nuclear and radiological incidents – introduction
DESCRIPTION
Introduction - Objective Radiation sources are an integral part of our technology-based life The potential for accidents is there and it is not disappearing The potential for accidents that could lead to radiological consequences will be examined Lecture notes: Radiation sources are now an integral part of our technology-based life. As we will see later, they are used in industry, medical applications, educational institutions, etc. Although safety precautions and safety programmes are getting better all the time, the fact that more and more organisations and countries are using radiation for peaceful purposes also means that the potential for accidents is there and it is not disappearing. This potential is not limited to nuclear power stations. Indeed, there have been more accidents involving non-nuclear power practices than in the nuclear power industry itself. The potential hazard associated with nuclear power plant accidents is quite large because of the large amount of radioactive fission products “stored” in a reactor. By contrast, radiological accidents involve much smaller amounts of radioactive material, and the potential hazard is fairly limited, both in terms of geographic extent and number of people that could be affected. However, it would be a mistake to underestimate the seriousness of radiological accidents. Such accidents can lead, and have led, to serious deterministic effects, including severe injuries and death. We will examine the potential for accidents that could lead to radiological consequences. Our aim is to show that nuclear and radiological accidents can happen and that they are in fact an unavoidable consequence of advances in technology, not only in the nuclear sector, but in all industrial areas. We will also try to highlight the main features of such accidents.TRANSCRIPT
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IAEAInternational Atomic Energy Agency
Emergency Response
Nuclear and radiological incidents – Introduction
Day 10 – Lecture 1
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Introduction - Objective
• Radiation sources are an integral part of our technology-based life
• The potential for accidents is there and it is not disappearing
• The potential for accidents that could lead to radiological consequences will be examined
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Content
• Types of radiation accidents• Where they can happen• Accident consequences• Statistics of radiation accidents• Summary
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What is a Radiation Accident
• A situation in which there is an unintentional exposure to ionising radiation or radioactive contamination
• Exposure may be real or suspected
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General Classification
• The range of potential emergencies involving ionizing radiations is enormous• From a major reactor accident to accidents
involving small amounts of radioactive material• In general, emergencies may be classified
into two broad categories:• Nuclear accidents • Radiological accidents
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Nuclear Accidents
• The term nuclear accident (emergency) applies to• Reactor accident• Accident at reprocessing plants• Accidents at other large nuclear facilities• Accident involving the detonation with partial nuclear
yield of a nuclear weapon• It is one that involves the nuclear fuel cycle and the
potential for criticality
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Where Can They Occur
• The highest risk of severe health effects resulting from a radioactive release comes from nuclear power plants or facilities storing large amounts of nuclear waste from reprocessed nuclear fuel
• By far the most common facility containing very large amounts of radioactive material is a nuclear power plant
• There are 437 commercial nuclear power plants (NPP) operating in the world (as of January 2013)
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Reactor Accidents
• NRX, Canada, 1952• Windscale, UK, 1957• NRU, Canada, 1957• Westing House test reactor, USA, 1960• SL-1, USA, 1961• Enrico Fermi, USA• Lucens, Switzerland, 1976• Browns Ferry fire, USA• TMI, USA, 1979• Chernobyl, USSR, 1986• Fukushima , March 2011
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Radiological Accidents
• A radiological accident (emergency) is one that involves• Sources other than nuclear fuel• The dispersion of material from a nuclear
weapon without a nuclear yield• Radiological emergencies that could result from
deliberate acts, such as terrorist activities or illicit trafficking
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Types of Radiological Accidents
• Radiological accidents can be classified in three major categories:• Accidents with radiation sources or radioactive
material• Accidents outside the country with trans-
boundary effects, and• Nuclear powered satellite re-entry
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Accidents With Radioactive Sources
• Discovery of a source or contamination• Missing source (lost or stolen)• Damaged source or loss of shielding• Fire involving radioactive source(s)• Dispersion of alpha emitter • Transport accident with radioactive sources• Accident involving nuclear or radiological
devices (research reactor, neutron generator, accelerator…)
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Where Can They Occur
• Medical institutions• Industrial facilities• Research and educational institutions• Transport involving radioactive material• Nuclear fuel cycle• Field applications with gamma
radiography
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Medical Institutions
Use Sources Dose rates or activity Exposure Hazard area
theraphy departments
Co-60 Cs-137
1 – 10 Sv/h in vicinity
external therapy rooms
applicators Cs-137, Ir-192, Ra-226, P-32, Sr-90, I-125
order of 10 MBq (mCi)
external internal
therapy or nuclear med. area
nuclear medicine
I-131, I-123, Tc-99m, Xe-133
order of 10 MBq (mCi)
external internal
storage, nuclear med. area, hospital
X-ray machines, accelerators
X-rays, electrons
less than 1 Sv/h external radiology or
therapy rooms
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Industrial Facilities
Use Sources Dose rates or activity Exposure Hazard area
flow, friction, wear, thickness, densities, sterilization
Co-60, Cs-137, Ir-192, neutrons, Am-241, Po-210
more than TBq (100 Ci)
mostly external, internal
individual hazards, room, facility contamin.
X-ray machines, sterilizers, accelerators
X-rays, α, β, γ Co-60, Cs-137
up to 10 PBq (1 MCi)
external
facility
satellites, navigation buoys, weather stations
Pu-238, Sr-90 large activities
external internal
large areas, isolated locations
luminescent materials
Pr-147, H-3, Ra-226
up to 10 TBq (kCi)
internal facility and surrounding area
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Research and Educational Institutions
Use Sources Dose rates or activity Exposure Hazard area
departments of physics, nuclear engineering and life sciences
H-3, C-14, Co-60, X-rays, alpha, beta, gamma, accelerators, neutron generators, microscopes, X-ray crystallography
various external and internal
facility and surrounding area; irradiation of hands and/or fingers from X-ray crystallography units
research reactors: power levels up to 10 MW
fission products, neutrons, fissile materials, transuranics
several 10 TBq (thousands of Ci)
external and internal
several km2
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Transport
• Approximately 2.5 million packages of radioactive materials are shipped only in the USA each year
• Transport emergencies have caused no serious radiation overexposure• However, the subsequent loss of sources
has led to serious injuries, e.g. Algeria, 1976
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Transport (Examples)
Use Sources Dose rates or activity Exposure Hazard area
fuel transport enriched uranium several 10 PBq (million of Ci) external several km2
radio-pharmaceuticals
I-131, Tc-99m, Xe-133 and others
several 10 TBq (thousands of Ci)
external, internal
transport, terminals, roads
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Where Else
• Almost anywhere • In the field (gamma radiography sources)• Terrorist or criminal activities • Illicit trafficking• In scrap yards (wrongly disposed source)• On military premises• Basically, in many places where they should not
be
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Transboundary Accidents
• Impact from a severe accident at a nuclear installation far from the country’s border
• Most significant threat: contamination of the environment through deposition• Deposition is highest if rain is present at the time
of plume passage• Most significant challenge: the media
perception
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IAEA 22
Nuclear Powered Satellite Re-entry
• Nuclear power sources are used in space vehicles such as satellites and deep space probes• Satellites may carry a small nuclear reactor,
radioisotopic thermoelectric generators and heating units contain plutonium
• Launch accidents are not a significant threat• Accidental re-entry is a possible threat
• Crash on ground may lead to wide-spread of contamination (e.g. COSMOS 954, Canada, 1979)
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Possible Radiological Hazards
• External irradiation• Internal contamination through inhalation or
ingestion
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IAEA 24
Possible Health Consequences
• Acute radiation syndrome
• Local burns• Combined injuries• Death• Increased risk of late
effects (e.g. cancer)
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Other Potential Consequences
• Environmental contamination• Economic losses• Psychological• Legal
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Summary
• Radiation accidents can happen• Serious radiological consequences are rare
but they can occur• Stochastic effects• Severe injuries• Death
• Therefore, emergency response plans are required
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Where to Get More Information
• Generic Procedures for Assessment and Response During a Radiological Emergency, IAEA-TECDOC-1162 (2000)
• Lessons learned from Accidents in Industrial Radiography, IAEA Safety Reports Series No.7 (1998)