Nuclear Reactor Safety and Repository Research

in Germany

Report of the Working Group

Convened by

The Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology (BMWi)

(Evaluation Commission)

January 21, 2000

(German version)

Contents

Preface.........................................................................................................................1

Recommendations ......................................................................................................3

A Survey of Previous and Future Activities.........................................................4

1 Introduction........................................................................................................4

2 National Activities ..............................................................................................5

3 International Co-operations ..............................................................................5

4 Government Funding.........................................................................................6

5 Future Topics of Nuclear Safety Research.......................................................9

5.1 Immediate Tasks..................................................................................................9

5.1.1 Nuclear Reactor Safety Research........................................................................9

5.1.2 Repository Research..........................................................................................10

5.2 Additional Tasks.................................................................................................12

5.2.1 Nuclear Safety Research ...................................................................................12

5.2.2 Repository Research..........................................................................................14

6 Promoting Young Talents in Science and Technology .................................16

7 Final Remark ....................................................................................................17

B Appendix 1: Table B1 on the personnel engaged in the fields of nuclear

safety and repository research .......................................................................18

C Appendix 2: Supplementary Explanations.....................................................22

1 Technical Facts on Nuclear Energy................................................................22

1.1 Nuclear Power Plants and Nuclear Safety..........................................................22

1.2 Storage, Treatment and Disposal.......................................................................25

2 National Activities ............................................................................................26

2.1 Nuclear Safety Research ...................................................................................26

2.2 Repository Research..........................................................................................28

3 International Co-operations ............................................................................32

4 Training and Personnel Situation ...................................................................35

5 Topics of Nuclear Safety Research Funded by the Federal Government ....36

5.1 Nuclear Safety Research ...................................................................................36

5.2 Repository Research..........................................................................................39

6 Projects on Nuclear Reactor Safety and Repository Research Funded by

the European Union (EU) at German R&D-Facilities .....................................43

7 Table C3: Medium-term Financial Planning of the Federal Government in the

Field of Nuclear Reactor Safety and Repository Research 1999 – 2003 (in Million

DM) ....................................................................................................................46

8 Table C4: Participation of Industry in the Funding of Research Projects in the

Field of Nuclear Reactor Safety, Repository, and Future Development 1998–2003

(in Million DM) ....................................................................................................48

D Abbreviations...................................................................................................50

1

Preface

The intensive funding of research in the field of nuclear reactor safety research by the

German Federal Government in the last decades was a decisive contribution to

keeping German reactors among the safest in the world. Considerable progress has

also been made in the field of repository research which is regarded as being leading

on an international scale. These achievements were made possible by close co-

operation between research centres and institutions, advisory organisations,

universities and the industry in Germany as well as by close technical co-operation with

institutions abroad.

In view of the policy laid down in the coalition agreement of the Federal Government as

of October 20, 1998, namely, to put an end to the utilisation of nuclear energy as soon

as possible and, subsequently, to strive for the introduction of new energy structures

and, substantially reducing the funding of the nuclear reactor safety and repository

research in the next years, the Federal Minister of Economics and Technology (BMWi)

considered it to be advisable to subject the entire field to a review by an Evaluation

Commission.

The Evaluation Commission was convened by the BMWi with letter dated September

24, 1999. The tasks were defined to include primarily the following:

- Establishment of priorities in the field of nuclear safety and repository research in

Germany with special regard to the tight funding;

- establishing the medium-term staffing and technical co-operation between the

institutions engaged in these fields, in particular the Federal Institute for

Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR); the Jülich Research Centre (FZJ), the

Karlsruhe Research Centrer (FZK), the Research Center Rossendorf (FZR) and the

Gesellschaft für Anlagen- und Reaktorsicherheit (GRS) mbH;

- consideration of the medium-term financial planning;

- special efforts in the framework of research policy so that scientific skills pertaining

to nuclear reactor safety and waste disposal be maintained.

2

Another task defined for the Evaluation Commission was to recommend ways of closer

co-operation between the research institutions by establishing a so-called Competence

Pool.

Under the chairmanship of the BMWi, the assigned members of the Evaluation

Commission included the leading managers of the research institutions (BGR, FZJ,

FZK, FZR, and GRS), the heads of the project sponsors and, finally, representatives

from the Federal Ministries of Finance (BMF) (occasionally), for the Environment,

Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) and for Education and Research

(BMBF).

In three meetings (October 27, 1999, November 26, 1999 and January 21, 2000) the

Evaluation Commission adopted unanimously the following recommendations and the

enclosed report (in its original German version). With this report the Evaluation

Commission has established four basic points:

- A comprehensive survey on the facilities receiving funds from BMWi and BMBF in

the fields of nuclear reactor safety and repository R&D in Germany;

- a suitable basis for the Competence Pool to be founded in the future;

- the identification of high priority tasks and perspectives, as well as

- the identification of additional, important tasks in the fields of nuclear reactor safety

and repository research to be carried out in national and international co-

operations.

Against this background, the Evaluation Commission makes the following

recommendations which are explained more explicitly in the enclosed report.

3

Recommendations

The Evaluation Commission makes the following basic recommendations in the fields

of nuclear reactor safety and repository research:

1. A co-operation in these areas, in terms of both personnel and contents, should be

pursued vigorously in Germany aiming at improved efficiency. The Competence

Pool should contribute substantially by task co-ordination regarding technical

matters and contents.

2. The immediate tasks specified in the report (Part A, Sec. 5.1) shall be handled with

high priority.

3. The additional tasks specified in the report (Part A, Sec. 5.2) shall be carried out

within the bounds of the developing safety-related and temporal necessities as well

as of the financial possibilities.

4. Besides the research conducted at BGR, FZJ, FZK, FZR and GRS, importance is

also attached to the research at other facilities in Germany. In this respect,

research activities on nuclear reactor safety and waste disposal at the universities

should be funded sustainably, not the least from the viewpoint of maintaining

scientific competence (promotion of young talents).

5. It should be ensured that Germany continues to be involved efficiently in important

international activities and projects in connection with the maintenance and

continuation of nuclear reactor safety and repository research. This applies to the

co-operation with partners both in the Western world as well as the Central and

Eastern European countries.

6. In view of the limited public funding available, which has already been reduced in

the last years and continues to be so significantly, it should be ensured that no

further reduction occurs with respect to project funding and institutional funding by

the government in order to prevent a further drain in manpower as well as a decline

in competence in this area. The financial means for nuclear reactor safety and

repository research must be sufficient for the Federal Government to fulfil its legal

obligations.

4

A Survey of Previous and Future Activities

1 Introduction

The energy policy of the German Federal Government includes, firstly, putting an end

to the generation of electricity in nuclear power plants - if possible in concurrence with

the power utility industry - and, secondly, drafting of a new national plan for the

treatment and disposal of radioactive waste material.

For the remaining duration of operation it must be ensured that the plants currently in

operation remain safe and in accordance with the ever developing state-of-the-art in

science and technology.

Regarding safe operation of nuclear power plants, the technical competence must be

maintained on the basis of the results of research activities that are independent of

vested interests by industry and organisations. This also applies to radioactive waste

management, including the construction and operation of repositories.

Internationally, the state of the art in science and technology is continually advanced.

Germany's possibilities to influence the safety culture of nuclear facilities world-wide

must be maintained over a long term by a well-directed continuation of the international

co-operation with Western and Eastern partners.

The BMBF/BMWi funding of nuclear reactor safety and repository research has been

decreased continuously in the past years. Cuts in the budgets from financial year 1998

to 1999 and the following years necessitate the establishment of new priorities in public

funding of nuclear reactor safety and repository research. In addition, it necessitates

both streamlining of international co-operation as well as an improved co-operation

between research performed under project funding and under institutional funding.

Basing its work on an evaluation of the present situation, a joint working group -

consisting of representatives from BMF, BMU, BMBF and BMWi and from the

government-funded research facilities engaged in nuclear safety research (institutional

funding and project funding) - drafted the proposal for high-priority topics of nuclear

reactor safety and repository research to be dealt with in the future. The proposal is

5

directed toward maintaining the necessary minimum of independent nuclear safety

competence in Germany.

2 National Activities

The evaluation of the present situation brings to light the technical network of research

institutions which already exists in Germany in the field of nuclear reactor safety and

repository research. Of primary importance in this respect are GRS and the research

centres in Karlsruhe (FZK), Jülich (FZJ) and Rossendorf (FZR). Moreover, the

geoscience pertaining to repository research is decisively determined by the Federal

Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources (BGR). In addition, project-funded

research on nuclear reactor safety and waste disposal are being performed at

universities, specialised R&D facilities (Institutes of the Fraunhofer Gesellschaft (FhG)

and the State Material Testing Institute (MPA)) as well as in the industry.

By means of an intensified programme co-ordination among the institutions involved,

the overall efficiency shall be further improved. This would help to concentrate the

technical resources still available in Germany, and would ensure the establishment of a

minimum of technically qualified training possibilities for scientists and engineers in

Germany. This would maintain Germany’s safety competence which is of long-term

importance considering the increasing use of nuclear energy throughout Europe and

the world.

3 International Co-operations

Today, Germany is highly influential in the international safety discussions on nuclear

energy by the strong participation of her experts in international organisations (IAEA,

OECD-NEA, EU).

Co-operation agreements of the German Federal Ministries and research institutions

with foreign partners contribute to enlarging the scientific and technical knowledge

base regarding research activities and reaching a consensus on important tasks and

on international interpretations of results.

Reducing Germany’s contributions to the international safety discussion would have

negative consequences far beyond the German borders and would run contrary to the

6

German interest in achieving highest safety standards of nuclear installations world-

wide.

In particular, a continuation of the intensive theme-specific co-operation within the

framework of international and bilateral support programmes to enhance the safety of

nuclear power plants of Soviet design is of high interest to Germany and must be

continued. Likewise, the problem regarding a safe repository can only be solved by

international co-operation.

4 Government Funding

The following graphs (Figures A1a and A1b) show the history of government funding

in the field of nuclear research from 1980 to 1998, as well as the planned government

funding from 1999 to 2003. The financial means through 2003 are based on the

medium-term financial planning of BMWi and BMBF (see Table C3).

Fig. A1a: Government funding of nuclear research (overall annual expenditures)

7

Fig. A1b: Government funding of nuclear research (annual expenditure*)

*) In the case of FZ-Jülich (FZJ), the funding is represented only through the end of

1999. Funding for the year 2000 and beyond can be planned only after the supervisory

board of FZJ has decided on future nuclear energy research. This decision will be

based on the present report by the Evaluation Commission. After termination of

currently granted projects, BGR presumably will no longer receive project funding due

to the tight budget situation. However, BGR’s technical competence in the field of

geoscientific repository research from its experience gained in the site investigation of

the repository projects Konrad, Morsleben and Gorleben must be maintained through

appropriate future participation in site-independent research projects.

8

The annual expenditure through the end of 1989 include the research activities of the

research centres Jülich and Karlsruhe on the development of the THTR and SNR

reactor types and on fuel reprocessing methods. Activities regarding external

emergency protection and radiological consequences of accidents have not been

included.

Today, the research centres mainly deal with topics which are of direct precautionary

safety relevance for German facilities.

Furthermore, they are involved in international projects regarding the improvement of

safety of existing (WWER, RBMK), further developed (EPR) and innovative (HTR)

reactor concepts, as well as in research activities in foreign underground laboratories.

On account of the strong reduction in monetary means, the government funded nuclear

safety research in Germany has already in the last years been limited to indispensable

basic topics. Even world-wide leading experimental facilities under project funding had

to be decommissioned and dismantled for financial reasons (e.g. UPTF, HDR).

The German research facilities dealing with topics of nuclear reactor safety and

repository research are listed in Table B1 together with their main areas of work (see B

Appendix 1).

The columns of Table B1 list the current tasks of nuclear reactor safety and repository

research. The rows list the scheduled man-years for the respective tasks in the

individual institutions.

9

5 Future Topics of Nuclear Safety Research

5.1 Immediate Tasks

From today's point of view, the following tasks in the fields of nuclear reactor safety and

repository research have the highest priority:

5.1.1 Nuclear Reactor Safety Research

The tasks in the field of nuclear reactor safety research are performed in projects

complementing one another within the framework of institutional funding and project

funding. Project funding is concentrated on the reactors in operation; any innovate

concepts (see Chapter 5.1.1, Sec. (5)) are almost entirely subject to institutional

funding.

(1) Questions concerning ageing of components and materials and the consequential

reduction of safety margins for components and functions are increasingly gaining

importance with the increasing operation time of the facilities.

Necessary: Determination of the service limits for materials and components, and

modelling of materials based on results from non-destructive examinations.

(2) The realistic description of processes in the reactor core and the cooling circuits

during incidents and accidents is of essential importance to the safety assessment

and the further improvement of precautionary measures. New demands result from

the progressing development of systems engineering and operating procedures, as

well as from the increasing scope of simulations.

Necessary: Experiments and analyses regarding the effects of transients and loss-

of-coolant accidents on thermal-hydraulics, reactor physics and fuel rod behaviour,

as well as on the integrity of the reactor pressure vessel, and of processes inside

the reactor pressure vessel during core destruction.

(3) The integrity of the containment as the last barrier against the release of radioactive

substances into the environment must be assessed for extremely improbable

accident sequences. A realistic assessment requires deepening today's knowledge

on incident and accident sequences and on the efficiency and reliability of

measures to avoid undue containment loads.

10

Necessary: Experiments and analyses regarding stabilisation of the core melt in the

containment, steam explosion, hydrogen distribution and combustion and

countermeasures, and fission product behaviour.

(4) With regard to the improvement of the tools for identifying deficiencies in the plant

design and operating procedures, probabilistic methods must be developed further

and the existing assessment uncertainties must be reduced.

Necessary: Further development of methods for probabilistic safety assessment, for

instrumentation and control, for the assessment of human factors, and for modern

diagnostic procedures.

(5) The competence existing in Germany should continue to be used in the future with

the aim to further enhance the standards of nuclear safety .

Necessary: Pursuance of innovative concepts (e.g. HTR), minimisation and

avoidance of plutonium, transmutation in subcritical reactors, observing foreign

developments (e.g. BREST-1200).

(6) The improvement of the safety of nuclear power plants of Soviet design is one of

the most pressing tasks to be coped with in co-operation with the Central and

Eastern European countries. In this respect, the ageing effect due to neutron

embrittlement of the reactor pressure vessel (RPV embrittlement) is of special

significance. Western and in particular German support is indispensable due to the

outstanding knowledge available in Germany in the field of systems engineering.

Necessary: Know how transfer regarding safety assessments of Eastern reactors,

co-ordination and exchange of test specimens for the investigation of RPV

embrittlement (see Chapter 5.2.1, Sec. (6)).

Regarding the manpower requirements with respect to these topics, see Table B1 of B

Appendix 1.

5.1.2 Repository Research

Currently, the tasks "waste management and characterisation” (1), “contaminated sites”

(except for dismantling of nuclear facilities) (2), “separation chemistry” (5) and

“transmutation” (6) are almost entirely subject to institutional funding. Major project

funding is basically restricted to the fields of “Disposal: assessment of the long-term

safety” (3) and “Disposal: technology” (4).

11

(1) The accumulation of radioactive wastes, in particular of long-lived nuclides, should

be reduced or avoided. Stable waste products must be developed for non-

avoidable wastes. Methods of waste characterisation should be improved.

Necessary: Procedures for the treatment and disposal of plutonium, improvement

of fixation matrices and nuclide correlation keys, waste characterisation regarding

chemotoxic components, gas formation and release mechanisms in case of

mechanical or thermal impact.

(2) There is a need to improve measurement techniques for the free release of residual

waste from contaminated sites allowing recycling and disposal. With regard to the

evaluation of medium-term and long-term releases of radionuclides from residual

wastes from uranium-ore mining (dumps and sedimentation ponds) in Saxony and

Thuringia, in-depth analyses of the biochemical speciation and of the transport of

uranium and its decay products in the hydrosphere and geosphere are required.

Necessary: Further development of the release measurement techniques, analysis

of the influence of the geochemical environment and biological activities (plants,

bacteria) on the mobility of radionuclides in regions close to the surface.

(3) Regarding the assessment of the long-term safety of repositories, knowledge is

required on the properties of the geological system being the most important long-

term barrier as well as on the essential processes for mobilisation, transport and

retention of long-lived radionuclides in the multi-barrier system.

Necessary: Further development of the tools to assess the long-term safety of

repositories, deepening of knowledge on the geochemistry of actinides and long-

lived fission products, speciation and mobility in the near and far field of a host rock

formation and the biosphere, consideration of natural analoga, participation in

studies in foreign underground laboratories, especially, in the alternative host rock

formations granite and clay.

(4) Regarding the safety analysis for the overall repository system, evidence has to be

provided of barrier performance (natural, geotechnical, and technical barriers).

Necessary: Experiments and analyses on the behaviour of rocks, materials and

sealing structures under the impact of solutions or waters, heat, gases and

radiation.

12

(5) *Partitioning chemistry: The long-lived actinides dominate the toxicity potential of

wastes for a long period of time. Their separation (partitioning) and subsequent

disposal can significantly improve long-term safety.

Necessary: Development of selective extraction means and procedures.

(6) *Transmutation: Currently, there are world-wide discussions on strategies

regarding the transmutation of long-lived actinides, especially plutonium, and long-

lived fission products into short-lived fission products by appropriate irradiation in

order to reduce the radiotoxic potential.

Necessary: Basic studies on the physical and technical conditions for the

technological realisation, detailed assessment of the overall risks for the entire

material flow.

Regarding the manpower requirements with respect to these topics, see Table B1 of B

Appendix 1.

5.2 Additional Tasks

The topics of Sections 5.2.1 Nuclear Safety Research and 5.2.2 Repository Research

have the same numbering as those in Section 5.1, where the corresponding high-

priority tasks are specified.

5.2.1 Nuclear Safety Research

(1) For several years now, the mechanical behaviour of materials is being investigated

by means of physics based modelling on an atomic scale (nanosimulation). The

aim is to make structure properties in atomic dimensions (defects, dislocations,

segregations etc.) and their impact on the mechanical properties of materials suited

foer mathematical modelling. These new scientific tools should be developed

further to make them suitable also for the description of the behaviour of materials

employed in nuclear reactor technology.

*BMU is of the opinion that Para. (5) “separation chemistry” and Para. (6) “transmutation”

should be integrated in Section 5.2.2.

13

(2) Simulation programmes which can even simulate in high detail two- and three-

dimensional two-phase flows, contribute to reducing uncertainties in today's

approximations when describing multi-dimensional flow processes. Using the rapid

advance in computer technology, new methods of numerical mathematics and of

data techniques must be developed (CFD computer codes) and experimentally

validated by means of high-resolution measurements. Regarding reactor physics,

uncertainties must be assessed which are caused by applying the diffusion theory

in a few-group approximation and the currently used core data libraries. Especially

for incident and accident simulations new approaches are required which combine

diffusion calculations with the methods from transport theory.

(3) No additional tasks.

(4) a) The last comprehensive study on the accident risk of German nuclear power

plants was concluded in 1989. Object of this study was one of the first large

German pressurised water reactors. Since then, considerable progress has been

made regarding analysis methods, and plant technology and operational

management has been further developed. In addition, considerably more operating

experience and data are available today. It must furthermore be considered that, in

latter years, risk analyses have gained ever more international importance.

Therefore, it is necessary that a comprehensive risk study be performed according

to the state of the art both for a German pressurised and a German boiling water

reactor and which also include, in addition to the calculation of core melt probability,

the determination of the containment loads as well as the frequency and extent of

radioactive releases in case of an accident.

b) The deregulation of the European energy markets increasingly leads to the

mergers between electrical power utilities. This implicates restructuring of

management and organisation, changes in expectations and behaviour of the

personnel, all of which have an impact on safety and must be investigated. This

requires the development of methods to ascertain and positively influence safety

culture at nuclear power plants taking into account, e.g., training concepts including

transfer of know-how.

c) Modern communication and information technology becomes increasingly

important to the safety technology in nuclear power plants even if, at present, no

corresponding backfitting measures are planned for German nuclear power plants.

14

The development of methods to assess the reliability of such software-based

redundant systems is necessary to make use of the safety-related advantages of

this new technology for nuclear safety. In the future, software for instrumentation

and control systems as well as storage-programmable controls will increasingly be

developed by means of object-oriented methods. Therefore, analysis methods and

tools must also be developed for object-oriented software which will meet the

special demands of software qualification required in the field of nuclear

technology.

d) International developments in the last decade (especially in the USA and Japan)

with regard to paleoseismology make it seem imperative to consider and further

develop this method also in view of the sites of German nuclear facilities. The

results of paleoseismology lead to an improved quantification of the seismic

endangerment which can be applied, among others, in probabilistic safety

analyses.

(5) No additional tasks.

(6) Based on Western methods for safety assessments and on detailed knowledge on

the reactor types developed in Soviet Union, analytical tools (computer codes) for

the safety assessments of Soviet-type reactors shall be further developed in mutual

projects with Central and Eastern European research facilities. The aim is, among

others, to design and construct a simulator for incident and accident sequences.

The analysis of test specimens from the decommissioned reactors at Greifswald is

of central importance with regard to the neutron embrittlement of the RPV (see

Chapter 5.1.1, No. (6)).

5.2.2 Repository Research

(1) a) Improved conditioning techniques (plasma combustion, microwave drying)

leading to stable waste products suitable for long-term storage and disposal

b) Improved decontamination techniques in order to reduce the radioactive waste

volume, e.g. for graphite.

15

(2) a) On-site measurements of building structures and internals of decommissioning

projects to determine the radionuclide inventory, thereby improving waste sorting

and reducing waste volumes.

b) Analyses on the complexation of uranium with wood decomposition products in

abandoned uranium ore mines and on the sorption of uranium species in biofilm-

covered mineral surfaces. The knowledge gained by these analyses on uranium

chemistry must be integrated into programmes on transport modelling in the

ecosphere. An onward leading, new focal point must be the development of bio-

remediation procedures for dumps and tailings using uranium accumulating

bacteria.

(3) a) Participation of GRS and BGR in the Swedish project "Prototype Repository“ in

the hard rock laboratory HRL Äspö (granite). Aims of the project are to determine

permeability changes of clay sealings as a function of fracture water influx (quantity,

pH, Eh) in order to develop models for the calculation of the permeability changes

in clay and to determine effective hydraulic parameters in the excavation-damaged-

zone (EDZ) and undamaged zone of partially saturated, fractured rock.

b) Participation of GRS and BGR in the project on transport and retention of

pollutants in altered fractured areas of granite taking HRL Äspö as an example. The

Swedish efforts regarding pollutant migration concentrate on the transport in

fractured systems. The lithological near-field of fractures is characterised by a net

of microchannels which form interconnected paths and large internal surfaces. The

retention of pollutants in this altered fractured area which can decisively contribute

to the total retention has not been investigated so far.

c) Participation of GRS and BGR in analyses at the French underground laboratory

Est/Bure (clay rock): geotechnical laboratory studies, measurement of local

stresses by means of different methods, characterisation and modelling of the

excavation-damaged-zone (EDZ), recording and modelling of fluid migration,

assessment of the earthquake risks in the zones with low-level seismic activity.

d) Co-operation with Sandia National Laboratories at the WIPP site (salt rock):

Comparison of the employed material laws by benchmark calculations, further

development of the material laws, validation of the model calculations by re-

16

calculations of laboratory tests and on-site measurements, characterisation of the

EDZ and studies on the healing processes.

e) Supplementary radiochemistry tasks (actinide chemistry) at universities: In close

co-operation with the FZK Institute for Nuclear Waste Management and the FZR

Institute for Radiochemistry, supplementary studies should be performed on the

behaviour and stability of colloidally occurring radionuclides, on the humic

substance complexation of radionuclides and on the simulation of stability and

behaviour of actinide complexes and compounds under conditions relevant to

repositories.

(4) a) Participation of BGR in the "Engineered Barrier Emplacement Experiment“ at the

underground laboratory Mt. Terri (clay rock): Demonstration of the feasibility of a

new installation method for bentonite barriers, improvement of thermo-

hydromechanical (THM) computer codes for the description of the near-field

behaviour of the barrier material (highly densified bentonite) and of the clay rock as

host formation, identification and analysis of the THM-processes in the near-field of

the barrier and host rock during saturation.

b) Recent international developments in repository design allow for aspects such as

retrievability of the wastes, inadvertent human impact, as well as safeguard

measures in connection with the treatment and disposal of plutonium. It cannot be

ruled out that new techniques in these fields have to be developed.

(5) No additional tasks.

(6) No additional tasks.

6 Promoting Young Talents in Science and Technology

Due to the ageing of present scientific and technical personnel in the field of nuclear

technology and the loss of interest of the new generation of scientists and engineers to

commit themselves in this field there is the danger of an irrecoverable loss in scientific

skills. Therefore, to assure the high safety level of German nuclear facilities for the

years to come, the respective competence must be maintained throughout the entire

operating time of all German nuclear power plants and even beyond, taking

17

decommissioning, dismantling and disposal as well as the international safety

discussion into account.

This requires that an adequate teaching and training capacity be guaranteed in the

future; this capacity has been reduced considerably in the past years by, as an

example, diverting university chairs to other fields of interest. The existing network of

expertise between the research institutions GRS, FZK, FZJ, FZR, BGR and the project-

funded institutions (e.g. universities) is a stabilising factor in this respect.

7 Final Remark

Regardless of the political decision on the phase-out of nuclear energy in Germany,

maintaining Germany’s competence in the field of nuclear safety is a necessary

requirement for the next decades. This is an inalienable prerequisite for the

Government to fulfil its legal obligations with respect to protective measures and to

measures ensuring the safety of nuclear facilities and disposal paths in accordance

with the international state-of-the-art in science and technology.

18

B Appendix 1: Table B1 on the personnel engaged in the fields ofnuclear safety and repository research

Government-Funded R/D Capacities for Nuclear Reactor Safety and Repository Research in Germany ([man years] averaged* over the years 1996, 1997 und 1998)

Last data update: 2000-03-03

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ar R

eact

or S

afet

y R

esea

rch

Was

te m

anag

emen

t and

cha

ract

eris

atio

n

Dep

osite

d w

aste

s

Rep

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ry: a

sses

smen

t of l

ong-

term

saf

ety

Rep

osito

ry: t

echn

olog

y

Part

ition

ing

chem

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Tran

smut

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n

Sub-

tota

ls: R

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Res

earc

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rall

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ls

Key institutions for nuclear reactor safety and repository research, and BGR

Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe (BGR), Hannover** 0,0 10,0 10,0 10,0

Forschungszentrum Jülich (FZJ) 17,6 4,0 4,4 17,6 43,6 22,0 2,0 7,5 8,0 10,0 49,5 93,1

Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe (FZK) 14,0 28,0 85,0 25,0 152,0 59,0 15,0 3,0 23,0 100,0 252,0

Forschungszentrum Rossendorf (FZR) 7,0 15,0 2,0 3,0 27,0 11,0 5,0 2,0 18,0 45,0

Gesellschaft für Anlagen- und Reaktorsicherheit (GRS)mbH, Garching 4,9 24,6 16,3 6,1 6,5 3,4 61,7 58,0 5,0 63,0 124,7

Sub-totals: Key institutions and BGR 25,9 85,2 105,3 12,5 9,5 46,0 284,3 22,0 11,0 129,0 32,5 11,0 35,0 240,5 524,8Project-funded nuclear reactor safety and repository

researchBattelle Ingenieurtechnik GmbH (BIG), Eschborn 1,3 4,2 0,4 5,9 2,0 2,0 7,9

Brandenburgische Technische Universität Cottbus 1,0 1,0 0,0 1,0

Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM), Berlin 8,3 8,3 1,6 1,6 9,9

Deutsche Gesellschaft zum Bau u. Betrieb von Endlagern (DBE), Peine 0,0 2,5 2,5 2,5

Frauenhofer Gesellschaft, EADQ - Dresden 0,1 0,1 0,0 0,1

Fraunhofer Institut für Werkstoffmechanik (IWM), Freiburg 8,0 8,0 0,0 8,0

Fraunhofer Institut für zerstörungsfreie Prüfverfahren (IzfP), Saarbrücken 5,9 5,9 0,0 5,9

Freie Universität Berlin 0,0 4,0 4,0 4,0

Friedrich Schiller Universität Jena 0,0 2,0 2,0 2,0

Nuclear Reactor Safety Research Repository Research

Table B1: 1 of 3

Government-Funded R/D Capacities for Nuclear Reactor Safety and Repository Research in Germany ([man years] averaged* over the years 1996, 1997 und 1998)

Last data update: 2000-03-03

Det

erm

inat

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of s

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cts

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the

RPV

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Cor

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P be

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SA, f

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pro

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Kno

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ansf

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safe

ty

asse

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TR, m

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Sub-

tota

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Sub-

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h

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rall

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tota

ls

Nuclear Reactor Safety Research Repository Research

Project-funded nuclear reactor safety and repository research (Cont'd. 1)

Gesellschaft für Nuklearbehälter mbH (GNB), Essen 0,0 1,5 1,5 1,5

Gesellschaft für Strahlen- und Umweltforschung (GSF), Neuherberg 0,0 2,0 2,0 2,0

Großkraftwerk Mannheim (GKM) 0,7 0,7 0,0 0,7

HTWS Zittau/Görlitz 1,5 1,0 0,4 2,3 5,2 0,0 5,2

Institut für Energietechnik Leipzig (IFE) 1,0 1,0 0,0 1,0

Institut für Festkörper- und Werkstofforschung e.V. Dresden (IFW) 3,4 3,4 0,0 3,4

Institut für Gebirgsmechanik GmbH (IfG), Leipzig 0,0 3,0 3,0 3,0

Institut für Sicherheitstechnik (ISTec), Köln und Garching 2,5 2,5 0,0 2,5

Johann Gutenberg Universität Mainz 0,0 2,0 2,0 2,0

Kali-Umwelttechnik GmbH (K-UTEC), Sonderhausen 0,0 5,0 5,0 5,0

Noell KRC Energie- und Umwelttechnik, Würzburg 0,0 4,5 4,5 4,5

Rheinisch- Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen 2,0 0,3 5,7 8,0 0,0 8,0

Ruhr Universität Bochum (RUB) 3,1 1,7 0,5 5,4 0,0 5,4

Siemens AG, Erlangen 7,9 0,9 0,9 9,7 0,0 9,7

Siempelkamp Giesserei GmbH & Co (SIK), Krefeld 0,2 2,2 0,7 3,0 4,0 4,0 7,0

Staatliche Materialprüfungsanstalt (MPA), Stuttgart 20,0 2,3 1,2 23,5 0,0 23,5

Stoller Ingenieurtechnik GmbH, Dresden 0,0 1,5 1,5 1,5

Technische Überwachungsvereine (TÜV), Hannover und Bayern 0,3 0,2 0,5 0,8 0,8 1,3

Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg (BAF) 0,4 0,4 2,0 2,0 2,4

Technische Universität Berlin (TU-B) 1,0 1,0 0,0 1,0

Technische Universität Clausthal 0,0 4,0 4,0 4,0

Technische Universität Darmstadt 0,0 1,0 1,0 1,0

Table B1: 2 of 3

Government-Funded R/D Capacities for Nuclear Reactor Safety and Repository Research in Germany ([man years] averaged* over the years 1996, 1997 und 1998)

Last data update: 2000-03-03

Det

erm

inat

ion

of s

ervi

ce li

mits

for m

ater

ials

and

co

mpo

nent

s, m

odel

ling

of m

ater

ials

, and

non

-de

stru

ctiv

e ex

amin

atio

ns

Effe

cts

of tr

ansi

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and

LO

CA

on

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mal

-hy

drau

lics,

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d be

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side

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RPV

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Cor

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iour

insi

de th

e co

ntai

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t, st

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losi

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d co

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s, a

nd F

P be

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n th

e co

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t

Met

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for P

SA, f

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men

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ass

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ent o

f hum

an fa

ctor

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and

for m

oder

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Kno

w h

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ansf

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ty

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aste

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Inno

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TR, m

inim

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plu

toni

um

Sub-

tota

ls: N

ucle

ar R

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or S

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esea

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Was

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Dep

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d w

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Rep

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sses

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ong-

term

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ls: R

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earc

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rall

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tota

ls

Nuclear Reactor Safety Research Repository Research

Project-funded nuclear reactor safety and repository research (Cont'd. 2)

Technische Universität Dresden (TU-D) 1,1 1,3 0,7 3,1 0,0 3,1

Technische Universität Magdeburg 1,0 0,8 1,8 0,0 1,8

Technische Universität München (TU-M) 3,1 2,1 5,2 3,5 3,5 8,7

Universität Bonn 0,0 2,0 2,0 2,0

Universität Dortmund 0,0 4,0 4,0 4,0

Universität Freiburg 0,0 2,0 2,0 2,0

Universität Hannover 1,0 1,0 6,0 6,0 7,0

Universität Heidelberg 0,0 4,0 4,0 4,0

Universität Karlsruhe (U-Ka) 3,3 0,3 3,7 0,0 3,7

Universität Stuttgart (IKE) 16,9 2,8 19,7 0,0 19,7

Universität Stuttgart (ISD) 2,1 2,1 0,0 2,1

VKTA Rossendorf 0,0 3,2 3,2 3,2

Sub-totals: Project-funded nuclear reactor safety and repository research(BGR excluded) 54,1 39,5 15,1 5,7 0,6 15,1 130,1 0,0 25,1 34,5 8,5 0,0 0,0 68,1 198,2

Total amounts 80,1 124,6 120,4 18,2 10,0 61,1 414,4 22,0 36,1 163,5 41,0 11,0 35,0 308,6 723,0

* Greyed-in data cells and their amounts contain only the values from 1998 (no average values!)** 10 additional positions are financed by BGR-own funds

Table B1: 3 of 3

22

C Appendix 2: Supplementary Explanations

1 Technical Facts on Nuclear Energy

1.1 Nuclear Power Plants and Nuclear Safety

Since the beginning of the use of nuclear energy in Germany, the safety concept of

German nuclear power plants in its different stages of technical development was

substantiated within the framework of government-funded nuclear safety research in

large-scale test facilities and in independently developed computer codes for accident

analyses.

It is mandatory with respect to governmental responsibility and precaution that the

Federal Republic of Germany continues to participate in the world-wide efforts for the

improvement of the safety level of nuclear power plants by its own, independent

research. Therefore, BMWi promotes corresponding research and development

projects on basic issues, the solution of which is in the interest of German government.

The general and continuing objective of BMWi-funded nuclear safety research is to

contribute to the improvement of safety technology and to continue providing improved

knowledge of, and procedures for, the realistic safety assessment of nuclear facilities.

These research activities concern, among others, experimental or analytic

investigations on the behaviour of light-water reactor plants in the case of incidents, on

the safety of the pressure-retaining boundaries, on core melt and on human behaviour,

as well as on the non-destructive, early detection of damages of materials that are

difficult to test; they also concern the development of methods for probabilistic safety

analyses.

These research and development projects with their future and innovation oriented

approaches further the development of the state-of-the-art in science and technology.

In 1998, the 19 nuclear power plants (without Mülheim-Kärlich) connected to the

German power grid had an installed net capacity of 21,063 MW(e) and produced

electrical energy to a total of 145.2 TWh. This is equivalent to about one third of the

total domestic power generation. Thus, nuclear energy provides an essential part of the

23

basic power supply and contributes substantially to reducing the gases responsible for

the greenhouse effect. In 1998, the electrical energy generated world-wide from

nuclear energy amounted to about 17% of the world power production; this is

equivalent to a net total electrical energy of about 2,300 TWh. Currently, a total of 434

nuclear power plants are in operation in 37 countries.

In contrast to the development in Germany, nuclear energy is being expanded world-

wide. In 14 countries, above all in Asia and the successor states of the Soviet Union,

36 nuclear power plants are currently under construction. The situation in the Federal

Republic of Germany and its neighbouring countries in Europe is illustrated in the

following graphic (Fig. C1).

24

Fig. C1: Contribution of nuclear energy to the energy supply in Europe

25

1.2 Storage, Treatment and Disposal

Depending on its initial enrichment and final burn-up, the annual discharge of spent fuel

from German nuclear power plants amounts to 400 to 500 tons. By the year 2000, the

cumulative amount of spent fuel will be about 8000 tons including some 80 tons of

plutonium. Spent fuel from light-water reactors can be managed in two ways: (1)

Reprocessing of spent fuel, i.e., separation and recycling of uranium and plutonium and

subsequent disposal of the fission products and actinides; or (2) direct disposal of

spent fuel.

Several countries such France, Russia and the U.K. decided to reprocess their spent

fuel, whereas Canada, Sweden and USA, among others, are pursuing direct disposal.

In Germany, the situation since 1994 is such that direct disposal is legally the same as

reprocessing. The Federal Government is planning to establish direct repository as the

only disposal option.

As to waste disposal, there exist internationally accepted solutions: Low-level and

intermediate-level waste are either disposed of near-surface or, as in Germany and the

USA, in deep geological formations (Morsleben prior to 1998; WIPP since 1999;

Konrad pending a license). Most countries have programmes regarding siting or the

pre-selection of sites for high-level waste and spent fuel. In USA, the Yucca Mountain

site has been explored for 15 years, and the Gorleben salt dome in Germany since

1979.

The German Federal Government questions the suitability of Gorleben as repository

and intends to have further sites in different host rocks investigated.

The dismantling of decommissioned nuclear facilities down to "green meadows" is

feasible without undue hazard. Likewise, no major problems are expected regarding

the, meantime, far advanced decommissioning and remediation efforts at the former

uranium-ore mine "Wismut".

26

2 National Activities

In Germany, research on nuclear safety and waste disposal is linked by the so-called

"Nuclear Technology Research Co-operation" between the research centres Jülich

(FZJ), Karlsruhe (FZK), Rossendorf (FZR) and the Gesellschaft für Anlagen- und

Reaktorsicherheit (GRS) together with the respective associated universities. In the

case of geo-scientific issues in the field of repository research, the BGR is included in

the consultations. The HGF "Energy Research Co-operation" constitutes the umbrella

organisation for incorporating this research in the government funded energy research

in Germany. The coordination within the Nuclear Technology Research Co-operation

improves the already practised R&D programme co-ordination as well as the efficiency

with regard to the use of financial resources. Moreover, the continuity in the field of

nuclear safety research ensures the necessary maintenance of competence.

Due to the existing infrastructure, the activities of the research centres FZJ, FZK und

FZR are oriented towards basic theoretical analyses and model developments and to

the performance and evaluation of experiments. GRS as scientific-technical expert

organisation of the Federal Government develops the analysis methods required for

safety assessments based, among others, on the results of the research centres. BGR

as central geo-scientific authority of the Federal Government deals with geo-scientific

and geo-technical tasks in connection with disposal.

2.1 Nuclear Safety Research

As central organisation of the Federal Government for all issues related to nuclear

safety, GRS makes available methods for the safety assessments of light-water

reactors within the scope of licensing and supervision. This comprises the description

of neutron kinetics of the reactor core as well as development and validation of system

codes for the simulation of incident and accident sequences in the reactor cooling

system and in the containment. For this task, models of the research centres FZJ, FZK

and FZR as well as of other national and international partners are being integrated in

the GRS system codes. An analysis simulator is being developed by GRS for the

interactive incident and accident simulation that allows the input of actual plant data.

GRS in co-operation with FZR and FZK intends to develop a code for the description of

multi-dimensional, transient two-phase flows. The test facility NoKo of FZJ which

27

delivers the essential experimental data for this task will be transferred to FZR with the

intention of concentrating competences.

The further development of the methodology in connection with the probabilistic safety

analysis, e.g. with respect to the evaluation of common-cause failures, human actions

as well as of internal and external events is an additional focal point of the GRS

research activities.

The methods for safety assessments developed in Germany are an essential basis for

the analyses of nuclear reactors in Central and Eastern Europe. Therefore, the GRS

codes are continuously being adapted and validated for VVER and RBMK analyses.

This is supplemented by special topics concerning the co-operation of FZR with

Eastern European countries which has become of special importance in view of the

traditionally good co-operation relations between these partners. The topics of FZR

concern thermohydraulics, and its programme on reactor dynamics and plant

diagnostics.

In the fields of reactor physics and accident analyses, FZR also concentrates on the

improvement and validation of simulation programmes for light-water reactors for a

large spectrum of incidents and accidents. Furthermore, FZR will work on the limits of

the diffusion theory and reactor dosimetry. With regard to the determination of

maximum loads for materials and components, FZR investigates the irradiation-

induced ageing of reactor materials. These tasks are supplemented by structure-

dynamical analyses on reactor components and accident loads.

FZK focuses on the experimental and theoretical investigations on severe accidents in

light-water reactors. This comprises the thermal interaction with and loading of the

reactor pressure vessel (RPV), the release of mechanical energy from steam

explosions as well as the deformation of the RPV closure head under mechanical

loading. The generation of hydrogen in case of severe accidents is another issue being

investigated at FZK in co-operation with FZJ within the framework of a strategic project

funded by HGF.

At FZJ, the tasks are directed at developing basic requirements for the different

existing and advanced nuclear reactor technologies with respect to a catastrophe-free

nuclear technology (automatic limitation of nuclear power and fuel element

temperature, automatic removal of residual heat from the reactor system, automatic

28

maintenance of the fission product barriers and barrier redundancy). These studies are

being performed for light-water, heavy-water and high-temperature reactors as well as

for systems and equipment of the fuel cycle (e.g. future transmutation facilities for the

destruction of long-lived fission products and actinides).

Particularly the works related to fundamental issues in Jülich and Karlsruhe will deliver

the basis for the safety assessments of innovative technologies and actinide

conversion in thermal and fast reactors. Thus, FZK (HGF strategic funding) and also

FZR are involved in the development of the lead technology of the "Rubbia" concept.

Regarding the field of nuclear reactor physics, it must be noted that, generally, the

competent personnel in Germany has decreased in number to an alarming degree. On

the basis of this fact, a co-operation between the competence centres FZJ, FZK, FZR

and GRS is also urgently required. With regard to the further co-ordination of tasks in

the field of nuclear safety research, it is proposed to hold meetings at regular intervals

under participation of the four competence centres and the major project sponsors of

nuclear reactor safety research. Aim of these meetings should be the drafting of further

agreements on dividing the work and on the co-operation between the centres.

2.2 Repository Research

In the field of radioactive waste management, FZJ concentrates on the problems up to

disposal. FZK focuses on studies on the behaviour of actinides and long-lived fission

products under repository conditions and on the long-term safety assessment from a

geochemical point of view. FZR deals, primarily, with the problems related to residual

waste from uranium mining. GRS focuses its activities on the determination of the long-

term behaviour of complex geological systems (scenario analysis) as well as on the

experimental and analytical verification of the functionality of materials and buildings.

BGR, finally, develops procedures to assess the integrity of geological barriers.

FZJ

A marked reduction of the generation of long-lived nuclides, in particular Pu, Np, Am

and Cm and, thereby, of the long-term hazard potential of radioactive waste can be

achieved by an improved fuel utilisation or by the use Th-fuel elements. Other efforts

deal with the destruction of Pu in safe nuclear facilities.

29

In the medium term, a selective partitioning and combustion of actinides from current

fuel elements can reduce the radiotoxicity of wastes in a repository by orders of

magnitude. In the area of treatment and disposal of radwaste, R&D is concentrated on

the determination of activity and on decontamination in conjunction with the FZJ

decommissioning projects (MTR, AVR).

New procedures for the treatment of residual wastes serve in reducing waste volume

and in generating stable waste products, independently from the type of repository.

Studies on the immobilisation potential of the generally effective polysiloxanes and of

ceramic matrices in particular for actinides are notable in this connection. Regarding

the field of waste characterisation, faster and more precise measurement and test

procedures are being developed.

With regard to the long-term safety of repositories it is necessary to understand, and to

be able to model correctly, the different mobilisation, transport and retention

mechanisms. Efforts related to long-term safety primarily have the objective of

determining experimental data for the disposal of fuel elements from the Jülich

research reactors and the AVR (corrosion products, secondary phases, mobility).

FZK

Germany has not yet decided on the siting of a repository for high-level radioactive

wastes. Therefore, the development at FZK of accident scenarios aims at

demonstrating site-independent long-term safety. The concepts for transmutation of

long-lived actinides and fission products and for the immobilisation of plutonium are

being compared with the currently favoured concepts with special regard to a

sustainable treatment and disposal and to the possible gain in repository safety.

Water contact with radioactive wastes in a repository can lead to a dissolution of the

waste products and to the formation of new solid phases. During this process,

radionuclides are released from the waste matrix and can be re-immobilised by the

formation of secondary solid phases. Experiments are performed with actual high-level

wastes (HAW glass, spent fuel) to analyse these phenomena. The degree of

mobilisation and immobilisation depends on the geochemical environment. The

resulting source terms for the release of radionuclides allow quantifying the transport of

long-lived radionuclides. By that, long-term safety analysis is placed on a sound

geochemical basis.

30

The focus of long-term safety analyses rests on the investigation of actinide behaviour

in the different barriers. Basic studies are performed on models and on real systems to

determine the reaction mechanisms. In this respect, particular attention is paid to the

natural inorganic and organic colloids contained in the aquiferous systems. Besides

salt, other host rock formations are also considered as disposal media.

As over long periods of time actinides strongly influence the radiotoxicity of wastes, the

geochemistry of actinides, in particular of Pu, is a mainstay of R&D at FZK. By that,

FZK determines thermodynamical data which are the basis for the development of

transport and sorption models necessary for quantifying the migration behaviour of the

radionuclides. Finally, site-specific data and natural analogies are compared with the

results of the model calculations, allowing conclusions to be drawn regarding the scale-

up from laboratory to real systems.

Research at FZK related to the immobilisation of high-level liquid wastes aims at the

development of adapted technologies for the vitrification of high-level wastes from

reprocessing. The main emphasis is laid on the further development of a vitrification

facility in the former reprocessing plant Karlsruhe (WAK).

FZR

The engagement of FZR results from the necessity to assess the long-term risks of old

waste deposits from uranium mining in Saxony and Thuringia. For this purpose, basic

studies are being performed at Rossendorf on the speciation of natural radionuclides in

the ecosphere in dependence of the chemical environment and of bacteriological and

organic activities. These include, among others, the radiochemical analytics of

speciations and structures and the physico-chemical modelling of transport processes

in soils. With regard to chemical analysis, FZR operates the only European beam line

at ESRF, Grenoble, that is dedicated to the analysis of radioactive samples from the

environment.

Regarding transmutation, FZR intends to engage itself at a European level. This

includes everything from thermal fluid dynamics to reactor physics. Particular emphasis

is laid on issues regarding the cooling of proton targets of accelerator-driven systems

as well as regarding the basics of transmutation (cross sections) of long-lived fission

products and actinides. For this purpose, a photoneutron source with a connected time-

of-flight device will be installed at FZR.

31

GRS

GRS primarily concentrates on the development and testing of methods related to

safety and system analysis including necessary computational models. This includes

modelling the release, mobilisation and transport mechanisms of radionuclides from the

repository throughout the entire geological system. These methods are being further

improved with respect to scenario analyses and safety assessments under current

boundary conditions and those to be expected in the far future (e.g. ice age). In this

respect, possible radiological impacts on the biosphere can become significant and are

dealt with in the GRS calculations.

With respect to coupled effects (e.g. heat deformation of rock mountains, pressure

build-up by gas formation), the modelling database is being improved by GRS in the

following way: The permeability of geotechnical and geological barriers is determined

experimentally; host rocks and geotechnical barriers including natural analogies are

analysed with petrochemical and geochemical methods.

Regarding the design of sealing structures and borehole plugs as well as of the safety

analysis for the entire repository system, an exact scientific formulation of the

quantitative protection goals and suitability criteria for materials and building

components is required. GRS provides the demonstration of the suitability of materials

and buildings.

BGR

Since the end of the 1970's, BGR by its own research activities and by its co-operation

in national and international projects and committees has strongly influenced

geoscientific repository research in the Federal Republic of Germany. Based on its

experience gained during site investigations for the three repository projects Konrad,

Gorleben and Morsleben and through projects performed at the Asse, practical safety

related (site-independent) issues have become subject of successful project-funded

research. Examples for this practical geoscientific repository research are: preparatory

research for alternative rock salt sites; siting of a repository for high-level wastes in

crystalline formations; optimised and applied calculation methods to demonstrate

stability; site-independent modelling of groundwater movements as function of the

salinity-dependent water density; investigations on backfill materials.

32

3 International Co-operations

Since the beginning of the peaceful use of nuclear energy in Germany, international co-

operations have been an essential part of German safety developments. After an

initially more receiving and reflective phase, the development of German safety

philosophy became more and more independent. In recent years, considerable

influence has been exerted on the world-wide safety discussions and their continuance

regarding ever more stringent safety requirements.

Safety co-operations within the scope of international organisations

Germany is a member state of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), an

organisation within the United Nations. IAEA has the task of promoting the contribution

of nuclear energy to the peaceful development of international relationships, health

care and economic growth. German experts appointed by the Federal Government are

active members in all committees, commissions and working groups of the IAEA which

are of any importance to Germany.

Furthermore, the Federal Government participates in all programmes of the EU (e.g.:

PHARE, TACIS, 5th Framework Programme) which, among others, serve to improve

nuclear safety.

Germany is a member state in the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) of the Organisation

for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). The aim of NEA is to contribute

to the further development of nuclear energy and to the continuous improvement of

nuclear safety by information exchange in the fields of safety of nuclear facilities,

radiation protection, fuel cycle and repository. German experts appointed by the

Federal Government are active members in all committees, commissions and working

groups of NEA. Furthermore, OECD-NEA performs important experimental large-scale

projects financed by its member states. Germany participates in all OECD-NEA

projects for reasons of own technical interest, financial efficiency and interest in

international co-operations.

Nuclear installations in Eastern Europe

The improvement of the safety of nuclear power plants of Soviet design is one of the

most pressing tasks that the Central and Eastern European countries must cope with in

33

connection with the establishment of new economic structures. The Western industrial

countries support this process by intensive co-operation within the framework of

comprehensive international and bilateral support programmes which have been

initiated at the beginning of the nineties. Since the nuclear countries of Central Europe

– Czech Republic, Hungary and Slovenia – applied for membership in the European

Union, these co-operations have gained increasing importance.

Co-operation agreements between foreign and German research facilities

Within the framework of governmental agreements and EU activities, GRS co-operates

with all important foreign Western and Eastern institutions engaged in the field of

nuclear safety. At present, 35 co-operation agreements are in force. Most fruitful with

regard to the harmonisation of nuclear safety in Europe is the co-operation with the

French Institut de Protection et de Sûrété Nucléaire (IPSN). Just as important to the

international safety discussions are the co-operations with the United States Nuclear

Regulatory Commission (USNRC), the British Health and Safety Executive (HSE) and

the Japanese Nuclear Power Engineering Corporation (NUPEC). In the field of waste

disposal, co-operation agreements are in force with the French CEA, the French

National Radioactive Waste Management Agency ANDRA and the Carlsbad Area

Office (CAO) of the United States Department of Energy (US-DOE). Furthermore, GRS

participates in international research programmes in the foreign underground

laboratories Grimsel/Switzerland and Äspö/Sweden (granite), Mol/Belgium,

Tournemire/France and Mt. Terri/Switzerland (clay).

FZK strongly intensified its co-operation with the French partners CEA and IPSN –

especially with regard to the joint project EPR – and favourably linked with the EU

framework programme. This has implied a permanent discussion on the further

improvement of the safety of existing and future LWR plants which is also pursued with

increasing interest by other European and non-European partners. These are, among

others, USNRC, JAERI and the Kurchatov Institute in Moscow. In the field of waste

management there are co-operation agreements with the French CEA, the French

National Radioactive Waste Management Agency ANDRA, the Paul Scherrer Institute

in Switzerland, the Center for Radioactive Waste Management (CRWM) of the

University of New Mexico, USA, the Studiecentrum voor Kernenergie/Centre d’étude

l’Energie Nucléaire (SCK-CEN), Mol/Belgium, the St. Petersburg Institute of

Technology (SPIT), St. Petersburg/Russia, the Ecole des Mines de Nantes,

Nantes/France and the Japanese PNC. Furthermore, FZK participates in the

34

international research programmes in the granitic underground laboratories

Grimsel/Switzerland and Äspö/Sweden.

Within the scope of the scientific-technical co-operation of the Federal Republic of

Germany, EU projects and bilateral agreements, FZR co-operates with all important

R&D facilities of countries operating VVER reactors. The codes developed at

Rossendorf are used in these countries for accident analyses. Furthermore, the

institute plays a decisive role in the development and establishment of governmental

monitoring systems in the Ukraine. With regard to Western reactors, the participation in

the EU initiative for the investigation of deboration and cold water transients is of

primary interest. Regarding environmental research related to contaminated sites, FZR

operates the only European beam line at ESRF (European Synchrotron Radiation

Facility), Grenoble, dedicated to the speciation and structure analysis of radionuclides

in samples from the environment.

With regard to efforts related to inherently safe nuclear reactors of the future, FZJ co-

operates intensively with different organisations in Europe and world-wide. Typical

examples are INET/China (construction of an experimental pebble-bed HTR),

JAERI/Japan (construction of an experimental HTR), ESKOM/South Africa (planning of

HTR plants with 100 MW(e) gas turbines), as well as MIT/USA and partners in the EU

who see a potential for the future in HTR technology. It is to be expected that in the

long run the safety standards world-wide will strongly be influenced by the idea of

inherently safe, core-melt-proof reactors. With respect to waste management there is

also a close relationship with European partners (e.g. through mutual EU tenders and

co-operation agreements with CEA and ANDRA in France), particularly, with regard to

improvements in the treatment and disposal of plutonium and actinides and, also, in the

design and characterisation of waste packages suitable for disposal. The product

control department (PKS) at FZJ is not only of great importance to national waste

management tasks but also to Europe by its efforts related to the standardisation of

waste management.

For a long time, BGR has been co-operating with numerous international organisations

and institutions in all geoscientific fields related to the treatment and disposal of

radioactive wastes: EU, e.g. “Suggested work topics” (prioritisation of repository

research in granite, clay and salt rocks); OECD-NEA: participation in the NEA-SEDE

group “Coordinating Group on Site Evaluation and Design of Experiments for

Radionuclide Waste Disposal”. There is an intense scientific co-operation with NAGRA

35

(Switzerland) in the rock laboratories Grimsel (granite) and Mt. Terri (clay), with SKB

(Sweden) in the rock laboratory Äspö focussing on rock mechanics, rock hydraulics

and EDZ, and with SANDIA (USA) in the fields of salt mechanics, performance

assessment and model calculations. Workshops are organised annually with ANDRA

(France) on different repository-related issues (criteria, scenarios, natural analogies,

rock mechanics, geotechnology). In addition, there are numerous co-operations with

universities in Europe, USA and Canada.

4 Training and Personnel Situation

Irrespective of the future development concerning the use of nuclear energy, the

requirement remains for personnel with a profound knowledge in all fields essential to

the safe design and operation of nuclear facilities:

• reactor physics

• thermal and fluid dynamics

• structure dynamics

• reactor technology (systems and components engineering)

• reactor and repository safety

• reactor and repository materials

• geotechnology, geochemistry

• nuclear disposal technology

• reactor chemistry, radiochemistry

• radiation protection and radioecology

In all these fields, sufficient staff must be available at the operating utilities, plant

vendors and component manufacturers, authorities, expert organisations, research

centres and universities. Likewise, necessary equipment such as research and

irradiation reactors, hot cells, experimental facilities for key issues, material laboratories

and mainframe computers must be kept at the highest level. This involves qualified

training in the above-mentioned fields which in Germany, up to now, has been

performed conjointly and in an excellent way by universities, research centres and

similar organisations as well as industrial organisations.

In the past ten years, the number of nuclear engineers working in Germany has

decreased by fifty percent, which means a large loss in know-how in all fields

36

mentioned above. Within the next ten year this number will further decrease by again

fifty percent based on the current age structure of personnel at expert organisations,

research facilities and universities. The necessary know-how that is considered

indispensable for a safe operation of the plants, for repository and, also, for the

exchange between Western and Eastern Europe with regard to safety issues, is in the

process of getting lost.

Particularly at universities there is the danger that nuclear and radiochemical subjects

will no longer be adequately taught due to rededications of chairs in case of new

appointments. Thus, an essential part of the current vocational training would break

away. Since the eighties, the generation change at the universities has already caused

the number of professors involved in nuclear and radiochemical technology to be

reduced by a factor of three. The possibilities to engage qualified experts and to pursue

subject-related research especially on nuclear safety are decreasing significantly.

In particular, the long-time established co-operation between competence centres such

as universities and neighbouring research facilities has been very effective in

counteracting this development in the last years and should be further supported by

public funding to be able to continue in this respect.

5 Topics of Nuclear Safety Research Funded by the Federal Government

5.1 Nuclear Safety Research

(1) Determination of the service limits for materials and components, and modelling of

materials based on results from non-destructive examinations

The increasing lifetime of nuclear reactors, technological developments or changes in

operating procedures require a more detailed analytical and experimental research. In

this respect, emphasis must be laid on damage phenomena related to typical operating

load ensembles (mechanical, thermal, irradiation loading). Thus, e.g., the question

becomes increasingly important to what extent ageing phenomena can lead to

malfunctions of, or material changes in, valves and components. Regarding the

assessment of beyond-design basis accidents, the critical loading of structures, i.e. the

determination of maximum loading in case of high pressure and/or temperature, is of

primary interest.

37

The non-destructive examinations for the determination of the actual damage

conditions of structures also become increasingly important with longer operating

times. Non-destructive quantitative examination methods must be developed that allow

surveying material changes and determining the actual load-carrying capacity in

combination with damage and fracture mechanics. Thus, the further development of

these methods contributes to further improving plant safety.

(2) Effects of transients and loss-of-coolant accidents on thermal-hydraulics, reactor

physics and fuel rod behaviour, processes during core destruction in the reactor

pressure vessel

The information on the behaviour of the reactor core and cooling circuits during

incidents and accidents as well as further optimisation and improvement of damage

precautions are of essential importance to a well-founded safety-related assessment of

nuclear reactors. The computer codes for incident and accident simulation must be

developed further and must be validated on the basis of already available experimental

results and of new experiments with advanced instrumentation. In this respect, special

attention must be paid to the description of transient phenomena in three-dimensional

flows. New requirements in the field of incident and accident simulation result, both,

from the progressive development of systems engineering and operating procedures,

such as higher burn-ups, as from the extension of the scope of simulation, such as the

analysis of deboration incidents during shut-down states or the simulation of the late

phase of a core-melt accident with melt relocation and melt cooling in the reactor

pressure vessel. The application of realistic incident and accident simulations within the

framework of safety assessments makes it ever more important to be able to properly

quantify result uncertainties.

(3) Core melt within the containment, steam explosion, hydrogen distribution and

combustion and counter measures, fission product behaviour inside the

containment

The integrity of the containment, the last barrier against the release of radioactive

substances into the environment, is of special importance with regard to nuclear safety.

Therefore, highest standards must be applied, both, to the technical design and to the

safety verifications. Also, possibilities of damages which, in regular plant operation,

have practically no effect must be taken into account. Thus, a profound knowledge is

indispensable regarding incident and accident sequences and related phenomena, e.g.

38

fission products and aerosol behaviour, core melt distribution and core melt cooling,

hydrogen distribution and combustion, as well as regarding the efficiency and reliability

of measures to avoid impermissible containment loading. The necessary experiments

must be performed and respective computer codes must be made available.

(4) Further development of methods for probabilistic safety assessment, for

instrumentation and control and diagnostics, as well as for the assessment of the

human factor

The methods for probabilistic safety assessment, i.e. the necessary tools to detect

deficiencies in the plant design and plant operation, as well as for the risk assessment,

must be further developed. In addition to the full-power operation considered until now,

future assessments must increasingly take into account partial loads, start-up and shut-

down procedures as well as shut-down conditions. In addition, specific potential causes

of failures the assessment of which is still subject to considerable uncertainties, i.e.

common-cause failures or human errors, must be investigated with greater intensity.

The increasing application of digital instrumentation and control and of diagnostic

methods for the early detection of failures also requires new research activities.

(5) Innovative concepts (e.g. HTR), minimisation and avoidance of plutonium

Innovative concepts by which the core melt problem of today's LWR is avoided are

being pursued in many places of the world. China, Japan, South Africa, USA and CIS

are intensively working on inherently safe HTR concepts. On this issue, the high

degree of expertise in Germany is increasingly in demand. The corresponding experts

already contributed significantly to improving the international nuclear safety standards.

Other innovative concepts concern the development of a new generation of nuclear

power plants, also under consideration of the plutonium issue, where core-melt

accidents are controlled or prevented by automatic safety systems. In addition, fuel

elements are being developed which avoid or minimise the further generation of

plutonium and which, at least in part, are suitable for backfitting existing plants.

Furthermore, special facilities for the destruction of long-lived radioactive wastes are

being designed and tested by which the problems related to repository and to

proliferation would be significantly reduced.

39

Nuclear research and development in Germany has a high degree of competence also

in these fields and it is this competence that, with a look to the future, must be

incorporated in international and European networks to further improve the safety of

nuclear facilities in Germany and abroad and to develop jointly with other European

partners scientifically substantiated concepts for the repository for long-lived

radioactive substances.

(6) Know-how transfer regarding the safety assessment of Eastern reactors

The improvement of the safety of nuclear power plants of Soviet design is one of the

most pressing tasks that the Central and Eastern European countries must cope with in

connection with the establishment of new economic structures. Germany supports this

process, among others, by the transfer of know how. For example, methods and

procedures for the safety assessment of these nuclear reactors are being developed in

joint efforts with the Central and Eastern European partner institutes. Besides jointly

planning and performing corresponding experiments, it is a central issue to adapt,

expand and validate the computer codes developed in Germany to the application for

reactors of Soviet design (VVER, RBMK).

5.2 Repository Research

Irrespective of current and future decisions, radioactive wastes exist and, even in case

of a nuclear phase-out, will continue to be created over a long period of time. These

radioactive wastes must be safely disposed of. In this respect, it is very important to

demonstrate the long-term safety of repositories.

(1) Waste management and waste characterisation

Research includes efforts to reduce or even prevent creation of radioactive wastes, in

particular, long-lived radionuclides, resulting from the use of nuclear energy. This could

be achieved, for example, by a more efficient fuel utilisation or by the use of Th-fuel.

Furthermore, systematic "at the source“ recordings or measurements can lead to a

volume reduction, especially in the case of the decommissioning of nuclear facilities.

Development of the vitrification of high-level wastes is an essential contribution to

repository safety. New or improved methods for the treatment and disposal of residual

waste, and improved fixation matrices, such as polysiloxanes or ceramics, serve to

40

reduce the waste volume and to produce stable repository products, e.g., for surplus

plutonium.

With regard to waste characterisation, an improved nuclide-correlation key for

operational wastes is being developed on the basis of physical-chemical

considerations. This development can be substantiated by the parallel development of

faster and more precise measurement and test procedures. Other aspects of waste

characterisation are chemotoxic contaminants and gas formation as well as the release

behaviour in case of mechanical or thermal impact. The methods also serve to check

and confirm the disposal criteria which must be fulfilled by the waste packages.

(2) Deposited wastes

R&D for the decommissioning of nuclear facilities initially concentrated on methods to

dismantle thick-walled components (cutting, blasting), as well as on methods for the

decontamination of surfaces. Release measurements are of great importance in order

to keep the waste volume in the repository as small as possible.

Research is also necessary to assess the long-term safety of the deposited wastes

from uranium mining in Saxony and Thuringia. The speciation and transport of

radionuclides (uranium and decay nuclides) in the geosphere and hydrosphere must be

investigated, considering both the geochemical environment and also the organical and

biological influences (plants, bacteria). This requires performing general radiochemical

and bacteriological research and also the development of chemical and physical

transport models.

(3) Disposal: assessment of long-term safety

The assessment of the long-term safety of a repository rests on two pillars. The one

represents the characteristics of the complex geological system, i.e., the internal

processes and related interactions, which must be known to be able to predict future

developments (scenario analysis). The other represents the qualified knowledge

required to be able to assess the efficiency of the multi-barrier system (technical,

geotechnical and geological barriers). Models are being developed to describe the

crucial processes; concerning their transferability to the real conditions in a repository

these models must be validated by means of suitable on-site experiments as well as by

natural analogies. This requires in-depth understanding of the important scenarios and

41

transport processes as well as of the behaviour of natural and technical barriers under

the influence of water or brines, heat, gases and radiation. These models are, finally,

integrated in computer codes designed to perform complete long-term safety analyses.

Whereas, in the past, long-term safety analyses relied on simple models to describe

the performance of the multi-barrier system, future work will concentrate on

fundamental understanding of the processes and related interactions determining

mobilisation, transport and retention of long-lived radionuclides, e.g., plutonium and the

other actinides. The geochemical, geomechanical-hydraulic and structure-geological

effects will play an important role.

The consideration of other geological formations – granite and clay in addition to salt

rock – requires an intensification of the R&D activities. This concerns both basic

experimental research evaluating potential host rock formations as well as the further

development and application of safety analyses. These tasks will advance successfully,

and public acceptance of waste disposal will improve markedly, if international co-

operation and, in particular, the participation in research in foreign underground

laboratories are intensified.

(4) Disposal: technology

The geotechnical barriers are of special importance to the multi-barrier system of the

repository. Their performance is basically determined by formation characteristics and

site conditions Further applied experimental and analytical R&D activities will have to

deal with the demonstration of the suitability of materials and structures as well as with

the incorporation of the safety-relevant data in the safety analysis of the entire

repository system. It is a basic requirement that the sealing and plugging of drifts,

shafts and bore holes be of a simple and robust design. With regard to alternative rock

formations, here again the co-operation with foreign underground laboratories where

large-scale tests are currently being set up is highly recommended.

(5) Partitioning chemistry (actinide partitioning)

In contrast to most of the short-lived fission products (half-life < 30 a), the actinides (Pu,

Np, Am, Cm) dominate the toxicity potential of the wastes over very long periods of

time (> 104 a). By partitioning these actinides from the fission products and storing them

in a separate repository, the long-term safety can be significantly improved. The

actinides can either be stabilised chemically in special ceramics to ensure their safe

42

disposal over long periods of time, or they can be destructed by transmutation. The aim

of research activities in this respect is to contribute to the international development in

the field of complex partitioning chemistry and should include both the development

and application of selective extraction means and the development and optimisation of

extraction methods.

(6) Transmutation

At present, world-wide discussions centre on strategies with regard to the "burning" of

long-lived actinides, particularly plutonium, from industrial and military sources in

reactors or accelerator-driven subcritical assemblies (e.g. Rubbia concept) with the

goal of transforming the actinides into short-lived fission products (transmutation). This

requires balancing the total risk of nuclear fuel paths as well as assessing the

usefulness of such an approach. Basic studies on the physical and nuclear conditions,

components and plant equipment as well as their technical design for transmutation of

the long-lived radionuclides must be performed to establish a realistic basis for the

tasks described and to enable realising technical prototypes.

43

6 Projects on Nuclear Reactor Safety and Repository Research Funded bythe European Union (EU) at German R&D-Facilities

Table C1: Survey of Funding by EU under its 4th Framework Programme (in kECU)

Regarding Table C1:

- Projects at universities receive a 100% funding by the EU. The success of the

project applications by the universities was based essentially on the available

competence acquired through previous projects funded by the Federal

Government.

- Projects at institutionally funded facilities receive only partial funding by the EU

(between 30 and 50%). In these cases, the remaining amount required is covered

by the basic financing.

- Projects at project funded R&D facilities, such as GRS, but also at industrial

facilities, are being co-financed partly by project funding of the BMBF. Here also,

the success of the project applications were based, essentially, on the available

Institution New Concepts for Reactor safety Disposal and Sub-totals perreactor concepts fuel cycle storage institution (kECU):

BAM 186 186Battelle 281 281BGR 592 592FHG 15 15FZJ 546 266 230 698 1740FZK 165 289 3275 1657 5386FZR 15 35 228 278GNS 43 43GRS 80 21 688 2117 2906GSF 164 164ISTec 405 405NIS 285 285Siempelkamp 608 608TU Berlin 65 65TU München 395 388 783Uni Aachen 167 167Uni Bochum 292 292Uni Dresden 249 249Uni Hannover 6 539 545Uni Karlsruhe 59 59Uni Mainz 155 155Uni Stuttgart 662 662Totals (kECU): 806 582 7021 7457 15866

44

competence acquired through previous projects funded by the German Federal

Government.

Commentary regarding Table C1:

The success of German R&D facilities in the 4th Framework Programme (nearly 25% of

the available EU funds were allocated to German institutions) was based on their

convincing competence. This competence is partly due to governmental funding

(institutional funding, project funding). Unless this competence is ensured by national

research programmes in the fields relevant to European nuclear reactor safety and

repository research, the chances of being successful in the 5th Framework Programme

will decrease significantly.

Thus, the allocation of EU funds from the 5th Framework Programme to German

institutions in the field of nuclear reactor safety and repository research will directly

depend on the continuity of research funding by the German Federal Government.

Table C2 shows the present planning of the EU for the 5th Framework Programme.

The programme is subdivided into the key actions:

1. Nuclear Fission

2. Generic-oriented research and technology development

3. Funding of the research infrastructure

4. Education and training

5. Associated activities

The funds specified are available for tenders in the respective fiscal years. Regarding

the key action "Nuclear Fission", the funds for 1999 are used exclusively in the area

"Management of Severe Accidents“.

45

Table C2: 5th Framework Programme of the EU

Indicative budgetaryfunds per individualmeasure

In Million EURO

Type of measure 1999 2000 2001 2002

KEY ACTIONTITLE AREAS

Prolongation of life time andmanagement of nuclear powerplantsManagement of severe accidents(1st tender)

12

Further tenders regardingsevere accidents

Operationalsafety ofexisting plants

Evolutionary conceptsDisposal and storage ofwastes and spent fuelSeparation andtransmutation

Safety of thenuclear fuelcycle

Decommissioning of nuclearinstallations

Safety andefficiency offuture systems

Innovative and readoptedconcepts

Risk controlMonitoring and determination ofoccupational radiation exposureEmergency management outsidethe plants

1) NuclearFission

Radiationprotection

Decontamination of sites

63 36 11

Radiation protection and healthDispersion of radioactive substances in theenvironmentIndustrial and medical use of radiation

2) Generic-orientedresearch andtechnologydevelopment Internal and external dosimetry

12 10 8 4

Large-scale facilitiesNetworks

3) Funding ofthe researchinfrastructure Data bases and tissue samples banks

1 4 2 1

Individual fellowships (Marie Curie)Special training coursesResearch networks for training purposes

4) Educationand Training

Co-operation with non-member countries

2 3 2 2

5) Associatedmeasures

Study fellowships; information exchange,conferences, seminars, workshops, scientificand technical meetings; dissemination,communication and utilisation of results;support of researchers including KMUs

0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3

Total budgetary funds per year: 27.2 80.3 48.3 18.3

Total budget: 173 Million EURO

46

7 Table C3: Medium-term Financial Planning of the Federal Government in theField of Nuclear Reactor Safety and Repository Research 1999 – 2003 (in MillionDM)

Medium-Term Financial Planning of the Federal Government (**, ***) in the Field of Nuclear Reactor Safety and Repository Research 1999 – 2003 in million DM

BMWi

1999 70,00 25,70 8,10 103,80 56,00 159,80

2000 72,10 * 10,00 82,10 50,00 132,10

2001 73,50 * 9,60 83,10 45,00 128,10

2002 75,00 * 9,40 84,40 45,00 129,40

2003 76,50 * 9,60 86,10 45,00 131,10

*

** Figures include 10% Federal State (Länder) budgets

*** Figures include 50% Federal State (Länder) budgets

FZK **Nuclear reactor and

repository safety research

FZJ **Nuclear reactor and

repository safety research

Sub-totals:(see footnotes)

FZR ***Nuclear reactor and

repository safety research

Funding for the year 2000 and beyond can be planned only after the decision of the supervisory board of FZJ on future nuclear energy research

Sub-totals:Safety research for

nuclear facilities

Overall totals:(see footnotes)

BMBF

Last data update: 1999-12-02

48

8 Table C4: Participation of Industry in the Funding of Research Projects in theField of Nuclear Reactor Safety, Repository, and Future Development 1998–2003(in Million DM)

Participation of Industry in the Funding of Research Projects in the Field of Nuclear Reactor Safety, Repository, and Future

Development 1998–2003 in million DM

FZK FZJ FZR PT-R PT-E

1998 3,70 6,00 0,28 3,50 0,12

1999 3,70 3,00 0,23 3,61 0,22

2000 4,40 0,04 0,89 0,23

2001 0,32 0,09

2002 0,10

2003

Last data update: 1999-11-15

50

D Abbreviations

ANDRA Agence Nationale pour la Gestion des Déchets Radioactifs,

France

French National Radioactive Waste Management Agency

AVR Arbeitsgemeinschaft Versuchsreaktor, FZJ

Experimental Reactor Group, Jülich Research Centre (FZJ)

BAM Bundesanstalt für Materialprüfung, Berlin

Federal Institute for Materials Testing, Berlin

BGR Bundesanstalt für Geowissenschaften und Rohstoffe, Hannover

Federal Institute for Geosciences and Natural Resources,

Hannover

BREST-1200 Russian Lead-cooled Fast Reactor

CAO Carlsbad Area Office of the US-DOE

CEA Commissariat à l’Energie Atomique, France

CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics

CIS Commonwealth of Independent States (formerly UdSSR)

CRWM Center for Radioactive Waste Management,

University of New Mexico, USA

Eh Standard redox potential in volt, describes the characteristics of

corresponding redox pairs

EDZ Excavation-damaged-zone

EPR European Pressurised Water Reactor

ESRF European Synchrotron Radiation Facility

EU European Union

FhG Fraunhofer Gesellschaft

51

FZJ Forschungszentrum Jülich

Jülich Research Centre

FZK Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe

Karlsruhe Research Center (official translation)

FZR Forschungszentrum Rossendorf

Research Center Rossendorf (official translation)

GRS Gesellschaft für Anlagen- und Reaktorsicherheit (GRS) mbH

CIS Commonwealth of Independent States

HAW High active waste

HDR Heißdampfreaktor

Superheated Steam Reactor

HGF Hermann von Helmholtz-Gemeinschaft Deutscher Forschungs-

zentren

Hermann von Helmholtz Association of National Research

Centres

HRL Hard Rock Laboratory Äspö, Sweden

HSE Health and Safety Executive, England

HTR High-temperature Reactor

HWZ Halbwertzeit

Half-life

IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna

IPSN Institut de Protection et de Sûrété Nucléaire, France

JAERI Japan Atomic Energy Research Institute, Japan

KMU Kleinere und Mittlere Unternehmen

medium-sized and small enterprises

52

LWR Light-water reactor

MPA Staatliche Materialprüfanstalt, Stuttgart

State Materials Testing Institute, Stuttgart

MTR Materials Testing Reactor

NEA Nuclear Energy Agency

NoKo Notkondensator

Emergency Condenser

NUPEC Nuclear Power Engineering Corporation, Japan

OECD-NEA Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development –

Nuclear Energy Agency, Paris

pH pH-Wert, negativer dekadischer Logarithmus des Zahlenwertes

der Wasserstoffionenkonzentration in mol –1

pH-Value, negative common logarithm of the numerical value of

the ion concentration of hydrogen in mol –1

PHARE Poland and Hungary: Action for the Restructuring of the Economy

PKS Produktkontrollstelle

Product control department (at FZJ)

PNC Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation,

Japan

PT Projektträger

Project sponsor

RBMK Druckröhrenreaktor (russischer Reaktor)

Pressure-tube reactor (Russian Reactor)

RPV Reactor pressure vessel

SANDIA Sandia National Laboratory (SNL), USA

53

SCK-CEN Studiecentrum voor Kernenergie/ Centre d’étude l’Energie

Nucléaire (SCK-CEN), Mol/Belgien

Centre of Studies for Nuclear Energy, Mol/Belgium

SNR Schneller natriumgekühlter Reaktor

Fast sodium-cooled reactor

SPIT St. Petersburg Institute of Technology, Russia

TACIS Technical Assistance for CIS countries

THM Thermo-Hydro-Mechanik

Thermo-hydromechanics

THTR Thorium Hochtemperaturreaktor

Thorium High-Temperature Reactor

UPTF Upper Plenum Test Facility

US DOE United States Department of Energy

US NRC United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission

VdEW Vereinigung deutscher Elektrizitätswerke

Association of German Electrical Power Utilities

WAK Wiederaufarbeitungsanlage Karlsruhe

Karlsruhe Reprocessing Plant

WGL Wissenschaftsgemeinschaft Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

Scientific Community Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz

WIPP Waste Isolation Pilot Plant

WWER Water-Water-Energy Reactor (Russian LWR)