesinger, ibid., pp. 532-6. 19. Ibid. 20. Pratt, in Midwest Quarterly, XXVI, 160-9; L. Trilling, A Gathering of

Fugitives (Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press, 1956) p. 66; and Howe, in Partisan Review, XXI, no. 1, pp. 11-12. Pratt borrows the comparison of clerics and scribes from Daniel Bell's The Winding Passage (1980). On the involvement of liberal intellectuals in government, see Fowler, Believing Skeptics, pp. 121-4.

21. R. Hofstadter, Anti-Intellectualism in American Life (1962; London: Jonathan Cape, 1964) pp. 393, 429, 417 and 401; and The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, and Parrington (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1968) pp. 463-6.

22. Howe, in Partisan Review, XXI, no. 1, p. 20. 23. Fowler, Believing Skeptics, pp. 141-2; and Pratt, in Midwest Quarterly,

XXVI, 164-6. The criticisms of liberal accommodation are summa­rised by both Fowler and Morton (The Terrors of Ideological Politics).

24. Arendt, Crises, pp. 4-36.

Notes 279

25. Arendt, Crises, p. 31. 26. Heller, Good as Gold, pp. 459--60.

CHAPTER 5 TRAGIC KNOWLEDGE AND 'THE EARNED REDEMPTION': THE HISTORY LESSON OF

ALL THE KING'S MEN

1. Warren, Selected Essays, pp. 42-5 and 54-8. Conrad's suggestion was made in a letter of 11 Nov 1901 (Collected Letters, n, 358--60). See also the observation of E. Bentley in 'The Meaning of Robert Penn Warren's Novels', Kenyon Review, X (Summer 1948) 423, that many of the things Warren has said about other writers fit his own work 'like a glove'.

2. Warren, Selected Essays, pp. 54 and 43. 3. Conrad, Heart of Darkness, p. 32. 4. J. Conrad, Lord Jim (1900; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1988) pp. 200-1. 5. Warren, Selected Essays, pp. 44-5. 6. Frye, Anatomy of Criticism, pp. 210-13; and see White, Metahistory,

p. 54. 7. Warren, All the King's Men, p. 427 (ch. 10). 8. Frye, Anatomy of Criticism, p. 215. 9. Warren, 'A Note to All the King's Men', Sewanee Review, LXI (1953)

479. See also Warren, 'All the King's Men: The Matrix of Experience', Yale Review, LIII (Dec 1963) 161-7.

10. Clarion Ledger, (Jackson, Miss.) 11 Sept 1935, in Ladell Payne, 'Willie Stark and Huey Long: Atmosphere, Myth, Suggestion?' in Chambers (ed.), Twentieth Century Interpretations, p. 113. Payne's article convincingly catalogues numerous other parallels between Long and Stark (pp. 98-115).

11. Warren, in Sewanee Review, LXI, 480. 12. Ibid., pp. 478-80. 13. Putnam, Reason, Truth and History, ch. 6 ('Fact and Value'), is lucid

and persuasive in his discussion of the ways in which this 'forced choice question' has been answered.

14. For example R. H. Chambers, J. Ruoff, and J. Baumbach in Chambers (ed.), Twentieth Century Interpretations, pp. 6, 84, 127 and 142; and M. Walker, Robert Penn Warren: A Vision Earned (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1979) pp. 88, 97 and 193.

15. Warren, in Sewanee Review, LXI, 478; and Selected Essays, p. 155. 16. Robert Penn Warren Talking, p. 99. 17. Ibid.; and All the King's Men, p. 157 (ch. 4). 18. See for example Warren's interview with Walker, Warren, pp. 246-7:

nearly ten years elapsed from the time of writing an early verse play which he never produced (1937) until publication of the novel based on the same material; there was also a much altered version of the play, published about twenty-three years after the ideas were first given form.

280 Notes

19. Warren, in Sewanee Review, LXI, 478-9; and Robert Penn Warren Talking, p. 99.

20. Warren, All the King's Men, pp. 250, 193, 157 and 215 (chs. 4-6). 21. Ibid., pp. 25-7 and 248-9 (chs. 1 and 6). 22. Warren, Selected Essays, p. 45. 23. Warren, All the King's Men, p. 228 (ch. 5). 24. C. H. Bohner, Robert Penn Warren (New York: Twayne, 1964)

pp. 72-3; and J. Meckier, 'Burden's Complaint: The Disintegrated Personality as Theme and Style in Robert Penn Warren's All the King's Men', in Chambers (ed.), Twentieth Century Interpretations, pp. 57-72.

25. Warren, All the King's Men, p. 436 (ch. 10). 26. Warren, 'Edmund Wilson's Civil War', Commentary, XXXIV (Aug

1962) 157. 27. C. Brooks, The Hidden God: Studies in Hemingway, Faulkner, Eliot and

Warren (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1963) p. 98. See also Bentley, in Kenyon Review, X, 423: 'The problem lies precisely in his being so two-sidedly gifted; he evidently finds it endlessly difficult to combine his two sorts of awareness.'

28. Putnam, Reason, Truth and History, p. 143; and Walker, Warren, pp. 36-7.

29. Warren, All the King's Men, p. 248 (ch. 6). 30. Warren, Selected Essays, p. 43. 31. For a much fuller (and largely persuasive) account of the relation­

ship between the lobectomy, the condition of catatonic schizo­phrenia and the narrative of All the King's Men, see J. C. Simons, 'Adam's Lobectomy Operation and the Meaning of All the King's Men', in Chambers (ed.), Twentieth Century Interpretations, pp. 73-83.

32. Putnam, Reason, Truth and History, pp. 178 ff, discusses Instru­mentalism and our conception of rationality.

33. Warren, All the King's Men, pp. 310-18 (chs. 7-8). 34. Warren, in Sewanee Review, LXI, 477. The most important qualifi­

cation is perhaps that Warren opposes to abstraction 'the concrete fact of human experience including the fact of apprehended mystery' (see Walker, Warren, p. 234).

35. Warren, All the King's Men, pp. 246-7 (ch. 6). 36. Warren in interview with Walker, Warren, p. 248: 'when it comes

down to Hawthorne and Emerson meeting on the woodpaths of Concord, I'm strictly for Hawthorne. I really have something that's almost a pathological flinch from Emersonianism, from Thoreauism, from these oversimplifications, as I think of them, of the grinding problems of life and of personality. So I'm all for the Hawthorne in the picture'.

37. Amongst those 'tested' by this sort of loss of faith are Adam, Willie, Anne, and the Scholarly Attorney (pp. 325-6 and 353-4, ch. 8; and, of course, Jack himself, for example, pp. 270 and 417, chs. 7 and 10).

38. Warren, All the King's Men, pp. 361-2 and 425-6 (chs. 9-10). Jack's meeting with Lucy is one of two closing scenes which strongly echo Marlow's meeting with Kurtz's Intended.

Notes 281

39. Ibid., p. 67 (ch. 2). 40. Ibid., pp. 91-2 (ch. 2). 41. Ibid., pp. 98, 436, 233 and 260 (chs. 2, 10 and 6). 42. Ibid., p. 191 (ch. 5). 43. Robert Penn Warren Talking, p. 100; and All the King's Men, p. 19

(ch. 1). 44. Warren, All the King's Men, pp. 150-1 (ch. 3). 45. Ibid., pp. 177-8, 188 and 162 (ch. 4). 46. Ibid., p. 191 (ch. 5); see alsop. 377 (ch. 8). 47. Ibid., pp. 332 and 336 (ch. 8). 48. R. P. Warren, Brother to Dragons: A Tale in Verse and Voices

(New York: Random House, 1953) pp. 24 and 6-9. Again, note the similarity of Warren's views to those of Reinhold Niebuhr, who emphasised that man was tainted by original sin, his reason impaired, but that, also having free will, he is constantly driven to try to transcend the limitations of his own mind and to seek God-like perfection.

49. Warren, All the King's Men, pp. 193 and 225 (ch. 5). 50. See for example ibid., pp. 135-6 (ch. 3). 51. This is also the strategy which Frye (Anatomy of Criticism, pp. 46-8)

associates with, for example, with Graham Greene. 52. Warren, All the King's Men, pp. 415-17 (ch. 10). 53. Ibid., p. 417 (ch. 10). 54. Ibid., pp. 411-15 (ch. 10). 55. Ibid., pp. 98 and 113 (chs. 2-3). 56. Ibid., pp. 175-88 (ch. 4). The 'history' of Cass Mastern, which

takes up the whole of chapter 4, was omitted by the first British publisher as irrelevant to the main story.

57. Ibid., pp. 188-9 (ch. 4). 58. Ibid., p. 228 (ch. 5). 59. Ibid., p. 355 (ch. 9). 60. Ibid., pp. 349, 221 and 353 (chs. 8 and 5). 61. For a more ingenious reading, in which Willie himself is taken to be

Humpty-Dumpty and God the King, see J. Ruoff, 'Humpty-Dumpty and All the King's Men: A Note on Robert Penn Warren's Teleology', in Chambers (ed.), Twentieth Century Interpretations, pp. 84-92. If the 'King' is meant to suggest God, it seems very likely that a double meaning is intended, as in the title Warren gave his early play (that is, in this case, we are clearly also 'all the King's men', in the sense that we all share the guilt we attribute in a facile way to those who 'serve' Willie Stark).

62. Warren, All the King's Men, pp. 408-9 and 352-3 (chs. 9-10). Willie's responsibility lies, for example, in the fact that he had hired Jack to investigate, pressured Adam into taking charge of running the hospital, made Anne his mistress, insulted and rejected Tiny Duffy, left Sadie, and so on.

63. Ibid., pp. 214-15 (ch. 5). 64. Ibid., pp. 297-8, 325-6 and 348-59 (chs. 7-9). 65. Ibid., p. 340 (ch. 8).

282 Notes

66. Ibid., pp. 159, 249 and 323 (chs. 4, 6 and 8). Jack does not proceed with his study of Cass Mastern because it threatens to make him 'vulnerable' by requiring introspection; similarly, Anne tries to run away when Jack tells her about her father and Judge Irwin.

67. Ibid., pp. 270 and 309 (ch. 7). There is perhaps a comparison to be made here with Lawrence, seeking such loss of self in the primeval, pre-human world of the bush or in the unformed infant.

68. Ibid., pp. 314-15 (ch. 8); and Popper, The Open Society, II, 215. 69. Warren, All the King's Men, pp. 405-6, 189 and 100-1 (chs. 10, 4

and 2). Judge Irwin confesses to Jack that 'sometimes - for a long time at a stretch - it's like it hadn't happened. Not to me' (ch. 8; p. 346).

70. Ibid., p. 1 (ch. 1). 71. Ibid., pp. 423, 201-3, 9 and 40 (chs. 10, 5 and 1); echoed ironically

in ch. 2 (pp. 75 and 87). The lure of sensual oblivion is suggested, for example, when Jack begins to feel 'that all the works of man night be swallowed up' in the machine-like sexuality of his ex-wife, Lois (p. 304, ch. 7).

72. Ibid., pp. 128-9 (ch. 3). 73. White, Metahistory, p. 57. 74. Warren, All the King's Men, pp. 192, 134 and 414 (chs. 5, 3 and 10).

Warren is explicit elsewhere about his opposition to pragmatic and 'Machiavellian' uses of history, and at the end of All the King's Men (p. 393, ch. 9) Jack says, 'A man may forget the death of the father, but never the loss of the patrimony, the cold-faced Florentine, who is the founding father of our modern world, said, and he said a mouthful.'

75. Ibid., p. 20 (ch. 1). 76. Ibid., pp. 190, 125 and 162 (chs. 3-4). 77. Ibid., p. 432 (ch. 10). 78. Ibid., p. 435 (ch. 10); and see p. 208 (ch. 5): 'This came out

of that time .... ' 79. Ibid., p. 272 (ch. 7). It is never possible to say, as Judge Irwin

tries to do (p. 201; ch. 5), 'That was another time .... That time is dead.'

80. Ibid., p. 438 (ch. 10). History itself is, for Warren, 'the big myth we live by' (Brother to Dragons, p. xii). Contrast Warren's version of a fall into knowledge and history with Lawrence's leap out of history.

81. Areopagitica (1644), in The Works of John Milton, IV (New York: Columbia University Press, 1933) 311. See also Basil Willey, The Seventeenth-Century Background (1934; Harmondsworth: Pelican, 1972) pp. 216 ff; and C. Brooks and R. P. Warren (eds), Understanding Fiction (New York: Appleton-Crofts, 1943; 1959) p. xvii: 'In literature, ideas leave their cloisters and descend into the dust and heat to prove their virtue anew.'

82. Warren in interview with Walker: Warren, pp. 261-2.

Notes 283

83. Popper, The Open Society, II, 232. 84. De Doctrina Christiana, in The Works of John Milton, XV, 209-11. See

Willey, The Seventeenth-Century Background, pp. 217-18; and E. M. W. Tillyard, Milton (1930; Harmondsworth: Peregrine, 1968) pp. 227-31. Warren's 'positive' idea of reason is to be seen in contrast to the abstract, rationalising tendencies he associates with some sorts of scientific theory, system-building, and the optimistic liberal dream of progress through rational control of nature.

85. Warren, All the King's Men, p. 436 (ch. 10). 86. White, Metahistory, p. 194; and Warren in interview with Walker:

Warren, p. 250.

CHAPTER 6 WATERGATE AND AFTER: THE GOOD, THE BAD, AND THE GOOD AS GOLD

1. Polanyi, Personal Knowledge, p. 242. 2. See for example the analysis of the ritual nature of such occasions

in J. M. Edelman, The Symbolic Uses of Politics (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1964) pp. 16-17.

3. H. S. Thompson, The Great Shark Hunt (London: Picador, 1980) p. 265. Most of the pieces discussed in what follows were origi­nally published in 1973-4: Fear and Loathing: On the Campaign Trail (San Francisco: Straight Arrow Books, 1973); 'Fear and Loathing in the Bunker', New York Times, 1 Jan 1974; 'Fear and Loathing at the Watergate: Mr Nixon Has Cashed His Cheque', Rolling Stone, 27 Sep 1973; 'Fear and Loathing in Washington: the Boys in the Bag', Rolling Stone, 4 July 1974; and 'Fear and Loathing in Limbo: The Scum also Rises', Rolling Stone, 10 Oct 1974.

4. Thompson, The Great Shark Hunt, p. 359. 5. J. Dean, Blind Ambition (1976; London: W. H. Allen, 1977) pp. 40--1

and 33; L. Heren, The Power of the Press? (London: Orbis, 1985) pp. 143-5; and see, for example, D. Abrahamsen, Nixon vs. Nixon: An Emotional Tragedy (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1976; 1977) p. X.

6. Pratt, in Midwest Quarterly, XXVI, 160--9. 7. Heren, The Power of the Press? p. 152; R. Paulson, Representations of

Revolution (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1983) pp. 27-8; and see, for example, Stanford, The Nature of Historical Knowledge, pp. 144-5, on the persuasive power of 'evasive' history.

8. P. Waugh, Metafiction, p. 102, on our approach as readers to the unreliable narrations of modernist texts.

9. C. Berryman, 'Heller's Gold', Chicago Review, XXXII (1980--1) 114. 10. Dean, Blind Ambition, pp. 30--1. 11. C. Bernstein and B. Woodward, All the President's Men (New

York: Simon and Schuster, 1974) p. 280. 12. Collingwood, Idea of History, p. 243. 13. Compare for example Heren, The Power of the Press?, ch. 10, with

284 Notes

Victor Lasky, It Didn't Start with Watergate (New York: Dial Press, 1977) pp. 347-86.

14. E. Waugh, Scoop, p. 101 (bk 2, ch. 1). 15. Collingwood takes account of some of the differences in The Idea

of History, p. 268 (although he focuses mainly on time restrictions in legal procedures).

16. F. Bacon, The Advancement of Learning (1605), Second Book, XXIII, para. 47.

17. Bernstein and Woodward, All the President's Men, p. 84 (quoting Sloan); Heren, The Power of the Press? pp. 146--8; and Bok, Secrets, p. 173.

18. Heren, The Power of the Press?, p. 148. 19. Bernstein and Woodward, All the President's Men, pp. 278, 84 and

282. 20. Ibid., p. 127. 21. Ibid., pp. 205 and 178. 22. M. McCarthy, The Mask of State (New York: Harcourt Brace

Jovanovich, 1973; 1974) p. 5. 23. Heren, The Power of the Press?, p. 150; McCarthy, The Mask of State,

pp. 6 and 9; and see for example Bernstein and Woodward, All the President's Men, p. 104.

24. U. Eco, The Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts (1979; London: Hutchinson, 1981; 1985) pp. 120-1.

25. Bernstein and Woodward, All the President's Men, p. 282. 26. Dean, Blind Ambition, pp. 85 and 125-6. On the effects of such

role-playing, see Bok, Secrets, p. 109. 27. See Eco, The Role of the Reader, p. 121, on the function of redundancy

in detective fiction. The unselfcritical blurring of the line between fact and fiction can also, of course, bring disaster to the investigative reporter: the 1981 Pulitzer Prize awarded to a Post reporter was for a story subsequently proved to have been false; and the Post was also forced to back down and apologise when it wrongly reported that Jimmy Carter had bugged Ronald Reagan (see Heren, The Power of the Press?, p. 152).

28. Thompson, The Great Shark Hunt, pp. 278-9; and G. E. and K. Lang, The Battle for Public Opinion (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983) pp. 255-64.

29. P. Waugh, Metafiction, p. 105. 30. Kingman Brewster, quoted in H. Brucher, Communication is Power:

Unchanging Values in a Changing Journalism (New York: Oxford Uni­versity Press, 1973) pp. 75-6. See also Bok, Secrets, ch. 16, for a cogent discussion of the traditional political defence of a free and objective press.

31. S. Krum, quoted in M. Zavarzadeh, 'The Apocalyptic Fact and the Eclipse of Fiction in Recent American Prose Narratives', Journal of American Studies, IX (Apr 1975) 70.

32. T. Wolfe (ed.), Preface to The New Journalism (New York: Harper and Row, 1973) pp. 16--21. One of the better discussions of the New Journalism, but one which nevertheless oversimplifies the

Notes 285

relationship between its techniques and those of 'old-fashioned realists', is that of J. Hellmann, Fables of Fact: The New Journalism as New Fiction (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1981); see for example p. 89.

33. E. E. Dennis, 'Journalistic Primitivism', M. L. Johnson, 'Wherein Lies the Value?', and R. J. Van Dellen, 'We've been Had by the New Journalism', Journal of Popular Culture, IX (Summer 1975) 124-5, 136 and 231.

34. Bayle, 'History and Satire', quoted in White, Metahistory, p. 49. 35. J. Green, 'Gonzo', Journal of Popular Culture, IX, 206. 36. Thompson, The Great Shark Hunt, p. 115; and see G. Highet, The

Anatomy of Satire (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1962; 1972) pp. 219-21, on this form in traditional satire.

37. Thompson, The Great Shark Hunt, p. 23. 38. Green, in Journal of Popular Culture, IX, 207. 39. Abrahamsen, Nixon vs. Nixon, p. 226. 40. Thompson, The Great Shark Hunt, pp. 225-7, 239 and 230-1. 41. P. Gay, Freud for Historians (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1985; 1986) pp. 17-18. 42. Thompson, The Great Shark Hunt, pp. 114 and 26. 43. Ibid., pp. 264-99. The sense of uninvolved proximity to events is

also conveyed by, for example, Thompson's claims to have spent most of the evening of the break-in swimming in the pool of the Watergate Hotel (pp. 266--7). Hellman, Fables of Fact, p. 89, notes Thompson's frequent focus on his proximity to events, but I would disagree with his assertion that the general consequence of this is to make the events themselves appear 'far more formidable'. The effect is much more to place them on a level with the randomness of Thompson's own decision-making.

44. The relationship between 'the actual Hunter Thompson' and his persona are discussed in Hellman, Fables of Fact, p. 72. On circular plotting in satire see for example A. B. Kernan, The Plot of Satire (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1965; 1974) ch. 10.

45. Bernstein and Woodward, All the President's Men, pp. 50-1. 46. W. Dilthey, 'Plan for the Continuation of the Construction of the

Historical World in the Human Studies' (1907-10), in H. P. Rickman (ed.), Meaning in History: W. Dilthey's Thoughts on History and Society (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1961) p. 111; and Lang, The Battle for Public Opinion, p. 261.

47. Bernstein and Woodward, All the President's Men, p. 90. 48. Ibid., p. 172. 49. For a sceptical assessment of the role played by Woodward and

Bernstein, see Lasky, pp. 364-5; see also J. Calder, Heroes: From Byron to Guevara (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1977) pp. 151-67 on 'The Hero as a Professional'.

50. Thompson, The Great Shark Hunt, p. 117. 51. Ibid., pp. 354, 269 and 298; and Paulson, Fictions of Satire, pp. 75-86. 52. Thompson, The Great Shark Hunt, pp. 323 and 340; Kurt Vonnegut,

51.

286 Notes

'A Political Disease', Harper's Magazine, 247 Ouly 1973) 92 and 94, creates of Thompson the emblematic victim, believing in the Dream but victim of the nightmare. See Paulson, Fictions of Satire, p. 76, on the concealed romantic proclivities of this kind of satire.

53. Howe, in Partisan Review, XXI, no. 1, p. 13. 54. Thompson, The Great Shark Hunt, pp. 197 and 17; Paulson, Fictions

of Satire, pp. 8Ck>; and see S. Bok, Lying: Moral Choice in Public and Private Life (1978; London: Quartet Books, 1980) p. 134, on the way in which the use of extreme epithets is an implicit appeal to universal principles. Hellmann, Fables of Fact, pp. 82-3 and 93-5, discusses the way in which Thompson parodies the quest for the American Dream and his strong sense of the 'original promise' betrayed.

55. K. Jacobson, 'The Freaking New Journalism', Journal of Popular Culture, IX, 195; Calder, Heroes, p. 178; and Paulson, Fictions of Satire, pp. 75-6.

56. Thompson, The Great Shark Hunt, p. 26. 57. Heller, Good as Gold, pp. 54-5 (ch. 2). 58. A. Schlesinger, Jr, The Vital Center: The Politics of Freedom (Cambridge,

Mass.: Riverside Press, 1949) pp. vii-ix. 59. P. Conrad, reviewing G. Wills, Reagan's America, in Observer, 31

Jan 1988. 60. Heller, Good as Gold, pp. 131, 159, 266, 329-30 and 453 (chs. 4-6

and 8). 61. Hofstadter, Anti-Intellectualism, p. 28. 62. Heller, Good as Gold, p. 77 (ch. 3). 63. Ibid., pp. 47-8 and 78-9 (chs. 2-3). 64. Ibid., pp. 54-5 (ch. 2). 65. Ibid., pp. 257 and 447 (chs. 6 and 8). 66. Ibid., p. 41 (ch. 2). 67. Ibid., pp. 41-3, 349-50, 271 and 365-70 (chs. 2 and 7-8). 68. Ibid., pp. 365 ad 346-7 (chs. 7-8). 69. Ibid., pp. 271-2 (ch. 7). 70. Ibid., pp. 373 and 127-8 (chs. 8 and 4). 'Chozzer': 'pig', selfish,

greedy. 71. Ibid., pp. 286 and 339-40 (ch. 7). 72. Ibid., pp. 221, 128 and 412 (chs. 6, 4 and 8). 73. H. Marcuse, One Dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced

Industrial Society (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1964; 1968), pp. 87-90.

74. Heller, Good as Gold, p. 209 (ch. 6). 75. Ibid., p. 332 (ch. 7). 76. Ibid., p. 268 (ch. 6). 77. Ibid., pp. 362, 275-6 and 360 (chs. 7-8). 78. Ibid., pp. 154-5 (ch. 5). 79. Ibid., pp. 79-80, 122-3 and 211 (chs. 3-4 and 6). 80. Ibid., p. 126 (ch. 4). 81. Ibid., pp. 210-11 (ch. 6).

Notes 287

CONCLUDING NOTE: A MIDDLE WAY

1. H. White, 'The Historical Text as Literary Artifact', in Canary and Kozicki (eds), The Writing of History, pp. 40--62. Other essays in this collection develop related lines of argument.

2. See for example the arguments that Enright puts forward about the function of irony (The Alluring Problem, pp. 3-9).

3. C. Van Woodward, Harold Vyvyan Harmsworth Professorship Inaugural Lecture (1955), in Winks (ed.), The Historian as Detective, p. 38.

4. Enright, The Alluring Problem, p. 112. 5. See the arguments of Gurewitch, Comedy, pp. 106--7 and 83-4. 6. Steiner, The Death of Tragedy, p. 342. 7. U. Eco, in 'Crisis? What Crisis?', in Bourne et al., Voices, p. 18;

and Travels in Hyper-Reality (London: Picador, 1987) pp. ix-xii. 8. Eco, The Name of the Rose (1980; London: Picador, 1984) p. 477. 9. Ibid., pp. 500-1 and 491.

10. Morse, Perspectives on Romanticism, p. 288. 11. Eco, The Name of the Rose, pp. 472-3 and 450.

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Index

Abyssinia, 13, 50, 67, 77-81 Adams, Henry, 172 Alain (Emile-Auguste

Chartier), 43--4 alienation, 130 ,161-2, 175-6,

208-9, 210, 221 America, 8, 13, 167-80, 181-253

passim apocalyptic thought, 41-2, 55,

130-1, 160, 256-7 Arendt, Hannah, 7-8, 20, 33, 50,

169, 178-9, 217-18, 277n Australia, 50, 54, 59, 123-64

passim

Bacon, Francis, 54-5, 224 Bayle, Pierre, 231 behaviourism, 173 Bentley, Eric, 262n, 279n, 280n Berlin, Isaiah, 21 Bernstein, Carl, 36-7, 178-9,

219-41, 285n Bok, Sissela, 41, 27hz, 274n, 283n Booth, Wayne, 28-9, 32-3, 124,

262n Burckhardt, Jacob, 90-2, 102,

117, 121

Calvina, Italo, 3 Carter, Jimmy, 284n certainly, the desire for, 2, 16,

18, 23, 33, 43, 51, 75, 92, 168-9, 197, 255-7

Civil War, 170, 204 Chandler, Raymond, 238 Christianity, 43, 67, 129-30,

170-1, 173, 185, 200-1, 213, 278n

Collingwood, R. G., 47-8, 174, 259n, 265

Autobiography, 47-8, 51, 63, 66, 75-7

Idea of History, 1, 25-6, 35, 44,

47, 50, 55-8, 62-5, 67-75, 78, 87-8, 174, 223, 261n, 284n

Colson, Tex, 234, 235-6 comedy, 9-10, 39, 51-2, 64,

79-89, 122, 179, 221-2, 242-53, 256, 258, 263--4n

common sense, 15, 31, 52, 121, 130, 172, 262n

communism, 256, 277n complacency, 20, 33, 96, 122,

180, 249-50 complexity of political life, 23,

51, 128, 136, 168, 175, 176-7, 187

complicity, 9-10, 24, 39-41, 42-3, 57-8, 65, 88-9, 179, 200-5, 209-10, 245-9; see also involvement

Conrad, Joseph, 9, 14, 52, 87, 91, 93--6, 121-2, 123--4, 167, 174, 181-4, 193--4, 234, 268n, 269n, 270n

Heart of Darkness, 31-2, 183, 213-14

Lord Jim, 95, 183--4 Nostromo, 95, 181 Secret Agent, 100 Under Western Eyes, 13, 24, 37,

41-2, 49, 53--4, 56-60, 65, 90-122, 136, 183, 203, 269n, 270n

Victory, 60-1 conservatism, 30-1, 41, 66, 168,

262-3n, 277n Crick, Bernard, 23, 262n

Daily Mail, 77 Dean, John, 222, 228 democracy, 85, 148, 155, 158,

174, 182, 245, 252, 265, 273 detachment, 2-3, 11, 22, 24, 34,

40-1, 47-8, 66, 72, 76, 82, 97-8, 108-12, 115-16, 143, 159, 176-7,

295

296 Index

178-9, 190, 195, 241, 250, 270n; see also involvement; outsiders

detective fiction, 1-2, 9, 34-6, 55-60, 62-3, 70-5, 81, 86, 173-4, 220, 222-7, 239, 256--7, 263n, 278n, 284n; see also mystery; objectivity; secrets

determinism; free will, 15-17, 77, 191, 195, 214, 281n

Dilthey, Wilhelm, 18

Eco, Umberto, 35, 256--8, 284n Ehrlichman, John, 236 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 176 empiricism, 1-2, 16, 18, 23, 25-7,

49, 54-5, 59-60, 118, 128-9, 155, 196, 254-8, 272n; see also evidence; fact

England, 47-8, 66, 74, 76--7, 87, 137, 140, 143, 175

Enlightenment, 61, 231, 265-6n Enright, D. J., 29, 30-1, 255,

261-2n, 287n Europe, 8, 47, 167, 169 evidence, 5, 26, 34, 77, 91-2,

99-101, 102-3, 117-18; see also empiricism; fact

experience capacity for individual, 3-8,

11-12, 20-1, 33-4, 42, 95, 119-22, 187, 192, 257, 262n

of re-enacting past thought, 68-71

fact, 1-2, 4-8, 16, 18-20, 23, 25-7, 32, 34-7, 42-4, 68, 77, 84-6, 113-15, 117-18, 122, 123-4, 126, 174, 177-80, 185-200, 210-13, 217-31, 225-7, 280n, 284n; see also empiricism; evidence

faith, 41-2, 50-1, 52-3, 93-4, 96, 98-102, 106--8, 112, 124, 167-8, 256--7, 271n, 280n

fallibilism, 15, 33 fascism, 35, 48, 50, 66, 76--7,

126--7, 145, 161, 167-8, 242-3 Fiedler, Leslie, 170 Fleishman, Avrom, 94-5, 271n Ford, Boris, 94, 270n

Forster, E. M., 14 French Revolution, 3 Freud, Sigmund, 16, 234 Fromm, Eric, 169 Frye, Northrop, 26, 34, 42, 185,

202, 263n, 281n future, continuity between past

and, 6--7, 12, 14, 23-4, 86--7, 102-4, 117, 119, 121, 130, 172-5, 211-13, 223-4, 242-3, 251-2

Galsworthy, John, 182 Gay, Peter, 234, 268n Graham, Katherine, 220

Haldeman, H. R., 236 Hammett, Dashiell, 238 Hegel, G. W. F., 26, 28, 91, 275n Heller, Joseph, 9, 14, 167

Good as Gold, 13, 32, 37-41, 65, 175, 178-80, 217, 219, 221-2, 232, 241-53

Heren, Louis, 225 historical imagination; historical

understanding, 1-44, 62-7, and passim

historicism, 17-18, 21 Hitler, Adolf, 127 Hofstadter, Richard, 168, 176--7,

244 Howe, Irving, 93-4, 116, 167,

170-1, 172, 176, 177, 240 Hughes, H. Stuart, 16, 48-9, 61,

264n, 265n humanism, viii, 7-8, 15-16, 18-23,

67, 75, 95-6, 148, 153, 213, 215-16, 261n

Hume, David, 11, 21-2, 24

ideology, 2, 8-9, 17, 27-35, 49-52, 54, 66, 78-9, 81, 90-2, 95-6, 107, 116, 167-70, 176--7, 180, 242-3, 251, 268n, 271n

inductive thought, 2, 23, 57, 151 intellectual balance, 3, 10, 15-16,

22,37,43,56,61,93,243,254-8 intellectuals, as political

observers, 108-21, 167-80,

Index 297

210-11, 219-22, 240, 242-4, 248-9, 252-3, 254, 277n, 278n

involvement in political life, 2--6, 10, 11, 96-7, 122, 125, 128, 134-7, 141-2, 176-9, 190-1, 199-200, 202-3, 254; see also complicity; detachment

irony, 1, 7, 9-10, 27-34, 37, 39-40, 42-3, 51-3, 58-9, 60-1, 78-9, 88, 90-122 passim, 132-3, 163, 170, 172, 175, 179-80, 183, 184, 190, 207, 216, 222, 232, 241, 246-53, 255-8, 261-2n, 263-4n, 269n, 270n, 287n

irrationalism, 9-10, 16-17, 35--6, 47-9, 54-5, 59, 60, 64, 123-4, 152, 154--6, 160-1, 168, 254--6

Italy, 50, 67, 78, 134-5

Jameson, Frederic, 95--6, 268-9n Jefferson, Thomas, 201 journalism, 8, 23--6, 37, 49, 77-89,

178-9, 217-41, 284n; see also New Journalism

Kant, Immanuel, 211 Kennedy, John F., 176 Kermode, Frank, 128 Kissinger, Henry, 39-40, 176, 180,

245-9 Krum, Seymour, 230 Kuhn, Thomas, 266n

language and irony, 118-20 Lawrence, D. H., 13--14, 19, 32,

36-7, 49, 93, 123--30, 187, 192, 196, 254, 255--6, 273n, 274n, 276n

Aaron's Rod, 125 Apocalypse, 152 Kangaroo, 6, 9-10, 13, 36, 50,

54-5, 59--61, 123--64, 203, 274n, 275--6n

Plumed Serpent, 125, 162 Psychoanalysis and the

Unconscious, 139 Rainbow, 150, 153 Women in Love, 126, 131, 150

leadership, 51-2, 125--6, 131, 138-9, 140-1, 145-7, 161-2, 185--6, 270n

Leavis, F. R., 181 liberalism, 15, 41, 95, 161, 167-73,

177-8, 179, 242-3, 277n, 278n, 283n

literary modes, as 'ways of knowing', viii, 9-10, 26-7, 30, 36-8, 88, 255--6

Long, Huey, 13, 185-7, 279n lying, 7-8, 79, 97, 112-13, 117,

173-4, 177-8, 179, 217-18, 226-7, 231-2, 247-9

Machiavelli, Niccolo, 11-12, 21, 282n

Mailer, Norman, 240 Marcuse, Herbert, 249-50 Marx, Karl, 12, 16 Marxism, 23, 51-2, 91, 93-4,

174-5, 214, 260n, 261n critical theory, 17, 28, 95--6,

268n melodrama, 201-2 Milton, John, 213, 214-15, 282n mimesis, 1, 25--6; see also realism modernism, 55, 60, 64-5, 265n,

283n monism, 8, 28, 30-1 Morrell, Lady Ottoline, 136-7,

151-2 Mussolini, Benito, 50, 67 mystery, 35, 57, 60, 86, 145-8,

226, 256-7, 275n, 280n; see also detective fiction; secrets

mysticism, 49, 54-5, 103--5, 107, 117, 120, 124, 155--6, 159--62, 210, 271n

myth, 25, 27, 30, 38, 55, 162, 185, 199-200, 213, 270n, 273n, 282n

Napoleon, 40 narrative

anti-empirical, 221, 232-3, 236-7

complexity of, 1-2, 9-10, 35--6, 55--6, 62-5, 74-5, 80, 96, 192, 219-20, 241

298 Index

empirical, 4-6, 19-20, 36-7, 42-3, 117-18, 224-30, 254-5

first and second stories, 5-6, 9-10, 56-60, 85-6

functions of, 5-6, 12-13, 22-4, 44, 80, 97-9, 101, 107-8, 178-9, 220, 222-3, 258

historical and literary, compared, viii, 1, 3-4, 24-7, 34-5, 68-75, 90-2, 105-6, 187-9, 261n

natural world, 54-5, 59-60, 148-51, 154, 157-60

New Journalism, 229-32, 284n; see also journalism

Niebuhr, Reinhold, 169-71, 175, 281n

Nietzsche, Friedrich, 16, 130, 154, 276n

nihilism, 29, 262n Nixon, Richard, 176, 218-21,

223-8, 232-6, 239-40, 246-7

objectivity, vi, 1-6, 14-20, 24-5, 27, 29-30, 34, 35, 37, 44, 49, 52, 54, 60, 65, 69, 74-5, 91-2, 97, 102, 109, 116, 118, 179, 195, 196-7, 199, 210, 222, 229, 231, 241, 250, 255, 257, 263n, 284n; see also subjectivity

optimism 63, 163-4, 168, 172-3, 201, 220-1, 226, 228-9, 234-5, 242, 283n

organicism, 54-5, 149-50, 155-60 original sin, 170-1, 172, 174,

200-2, 206-8, 215, 281n outsiders, 39, 41, 86, 115-16,

135-6, 143-4, 176-7, 178-9, 224, 238-45, 251; see also detachment

Oxford, 48, 68, 76-7

parody, 202, 231, 239, 242, 286n Paulson, Ronald, 37, 240, 285-6n pessimism, 29-30, 91-4, 123,

163-4, 170-1, 173, 182, 193-4, 201, 203, 215-16

Polanyi, Michael, 18, 40, 217-18, 222-3, 272n

Pope, Alexander, 251 Popper, Karl, 15-19, 21, 33, 34,

43, 209, 214-15, 260n positivism, 16, 55 power, 11-12, 19, 20-3, 39-41,

85-6, 97, 102-3, 105, 109-10, 115-16, 128, 133-6, 138-40, 142-5, 152, 160-2, 169, 175-80, 217-19, 221-2, 224-5, 232, 241, 242-3, 246-53, 256-7, 276n; see also leadership

pragmatism, 19, 176, 180, 211, 243, 277n, 282n

propaganda, 103, 220 psychology, 48, 69-71, 153,

154-5, 230-4 Putnam, Hilary, 18-19, 192-3,

279n, 280n

Rabelais, 240 radicalism, 7, 30, 36, 41-2, 78-9,

221, 244-5, 262n Reagan, Ronald, 243, 284n realism, 1-10, 16, 18, 26-7, 41-2,

90-4, 97, 105, 108, 116-18, 121-2, 145-6, 162-4, 167-70, 173, 174, 177-80, 191, 192-3, 219-22, 229-30, 242-3, 250, 253, 254-8, 262n, 263-4n

reason; rationality, 1-2, 8-10, 15-19, 29-30, 33, 36-9, 41, 47-51, 53-6, 60, 65-7, 74, 76-7, 87-9, 108-9, 116-20, 124, 168, 172-3, 179, 182, 193, 195, 201, 215, 217, 224, 242-3, 253, 254-8, 277n, 280n, 283n

relativism, 15-17, 22-3, 33, 48-9, 74, 218, 221, 243, 244, 255

religion, 91, 130, 155-6, 161, 170-1, 210; see also Christianity; mysticism; retreat

retreat, 10, 19, 32, 54-5, 129-30, 135, 148-64, 175, 208, 256, 273n

responsible knowing, 2-3, 10, 18-19, 56-7, 254

revolution, 5, 50, 52-3, 85-6, 93-4, 96, 99-100, 102-15, 120, 129, 134, 142-3, 159-60, 256, 265n, 270n

Index 299

romanticism, 1-2, 7, 9-10, 13, 23, 34, 35--7, 41-2, 49, 53, 54-5, 59-60, 80, 93, 121-2, 123-64 passim, 170, 191, 193, 239-40, 254-5, 260n, 261-2n, 265n, 273n, 285n

Russell, Bertrand, 138-45, 153-5, 171, 173, 180, 182, 315, 316

Russell, George, 111, 264n Russia, 13, 50, 53-4, 103-4, 107,

108, 111-12, 113-15, 118--19, 269n, 270n

satire, 9-10, 31, 37-9, 52, 63-4, 67, 78, 80, 82, 88, 132, 178--80, 219-22, 231-53 passim, 262-3n, 285-6n

scepticism, 1-3, 10, 15, 27, 28, 30, 33, 43-4, 91-4, 116, 119, 132, 149, 155, 168--9, 177, 182-4, 222, 243, 266n

Schlesinger, Arthur, 168, 171, 174-5, 176, 177, 242-3, 278n

Schopenhauer, Arthur, 91 Schwarz, Daniel, 94, 116, 261n,

263n, 272n science

natural, 19, 47, 67-8, 70, 75-6, 88, 154-5, 173, 193-6, 217, 283n

social, 154-5, 171-2, 173, 177, 217

scribes, 175--6, 177, 219, 277n, 278n

secrets; the secret, 36, 41, 42-3, 59-60, 97, 110, 112-13, 114-15, 128, 141-8, 201, 203-4, 205--7, 224-5, 236, 241, 248--9, 256-7, 271n, 274n; see also mystery; mysticism

self, 19, 30, 36-7, 40-1, 42, 56, 111-13, 125, 128, 130, 139-41, 144, 146-7, 148--9, 151-9; see also complicity; subjectivity

Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 129 Steiner, George, 52, 171-2, 173,

256, 265n subjectivity, vi, 1-6, 14-20, 29-30,

34, 35, 37, 44, 48--9, 56, 62,

65, 69, 74-5, 97, 118, 124-5, 128, 160, 193, 196-7, 213, 222, 241, 244, 254-5; see also irrationalism; objectivity; self

Swift, Jonathan, 219

Thompson, Hunter S., 37, 168, 178-9, 180, 218, 219, 221, 231-41, 246, 250, 254, 283n, 285-6n

Todorov, Tzvetan, 71 totalitarianism, 8, 50-1, 52, 116,

130, 161, 168, 169-70, 175, 273n Toulmin, Stephen, 47, 77 tragedy, 9-10, 37-8, 41-3, 52-3,

61, 92, 122, 171-5, 184-5, 189, 213, 216, 256, 258, 265n, 266n, 278n

transcendence, 2, 9, 22-3, 27, 29, 33-4, 38, 54, 80, 96, 103, 119, 155--6, 163-4, 256, 262-3n, 281n

Trilling, Lionel, 18, 60, 176

utopianism, 27-8, 37, 50, 91, 93-4, 95, 103, 105-6, 124, 129-30, 162, 169, 162n, 268n, 278n

Van Woodward, C., 188--9, 255 violence, 47-8, 50, 145, 148, 160,

168, 170, 271n Vonnegut, Kurt, 239-40, 285n

Warren, Robert Penn, 9, 13-14, 30, 278n, 279n, 280n, 281n, 282n, 283n

All the King's Men, 13, 23, 32, 37, 42-3, 65, 167-8, 170, 172-5, 180, 181-216, 259n, 279n, 280n, 281n, 282n

Brother to Dragons, 200-1 Legacy of the Civil War, 170 "The Great Mirage": Conrad and

Nostromo', 181-5 Watergate, 13, 35-6, 172, 178--9,

217-41 passim, 285n Waugh, Evelyn, 64-5, 67, 77-8,

167, 222, 232 Scoop, 6, 13, 14, 37-9, 49, 50,

300 Index

51-2, 54, 56-7, 60, 62-5, 77-8, 80-9, 243, 267n

Waugh in Abyssinia, 66-7, 77-80, 81, 267n

White, Hayden, 4, 9, 25-9, 26-8, 29-30, 33-4, 37, 91, 119, 121, 216, 254, 261n, 262-3n, 270n

Wolfe, Tom, 230 Woodward, Bob, see Bernstein,

Carl Wordsworth, William, 215 World War I, 47-8, 137, 143-4 World War II, 50, 76-7, 167, 168-9