nutritional content and therapeutic potential of …

www.wjpps.com Vol 7, Issue 6, 2018.

536

Manjula et al. World Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences

NUTRITIONAL CONTENT AND THERAPEUTIC POTENTIAL OF

KIWIFRUIT

Deepak Kumar Puri and S. N. Manjula*

Department of Pharmacology, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS Academy of Higher

Education & Research, Shivarathreeshwara Nagara, Mysuru-570015.

ABSTRACT

Kiwifruit belongs to the genus Actinidia (Actinidiaceae) and is derived

from a deciduous woody, fruiting vine. It consists of various species

and cultivars which exhibit different characteristics and sensory

attributes. Kiwi plants have been grown for centuries in China, where

they are known as mihoutau. Seeds of kiwi plant were brought to New

Zealand in the early 20th century, where it was eventually

domesticated and sold all over the world. At present, commercial

growth of the fruit has spread to many countries including the United

States, Italy, Chile, France, Greece, India and Japan. Kiwifruit extracts

have been reported for its use in traditional medicine for relief of

symptoms of numerous disorders. In light of growing consumer

acceptance of kiwifruits worldwide, there has been an increased

attention given to identifying health benefits associated with its

consumption. Potential benefits include a rich source of antioxidants, improvement of

gastrointestinal laxation, lowering of blood lipid levels, and alleviation of skin disorders.

Some individuals report allergic symptoms to kiwifruit, and a considerable research effort is

being focused on characterizing kiwifuit‘s allergenicity among various populations of people.

Along with vitamin C, kiwifruit is also rich in other nutrients such as folate, potassium, and

dietary fiber. This fruit‘s content of nutrients and biologically active phytochemicals has

stimulated investigations into its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions that might then

help prevent cardiovascular disease, cancer, and other degenerative disorders.

KEYWORDS: Kiwifruit, therapeutic potential, constituents.

WORLD JOURNAL OF PHARMACY AND PHARMACEUTICAL SCIENCES

SJIF Impact Factor 7.421

Volume 7, Issue 6, 536-565 Review Article ISSN 2278 – 4357

Article Received on

13 April 2018,

Revised on 03 May 2018,

Accepted on 23 May 2018

DOI: 10.20959/wjpps20186-11800

*Corresponding Author

S. N. Manjula

Department of

Pharmacology, JSS College

of Pharmacy, JSS Academy

of Higher Education &

Research,

Shivarathreeshwara Nagara,

Mysuru-570015.


537


INTRODUCTION

Although the therapeutic benefits of consuming fruit are well known[1]

, kiwifruit for its

nutrient density, health benefits, and consumer appeal stands out.[2]

Along with vitamin C, it

also has other nutrients that add to it health benefits. Various bioactive components act

together and helps in metaboic and physiological processes. Increasing number of scientific

research supports its therapeutic benefits in health metabolism, iron content, digestive

potential, antioxidant property and also immune function.[3]

Kiwifruit is a derivative of deciduous, woody, fruiting vine and belong to the genus Actinidia

(Actinidiaceae). It possess variety of physical characteristics and sensory attributes as it is

composed of different species and cultivars. Originally the plants were grown in mountainous

region of China (as Chinese gooseberry), where they were commonly called as mihoutau.[2,4]

Later in 20th

century, the seeds were brought to New Zealand from where it was sold

throughout the world. As of now the fruit is grown in many countrie including Italy, US,

France, Greece, Japan and Chile.[5–7]

While there are several species belonging to the genus Actinidia, the main cultivars of

Kiwifruit are Actinidia deliciosa and Actinidia chinensis.[8]

Among both, Actinidia deliciosa

is the widely marketed cultivar commercially. Actinidia deliciosa fruit has semi-transparent

green edible flesh, black seeds and is covered by brown hairy skin. On the other hand

Actinidia chinensis (Hort 16A) has yellowish flesh and is covered by hairess skin. The

ZESPRI GOLD variant of Actinidia chinensis has bright yellow flesh, while other cultivars

have reddish flesh(3,5). Another unique species Actinidia arguta or ‗‗hardy kiwifruit‘‘ can

actually be eaten whole, as it is grape-sized (weighing 5-15g) and is covered by a smooth,

hairless, edible skin. It is more sweet, aromatic and has an intense flavour due to the

composition of several volatile compounds.[9]

Like Actinidia arguta, other variants such as

Actinidia kolomikta and Actinidia polygama have been grown an ornamental plants and is

emerged as frost-resistant in some northern regions. In India, kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa) is

usually grown in the hills of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and in Arunachal

Pradesh.[10]

Almost 90% of Vitamin C in our diet is obtained from fruits and vegetables.[11]

Kiwifruit is a

rich source of ascorbic acid and polyphenols. As an antioxidant, ascorbic acid aids in

lowering the risk of arteriosclerosis, cardiovascular diseases, and some forms of cancer.[12]

Whereas polyphenolic compounds (flavonoids) also have antioxidant properties and can


538


account for some benefits associated with the consumption of fruits and vegetables.[13]

Kiwifruits are used for the treatment of several types of cancers, such as, stomach, lung, and

liver cancer[14]

in folk medicine. As per some studies, the extracts of kiwifruit helps in

inhibiting growth of cancer cell[15]

and also protect the cells in-vitro from oxidative DNA

damage.[16]

The main objective of this review is to provide an overview of the scientific

evidence about the emerging health benefits associated with consumption of kiwifruit.

Nutritional traits of kiwifruit

Data on nutritional attributes of kiwifruit can be found in the USDA National Nutrient

Database for Standard Reference[17]

and the New Zealand Food Composition Database

(NZFCD).[18]

The analysis are usually carried out on ripened fruit so as to obtain a reflective

data. Usually, Actinidia deliciosa (green) and Actinidia chinensis (gold) cultivars are eaten

with the outer skin peeled. As per a recent update from NZFCD, the skin has nutritional

composition and a growing number of people like to consume the fruit along with the skin,

usually the gold cultivars as it is smooth, thin and hairless. Consuming whole SunGold

variety (including the skin) increases the fibre, vitamin E and folate contents by 50, 32 and

34%, respectively.[19]

Vitamin C

The total vitamin C content of kiwifruit is its most characteristic nutritional composition.[18]

Green cultivars have levels that usually liesbetween 80-120mg/100g of fresh fruit.[20]

This

variation in the amount of ascorbic acid in fruits is mainly due to several factors like

cultivation region, fertilizers used, harvesting time, storage conditions and also ripening of

the fruit.[11]

Based on scoring models, kiwifruit for its nutritional value stands out against

many other fruit.

In terms of nutritional value, using scoring models that rank and compare the amount of

important nutrients present in foods, kiwifruit score well against other fruit. This provides a

useful means for communicating those nutritional benefits to consumers, and should be noted

that the high nutrient density score is largely driven by their high vitamin C content.[18]


539


Fig. 1: Graph comparing the vitamin C content of kiwifruit with other commonly

consumed fruit.

The US recommended daily allowance for vitamin C is 90 mg for men and 75 mg for women.

This means one daily kiwi fulfills our vitamin C needs. It's better to leave the skins on

because they contain valuable fiber.

Vitamin E

Kiwifruit contain relatively high levels of vitamin E[2,18]

, compared to other commonly

consumed fruit. SunGold and green kiwifruit contain 1.40 and 1.46 mg per 100 g[17]

,

respectively, of the main form, α-tocopherol present in the flesh.[21]

These levels are

sufficient to permit the use of nutrient function claims for Vitamins E in the EU. According

to Fiorentino et al., α-tocopherol is found in the flesh of kiwifruit, which is possibly

associated with cell membranes and are therefore potentially bioavailable. Fiorentino et al.,

also identified a new form of vitamin E in kiwifruit, δ-tocomonoenol, noting that its radical

scavenging and antioxidant capacity contributed to the total antioxidant activity of kiwifruit.

Studies showing that the consumption of both green and gold kiwifruit correlates with

increased plasma vitamin E concentrations, suggest the vitamin E in kiwifruit is

bioavailable.[19,22]


540


Folate

Kiwifruit are often referred to as being a good source of dietary folate. The folate content of

31 μg per 100 g in gold kiwifruit meets the criteria of EU Regulation to make a ―source‖

claim as it exceeds the 15% of the Reference Intake of 200 μg/day. In other countries, where

the recommended daily intake is often higher (e.g., 400–500 μg/day in Nordic counties, 400–

600 μg/day in the USA Australia and NZ), such nutrient content claims cannot be made. The

authorised health claims in the EU for folate nutrient functions are shown in Table 2. As

folate is extremely labile and its presence in green leafy vegetables is easily destroyed by

cooking, fresh kiwifruit can make a useful contribution to the total diet, especially during

pregnancy when it is difficult to meet folate requirements. During pregnancy, folate

requirements are 600 μg/day, which can be safely achieved through the use of conventional

foods, foods with added nutrients and food supplements.[23]

Potassium

Green and gold kiwifruit are good sources of potassium, containing typically around 301–315

mg per 100g. These amounts are sufficient to meet the criteria of EU Regulation (EC) no.

1924/2006 on nutrition and health claims made on foods to make a natural ―source‖ claim, as

it exceeds the 15% of the Reference Intake of 2000 mg/day. The potassium content of

kiwifruit compared to other fruit is shown in Fig. 3. In other countries, where the

recommended daily intake is often higher, such content claims cannot be made. Fresh foods

such as fruits and green vegetables are generally good sources of potassium and low in

sodium. The sodium content of kiwifruit is only 3 mg per 100 g and can be described as

naturally low in sodium. The sodium to potassium ( Na+/K+) ratio of kiwifruit is consistent

with recommendations to increase potassium intake through increased consumption of fruit

and vegetables, and is amongst the more favourable Na+/ K+ balance of selected fruits[24]

.

Studies have provided evidence that potassium rich diets or interventions with potassium can

lower blood pressure, especially in individuals with hypertension[25,26]

, however, more

recently the dietary Na+/ K+ ratio has been shown to be more strongly associated with an

increased risk of hypertension and CVD-related mortality than the risk associated with either

sodium or potassium alone.[27,28]

Dietary fibre

The dietary fibre of kiwifruit comes almost entirely from the plant cell walls, and particularly

the polysaccharides that form the major structural components of these walls. Kiwifruit


541


contain about 2–3% of fresh weight non-starch polysaccharides[2]

that make up the fruit cell

walls, providing a valuable contribution of both soluble and insoluble fibre to the diet.

Analysis of dietary fibre of green and gold kiwifruit has shown they comprise about one-third

soluble and two-thirds insoluble fibres, although kiwi gold fruit contain considerably less

total fibre than green.[29]

The soluble fibre fraction contains almost exclusively pectic

polysaccharides, whereas the insoluble fibre is mostly cellulose and hemicelluloses. Changes

occur in the composition and structure of kiwifruit cell walls during development and

ripening. These structural changes in cell wall polysaccharides are reviewed in detail by

Sims, Monro.[30]

Cell wall polysaccharides are generally resistant to digestion and absorption

in the human small intestine and are considered to be delivered to the colon in a chemically

unaltered state. However, even minor chemical or structural changes can impact on the

physicochemical properties and fermentability that determine their impact on health. In the

hind-gut, the physiological benefits of fibre are believed to arise from the products of

bacterial fermentation of the soluble fibre, and from the physicochemical properties of any

fibre that remains unfermented.[31,32]

Among the most important physicochemical properties of kiwifruit fibres are the hydration

properties, which include water retention, capacity and swelling, viscosity (which requires

solubility), and properties that depend on the size, shape and porosity of undigested particles.

Water retention is physiologically relevant because it influences transit time, faecal bulk,

stool consistency and other functional benefits.[32]

The high swelling and water retention of

kiwifruit fibre in comparison with other forms of dietary fibre such as wheat bran,

commercial preparations of sugar beet fibre and apple fibre, accentuate the value of

consuming kiwifruit as a natural whole product that has had minimal processing. Kiwifruit

dietary fibres are susceptible to fermentation, and so many provide benefits through the

production of the short chain fatty acids.[30]

Future studies on the mechanisms by which

kiwifruit dietary fibres, as part of a balanced diet, modulate digestion processes and act as a

substrate for beneficial colonic microbiota, may aid understanding of the actions of fibre in

the gut[33]

and its beneficial effects on human health.

Sugars

As kiwifruit develop and ripen, the concentrations of chemical components in the tissue

change. The most marked change in the physiology of the fruit during ripening leads to a

rapid decrease in starch concentration and a consequent increase in fructose and glucose.


542


Kiwifruit tissue is very hard while the fruit is developing on the vine, but flesh firmness

decreases during the later stages of development.[20]

Fortunately, kiwifruit that are

physiologically mature but have barely started to ripen can be harvested and will continue to

ripen successfully off the vine. Cool storage immediately after harvest reduces the rate of

ripening. It is these particular characteristics of kiwifruit that allow producing countries such

as New Zealand to store unripe fruit and ship to it distant markets over an extended period.

Suitable indicators of maturity for kiwifruit are used to ensure that fruit reaches an

appropriate stage of development before harvest. A ―maturity value‖ is important, and three

changes in kiwifruit are taken into account—decreasing flesh firmness, conversion of starch

to sugar and soluble solids concentration (to measure sugar concentration) are all used to

provide an accurate assessment of final eating quality. The predominant sugars present in

Actinidia are glucose and fructose with a small amount of sucrose present when the fruit is

ripe and ready-to-eat. The amount of total sugars and ratios of these sugars vary not only as a

function of maturity but also with the variety of kiwifruit.[5,28]

The ratio of fructose: glucose is

important in terms of digestive health and preferably should be around 1:1 to reduce

symptoms of gastrointestinal discomfort, such as bloating, caused by rapid fermentation by

gut bacteria. Interestingly, as they ripen, many fruits undergo a marked decrease in

chlorophyll content, and carotenoids and anthocyanins become dominant. These visual

changes indicate the stage of ripeness. On the other hand, in green kiwifruit there is little if

any decrease in chlorophyll content and the internal colour remains an attractive bright green

when fruit are ―eating ripe‖. As kiwifruit begins to ripen, starch concentration decreases from

6% of fresh weight to trace amounts, and total sugars increase to 12–15%. The concentration

of soluble solids also increases to reach a plateau of 14–16% before fruit is eating ripe.

Understanding the factors affecting the rate of ripening is of considerable commercial

importance for fruit quality. In fruit that is ready for consumption the sugars provide the

appealing sweet flavour of kiwifruit, which is balanced by the organic acid composition.[5,28]

From a physiological perspective, the sugar content of kiwifruit, like all fruit, may

potentially influence the management of blood sugar levels following their consumption,

however current research suggests the glycaemic response effects of kiwifruit as a whole

food are potentially different to that which could be expected of individual components.[29]

Interestingly the glycaemic index (GI) of kiwifruit is relatively low (green kiwifruit, 39.3 ±

4.8 and gold kiwifruit, 48.5 ± 3.1[34]

). The low GI value of kiwifruit is observed in both

healthy human subjects and thosewith Type 2 diabetes.[35]


543


Antioxidants

In addition to the various nutrients in kiwifruit described above, for which there are dietary

intake recommendations and well described physiological functions, kiwifruit contain a

complex network of minor compounds that may also be associated with beneficial

physiological functions. Various Actinidia species have been extensively analysed for their

antioxidant chemical profiles.[36–40]

As well as vitamins C and E, the other antioxidants

include the carotenoids lutein, zeaxanthin and β-carotene, chlorophylls, quinic acid, caffeic

acid glucosyl derivatives, β-sitosterol, chlorogenic acid, phenolics, including flavones and

flavonones, to name but a few.[41–44]

The antioxidant capacity of kiwifruit constituents has

been measured by means of various in vitro chemical assays that monitor the quenching,

scavenging or retarding of free radical generation.[3]

For example, the total antioxidant

capacity of kiwifruit was reported to be higher than apple, grapefruit and pear, but less than

raspberry, strawberry, orange and plum.[45,46]

While these in vitro studies indicate that the

various antioxidants are capable of preventing or delaying some types of cell damage from

the unstable free radicals created every day during normal metabolism, the detailed

mechanism of how this translates to effects in vivo which are directly linked physiological

changes is yet to be fully understood.[47]

In a number of human studies, beneficial changes to

biomarkers of CVD, have been attributed to the antioxidant compounds present in

kiwifruit.[48–54]

The stability of antioxidants during simulated in vitro gastrointestinal

digestion[55,56]

, and their bioaccessibility/bioavailability[57]

provide supportive evidence for

the potential for physiological effects of the antioxidants in kiwifruit. There is significant

variation in the types and levels of antioxidant compounds and total antioxidant activity both

between Actinidia species, and as a function of extraction solvent.[41–43]

Several studies have

explored the influence of growing practices and region on the activity of bioactive and

antioxidant compounds in kiwifruit. Park et al.[58]

found generally higher, but not consistently

significant, levels of bioactive compounds in organically grown kiwifruit, whilst in an Italian

study, the geographical location of orchards did not significantly influence vitamin C or

polyphenolic contents.[59]

Although there are no dietary intake recommendations for

antioxidants in general, the scientific data suggest that eating kiwifruit has the potential to

inhibit oxidative and inflammatory processes, although the supporting data for antioxidant

activities are more substantial than those related to the kiwifruit‘s potential anti-inflammatory

activities. The results of human studies of the antioxidant efficacy of kiwifruit are

inconsistent owing to differences in experimental protocols, the cultivar of kiwifruit used, the

amount and duration of the study as well as the biomarkers used.[3]

Kiwifruit could


544


undoubtedly be a useful dietary vehicle for delivering antioxidant nutrients and other

phytonutrients. Future studies on kiwifruit will explore the bioavailability, metabolism, tissue

distribution and biological effects of kiwifruit constituents on relevant disease markers. The

emerging evidence could provide the basis for improved dietary strategies for achieving

dietary antioxidant and anti-inflammatory health benefits in humans.[60]

Actinidin and minor proteins

Kiwifruit contain several unique proteins and the cysteine protease actinidin, the most

abundant protein in kiwifruit, of interest for their bioactive potential. The characterisation and

biochemical properties of actinidin have been extensively studied[61,62]

, and more recently its

potential role in human health.[63,64]

Actinidin is active over a wide range of pH, including

those of the GI tract[65]

thus having the potential to influence protein digestion, and intestinal

permeability.[66]

In contrast to potential benefits, actinidin is also the major kiwifruit

allergen.[59,67]

Green and gold kiwifruit have been known to cause allergic reactions ranging

from mild symptoms localised to the oral mucosa in the majority of individuals to

anaphylactic reactions, particularly in children. Very little information is available in the

literature on the prevalence of kiwifruit allergy, and human intervention studies with kiwifruit

have shown that kiwifruit are well tolerated without any adverse side effects.[22,53,68,69]

The

magnitude and patterns of reactivity to kiwifruit allergens appears to vary with

ethnic/geographical/cultural differences, age of subjects and other clinical characteristics of

individuals exposed to kiwifruit.[3]

Lucas, Atkinso[70]

have provided a detailed review of

unresolved issues regarding kiwifruit and have suggested requirements to be met prior to

designation of allergens to a database. Processing may diminish the risk of allergic symptoms

in those with allergies to raw kiwifruit.[71,72]

Kiwellin is another protein in kiwifruit, that as a

function of ripening stage and postharvest treatment of the fruit is susceptible to actinidin

activity, producing the peptide kissper, and and KiTH.[73,74]

Kissper is of particular interest

for human health as it displays a range of beneficial activities, including anti-inflammatory

response, reducing oxidative stress at the GI mucosal interface[75]

, and pHdependent and

voltage-gated pore-forming activity, together with anion selectivity and channelling. This

suggests that kissper is a member of a new class of pore-forming peptides with potential

beneficial effects on human health, including a potential effect on gastrointestinal

physiology.[76]


545


Health benefits and medicinal importance

Medicinal and health benefits of this fruit have been discussed as under:

Digestive health

Kiwifruit contains enermous amount of actinidin, a proteolytic protein-dissolving enzyme

which enhances protein digestion and can help digest a meal much like the papain in papaya

or bromelain in pineapple. It facilitates smooth traffic through the digestive system.

Historically, green kiwifruit have been well acknowledged for the beneficial effect they have

on digestion and laxation. Recent studies have demonstrated significant results in the

treatment of constipation in healthy elderly[77,78]

and in patients with irritable bowel

syndrome.[79]

Insoluble dietary fibre, with its water-retaining abilities, increases faecal bulk

and softens stools, and it is through this mechanism that kiwifruit appear to act. Green

kiwifruit are high in both soluble and insoluble fibre, comparing favourably with a number of

other popular fruit. However there is some evidence that as the fruit ripens, there is increasing

solubilisation of polymers within the cell walls of kiwifruit, resulting in a unique and greatly

increased ability to hold water.[80]

These ripening-induced changes also result in enhanced

viscosity due to solubilisation of the pectic polysaccharides in the cell walls.[81]

The ensuing

lubricating effect has been identified as an important attribute of soluble fibre in other

effective treatments of constipation.[82]

Kiwifruit also contain a very active proteolytic

enzyme, actinidin, which is postulated to have a beneficial impact on the gastric and intestinal

digestion of proteins. In-vitro studies have shown that actinidin, acting in concert with the

gastric and intestinal proteases pepsin and pancreatin, enhances protein digestion in both the


546


stomach and the small intestine.[83]

Rutherfurd et al. (2011) recently showed in an in-vivo

investigation in rats that actinidin from green kiwifruit significantly increased the gastric

digestion of some food proteins. It is therefore reasonable to suggest that kiwifruit as part of a

meal could act as a digestive aid by a variety of actions: more effective digestion of dietary

protein, increased faecal bulking and softness, and better lubrication assisting the propulsion

of contents along the colon.

Kiwifruit supports iron nutrition

Consuming kiwifruit may also be of benefit in treating iron deficiency as recently shown in

our research unit.[68]

Iron deficiency is the most common nutritional deficiency worldwide

and is associated with a number of adverse health consequences.[84]

In a randomised

controlled trial we observed significant improvements in iron status in young women with

mild iron deficiency when 2 gold kiwifruit, compared with a banana, were consumed with an

iron fortified breakfast cereal (16 mg ferrous sulfate) meal daily for 16 weeks. Serum ferritin

increased and soluble transferrin receptor and soluble transferrin receptor : serum ferritin

ratio decreased significantly with the addition of kiwifruit compared with banana.[85]

The

improvement in iron status may be ascribed to the high content of vitamin C, carotenoids,

citric acid, or a combination of synergistic nutritional factors in gold kiwifruit. Vitamin C is a

well-known enhancer of iron absorption[86]

, and citric acid has been shown to be additive to

the effects of vitamin C on iron absorption.[87]

The carotenoids lutein and zeaxanthin have

also been shown to enhance iron absorption.[88]

Further research is needed to confirm these

effects in other population groups at risk of iron deficiency, including pregnant women,

children, and adolescents, but also in those being treated for iron deficiency anaemia.

Common cold and flu

One of the most common illnesses that healthy humans have to deal with on a regular basis is

upper respiratory tract infection (URTI), which typically presents as colds and influenza

(flu).[89]

Adults experience on average 1–4, and children, owing to their developing immune

systems, 4–8 bouts of cold- and flu-like episodes per year.[90,91]

URTI causes major disruption

to daily living and is associated with direct and indirect costs related to health care and loss of

productivity through absence from work and school.[92]

Since no cure exists, optimising the

immune system through adequate nutrition[93–95]

could be an important strategy for the

prevention and treatment of URTI.


547


Kiwifruit is an excellent source of various nutrients and phytochemicals associated with a

healthy immune system, such as vitamins C, E, and K, folate, carotenoids, potassium, and

polyphenols.[95,96]

A small number of animal, in vitro cell based, and human studies provide

supporting evidence that kiwifruit may enhance immune function and immune responses as

reviewed by Hunter et al (2011) and Skinner et al (2011). In brief, kiwifruit may improve the

markers of innate and adaptive immune function. Phagocytosis and levels of

immunoglobulins (IgA, IgG, and IgM) were increased after supplementing mice with a

kiwifruit extract for 30 days.[97]

An extract prepared from gold kiwifruit pasteurised purée

resulted in significantly enhanced measures of innate and adaptive immune cell function of

human blood cells ex vivo, namely increased phagocytosis, oxidative burst, and natural killer

cell activity (innate), and increased T-cell activation and cytokine production in response to a

recall antigen (adaptive).[98]

Kiwifruit may also affect the immune system through antioxidant effects by protecting

immune cells from oxidative damage and consequent loss of membrane integrity and fluidity

resulting in alterations in signalling within and between immune cells. Two recent New

Zealand studies[99,100]

investigated the effects of regular consumption of gold kiwifruit on the

incidence and symptoms of URTI in older adults (≥65 years)[100]

and pre-school children (2–5

years)[99]

, 2 groups at high risk if they contract colds and flu. Both groups were enrolled in

separate cross-over randomised controlled trials involving consumption of gold kiwifruit

compared with the consuption of banana (control fruit with relatively similar energy content,

but lower nutritional value). The older adults consumed the equivalent of 4 gold kiwifruit or 2

bananas daily[100]

for 4 weeks and the pre-school children consumed 2 servings of gold

kiwifruit or 1 banana for 5 days/week for 4 weeks at the day care facility they attended.[99]

In

older adults, the duration of sore throat and head congestion was significantly reduced when

gold kiwifruit was consumed, compared with banana (sore throat: mean of 2 days compared

with 5.4 days, P = 0.02; head congestion: <1 day compared with 4.7 days, P = 0.03).

Similarly, the severity score for head congestion was significantly lower whilst consuming

gold kiwifruit, compared with banana (1.3 compared with 6.7 out of 10, P = 0.01).[100]

In the

pre-schooler study, the odds of contracting a cold or flu-like illness was reduced by almost

half when kiwifruit were consumed, compared with banana (odds ratio (OR; 95% CI): 0.55

(0.32, 0.94), P = 0.03). Severity scores for physiological and functional symptoms and the

incidence of certain URTI symptoms (poor appetite, feeling unwell, low energy, crying,

headaches, sore throats) were significantly lower when consuming kiwifruit, compared with


548


banana.[99]

In the older adult study, consumption of gold kiwifruit resulted in significant

increases in plasma vitamin C, -tocopherol, lutein/ zeaxanthin, and erythrocyte folate

concentrations, which may have contributed to the reduction in duration and severity of URTI

symptoms.[100]

Further research is needed to confirm these results in other at risk groups to

clarify whether these effects of gold kiwifruit on URTI are in fact due to improved immune

function, which nutrients or bioactive compounds are responsible, and whether other

kiwifruit cultivars produce similar effects.

Tolerance and allergic effects of kiwifruit

Green kiwifruit have been recognised as a food allergen for over 2 decades, with the first

acute case of kiwifruit allergy reported in 1981.[101]

Clinical characteristics of kiwifruit

allergy range from mild symptoms localised to the oral mucosa in the majority of individuals,

to severe anaphylactic reactions, particularly in children.[102]

Kiwifruit allergy is also known

to occur as a consequence of cross-reactions with pollens and latex. Several protein

components in kiwifruit have been identified as potential allergenic agents. Actinidin (Act c

1, 30 kDa), the most abundant protein in green kiwifruit, is the most recognised major

kiwifruit allergen.[67]

However, Lucas et al. (2007) failed to show that actinidin was a major

allergen in a UK population, indicating that the major allergenic component may be different

in different populations. Gold kiwifruit is also an allergen source, although it contains very

low levels of actinidin, it shares some other common allergens and immunoglobulin E (IgE)

cross-reactivity with green kiwifruit. Thus, people allergic to green kiwifruit are at risk of

reacting to gold kiwifruit.[103]

Very little information is available in the literature on the

prevalence of kiwifruit allergy. A cross-sectional study among school children in France

suggested that kiwifruit allergy was as common as egg and peanut allergies.[104]

Intervention

studies with kiwifruit showed that the kiwifruit were well tolerated without any adverse side-

effects.[22,53,69,85]

Gammon et al. (2012) reported that the consumption of 2 green kiwifruit

every day for 4 weeks was rated as easy or very easy by the majority of participants (89.4%),

even those who had not regularly consumed kiwifruit before the study. The most common

sideeffect reported, which is also seen as a positive effect, was more frequent bowel

movements.[69,85]

Treatment of skin disease

Pharmacological uses of extracts from Actinidia have been examined for treatment of

inflammatory skin diseases. Kiwifruit possesses a heterogeneous mix of water-soluble


549


polysaccharides composed predominantly of neutral galactan and highly acidic

arabinorhamnogalacturonans.[105,106]

Purified preparations of these polysaccharides from

kiwifruit were investigated for their potential use as pharmacological agents in

dermatological treatment strategies.[105]

These fractions were found to stimulate cell

proliferation of human keratinocyte cultures. Furthermore, in an invitro 3-dimensional skin

equivalent model, these polysaccharides doubled collagen synthesis of fibroblasts. Kiwifruit

polysaccharides appeared, therefore, to exhibit potential benefit in modulating skin cell

physiology.

Kiwifruit extracts have been studied in vivo in several animal studies as agents for the

treatment of atopic dermatitis (AD), a chronic inflammatory skin disease. Based on previous

evidence that an extract of A arguta (PG102) possessed orally active immune-modulating

activity in mice[107]

, this preparation was subsequently tested as a therapeutic agent for

AD[108]

. In the NC/Nga murine model of human AD, PG102 extract administration

significantly suppressed dermatitis severity and was accompanied by the down-regulation of

immunoglobulin E (IgE) and IgG1 and of inflammatory cytokines involved in skin lesion

progression. Moreover, epidermis/dermis thickening and dermal infiltration of inflammatory

cells were decreased. In another investigation, Kim et al[109]

reported similar beneficial effects

of an orally administered A arguta extract toward chemically induced AD-like skin lesions in

NC/Nga mice. The A arguta extract also modulated biochemical markers of skin

inflammation, an effect that was similar to that of the 2 therapeutic drugs tacrolimus and

dexamethasone, although the doses among the 3 treatments were not equivalent. Another

isolate from A arguta (DA-9102), when administered orally to hairless rats, was reported to

substantially suppress AD-like skin lesions in a magnesium deficiencyYinduced dermatitis

model.[110]

This beneficial skin response was accompanied by decreased levels of several

cellular and biochemicalmediators of inflammation. An oral formulation of DA-9102 has

been approved for a phase II human trial by Dong-A Phar in Korea. Finally, another extract

of A arguta (EFF1001) was observed to be effective when used in adjunctive therapy for the

treatment of mild to moderate AD in dogs.[111]

There is some evidence from a human trial

that oral inositol may improve symptoms in patients with psoriasis.[112]

Although evidence is

accumulating that extracts of kiwifruit have pharmacological use in managing skin disease, it

is unclear whether dietary kiwifruit provides a benefit to those with dermatological

conditions.


550


Burn treatment

Two recent rat studies demonstrated an intriguing capacity for a dressing prepared from slices

of fresh kiwifruit to promote healing of acute burn wounds.[113,114]

Specifically, wound

surface area was significantly smaller in rats administered kiwifruit dressings, compared with

controls, and dry scars detached more rapidly in the kiwifruit-treated group. Additionally,

dramatic antibacterial and angiogenic actions of kiwifruit were observed, compared with

controls and with a group of rats treated with silver sulfadiazine cream, an antibacterial

ointment used in topical burn management.[114]

It was noted by the investigators that among

the kiwifruit-treated rodents, there were no positive cultures for Pseudomonas, Streptococcus,

or Staphylococcus. There were, however, inconsistent results between the 2 studies when the

effect of kiwifruit on blood vessel count and inflammation was evaluated. These disparities

likely were due to differences in experimental protocols. A suggested mechanism for the

improved wound debridement involved the beneficial proteolytic action of actinidin and other

degradative enzymes known to be present in kiwifruit. Components responsible for the

antimicrobial, angiogenic, and anti-inflammatory actions of the kiwifruit were not

determined. Further characterization of this wound-healing effect of kiwifruit dressings is

warranted and should include determining what types of wounds exhibit improved healing

and whether different approaches to preparation of the kiwifruit-based dressings are effective.

The fractions/components of the kiwifruit that are responsible for the various beneficial

outcomes need to be identified, and the mechanisms underlying the improved healing need to

be clarified. There remains a considerable challenge in translating this wound-healing action

of kiwifruit to the practical clinical care of human burn patients.

Antimicrobial actions

Extracts and proteins isolated from A chinensis and other kiwifruits have been reported to

possess inhibitory activity toward a variety of bacterial and fungal agents.[115–119]

In contrast,

one investigation reported only modest antimicrobial effects of hexane, acetone, or water-

methanol fractions of gold kiwifruit. No fractions were active against Helicobacter pylori.[4]

Two reports observed anti-HIV activity of a methanol fraction isolated from gold

kiwifruit.[4,120]

In contrast to other plant cysteine proteases, no antihelminthic efficacy of

kiwifruit proteases has been observed.[121–123]


551


Anticancer actions

Kiwifruit extracts have been reportedly used for centuries in traditional Chinese medicine to

treat numerous cancers.[4,124]

However, documented efficacy and possible mechanisms of

action in these human cancer applications remain unknown. Otherwise, kiwifruit uses in the

prevention and therapy of human cancer development have not been routinely evaluated.

Rather, the impact of kiwifruit on putative human biomarkers of cancer has been

investigated. For example, 3 human intervention studies suggest that kiwifruit may protect

DNA from damage that could lead to the initiation of neoplasia.[125]

In a short-term crossover

study, 6 volunteers were given 500 mL of homogenized kiwifruit (equivalent to ~8 fruits).

Blood subsequently was collected over a 24-h period, and lymphocytes isolated.

Measurement by the comet assay of endogenous DNA damage in isolated lymphocytes

showed no difference between the treatment group and the water controls. However, another

ex vivo measurement indicated that kiwifruit intake was associated with increased resistance

of lymphocyte DNA to H2O2-induced oxidative damage, compared with controls. In another

investigation, 14 volunteers supplemented their diets with 1, 2, or 3 kiwifruits per day for 3

wk in a crossover design study with a 2-wk washout period between doses.[126]

Subsequent ex

vivo analysis of lymphocyte DNA by the comet assay indicated that kiwifruit intake was

associated with a marked decrease in levels of endogenous oxidation of pyrimidines and

purines, as well as a substantial increase in DNA repair capacity. An 8-wk intervention

trial[125,127]

in which 33 volunteers consumed 3 kiwifruits per day, confirmed that intake of

this fruit was associated with a 13% decrease in DNA strand breaks using the comet assay.

However, additional, specific evaluation of kiwifruit‘s effects on nucleotide excision repair

and base excision repair capacities yielded inconsistent results. It would be worthwhile to

examine the time- and dose-dependent effects of kiwifruit intake on other cancer biomarkers

in humans. In light of the content of dietary fiber in kiwifruit and its actions on fecal bulk and

transit time, it would be of interest to determine whether this fruit may act as a dietary

antimutagen by reducing the fecal content of potential mutagens and carcinogens.[128]

Miscellaneous effects

Two publications report that extracts of Actinidia species attenuated liver injury induced in

rats by carbon tetrachloride.[129,130]

This action of one of the extracts was attributed to its

oleanolic acid content.[129]

There are preliminary findings that kiwifruit extracts have the

potential to modulate the immune system. For example, Actinidia extracts significantly

increased overall immune function in mice[131]

and promoted bone marrow cell proliferation


552


in vitro.[132]

Catechin isolated from A arguta Planch protected mice from myelosuppression

induced by 5-fluorouracil.[133]

These latter findings suggest that kiwifruit might have benefits

in reducing toxic adverse effects of chemotherapeutic agents[128]

. Feeding a gold kiwifruit

puree to mice improved an antigen-specific immune response, which led the authors to

suggest that kiwifruit might be a new type of functional food ingredient.[134]

It has been

suggested that water-soluble extracts (PG102) prepared from hardy kiwifruit, A arguta, may

actually have potential use as orally active immune activators for the therapy of allergic

diseases.[107,135]

In an exploratory clinical trial, an extract of A arguta suppressed serum total

IgE levels even in asymptomatic subjects with atopy[136]

. Another possible use of kiwifruit

was identified when an A chinensis-supplemented sports drink was provided to 25 athletes

training in hot environments.[137]

For those consuming the beverage containing kiwifruit,

work time prior to exhaustion was lengthened. Furthermore, the blood volume of kiwifruit-

drinking subjects was expanded, blood glucose levels during extended training were

maintained, and vitamin C status of study participants was improved, compared with

controls.

In another human study, a randomized controlled trial of 89 healthy women with low iron

stores, consumption of gold kiwifruit along with an iron-fortified breakfast cereal meal

improved iron status, compared with controls.[68]

In a study of Chinese subjects‘ consumption

of 2 kiwifruits 1 hour before bedtime for 4 wk improved sleep onset, duration, and efficiency

in 24 adults with self-reported sleep disturbances.[138]

Regarding food uses of kiwifruit

constituents, actinidin, in light of its proteolytic capacity, has been used to tenderize meat as

well as to improve emulsion stability, texture, and organoleptic properties of sausage

products.[139]

Kiwifruit phenolics also have been evaluated for their interactions with

functional bread components during dough development and bread baking.[140]

REFERENCES

1. Boeing, H., Bechthold, A., Bub, A., Ellinger, S., Haller, D., Kroke, A., et al. Critical

review: vegetables and fruit in the prevention of chronic diseases. Eur. J. Nutr. 2012;

51(6): 637–663. doi:10.1007/s00394-012-0380-y. PMID:22684631.

2. Ferguson, A.R., and Ferguson, L.R. Are kiwifruit really good for you? Acta Hortic. 2003;

610: 131–135.

3. Singletary K. Kiwifruit: Overview of Potential Health Benefits. Nutrition Today, 2012;

47(3): 133.


553


4. Motohashi N, Shirataki Y, Kawase M, et al. Cancer prevention and therapy with kiwifruit

in Chinese folklore medicine: a study of kiwifruit extracts. J. Ethnopharmacol., 2002; 81:

357Y364.

5. Nishiyama I. Fruits of the Actinidia genus. Adv Food Nutr Res., 2007; 52: 293Y324.

6. Ferguson A. New temperate fruits: Actinidia chinensis and Actinidia deliciosa. In: Janick

J, ed Perspectives on New Crops and Their Uses. Alexandria, VA: ASHS Press; 1999;

342Y347.

7. Ferguson A. Kiwifruit cultivars: breeding and selection. Acta Hortic., 1999; 498: 43Y51.

8. Ferguson A, Huang H. Genetic resources of kiwifruit: domestication and breeding. Hortic

Rev., 2007; 33: 1Y121.

9. Garcia C, Quek S, Stevenson R, Winz R. Characterization of the bound volatile extract

from baby kiwi (Actinidia arguta). J Agric Food Chem., 2011; 59: 8358-8365.

10. Atkinson RG, Macrae EA. Kiwifruit. In: Pua EC, Davey MR (ed) Transgenic Crops V.

Springer Berlin Heiderberg, 2007; 60: 329-346.

11. Lee SK, Kader AA. Preharvest and postharvest factors influencing vitamin C content of

horticultural crops. Postharv. Biol. Technol. 2000; 20: 207-220.

12. Harris JR. Subcellular Biochemistry. Ascorbic acid: Biochemistry and Biomedical Cell

Biology. Plenum, New York. 1996; 25.

13. Wong SP, Leong LP, William Koh JH. Antioxidant activities of aqueous extracts of

selected plants. Food Chem, 2006; 99: 775-783.

14. Yang JX. Chinese pharmaceuticals for cancers. Peking: General people‘s health

Publishers 1981; 121-122.

15. Song P. Anticancer activity of Chinese kiwi fruit. Nutr Res., 1984; 6: 109-114.

16. Collins BH, Horska A, Hotten PM, Riddoch C, Collins AR. Kiwi fruit protects against

oxidative DNA damage in human cells in vitro. Nutr Cancer, 2001; 39: 148-153.

17. US Department of Agriculture Green Kiwifruit. USDA National Nutrient Database for

Standard Reference, Release 28 (slightly revised). Version: May 2016. US Department of

Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Nutrient Data Laboratory,

Beltsville (MD). http://www.ars.usda.gov/ba/ bhnrc /ndl.

18. Boland MJ Kiwifruit proteins and enzymes: actinidin and other significant proteins. In:

Boland M, Moughan PJ (eds) Advances in food and nutrition research: nutritional

benefits of kiwifruit, vol 68. Academic Press, 2013; 59–80.


554


19. Sivakumaran S, Sivakumaran S Partial nutritional analysis of Zespri ® SunGold kiwifruit

skin (HN1745). In: Confidential Report for Zespri International Ltd. Plant and Food

Research, Palmerston North., 2017.

20. Beever DJ, Hopkirk G Fruit development and fruit physiology. In: Warrington IJ, Weston

GC (eds) Kiwifruit: science and management. The New Zealand Society for Horticultural

Science and Ray Richards Publisher, Auckland, 1990; 97–126.

21. Fiorentino A, Mastellone C, D‘Abrosca B, Pacifico S, Scognamiglio M, Cefarelli G,

Caputo R, Monaco P δ-Tocomonoenol: a new vitamin E from kiwi (Actinidia chinensis)

fruits. Food Chem 2009; 115(1): 187–192.

22. Chang W-H, Liu J-F Effects of kiwifruit consumption on serum lipid profiles and

antioxidative status in hyperlipidemic subjects. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2009; 1–8.

https ://doi.org/10.1080/09637 48080 20635 17 (iFirst article).

23. Richardson DP Developing the right public health strategies for folic acid and reduction

of risk of neural tube defects (NTDs) in the United Kingdom. Eur J Nutr Food Saf 2015;

5(4): 242–249.

24. Hsieh CL, Huang SM, Chen LI, Yu CM, Wong CH, Peng RY Novel Approach of using

nutraceutic-directed caloric antioxidant density and ion-ratio for evaluating fruit‘s health

quality. J Food Sci 2016; 81(8): H2059-2068. https ://doi. org/10.1111/1750-3841.13390.

25. Rust P, Ekmekcioglu C Impact of salt intake on the pathogenesis and treatment of

hypertension. Adv Exp Med Biol, 2016. https ://doi.org/10.1007/5584_2016_147.

26. Drewnowski A, Maillot M, Rehm C Reducing the sodium-potassium ratio in the US diet:

a challenge for public health. Am J Clin Nutr 2012; 96(2): 439–444.

https ://doi.org/10.3945/ ajcn.111.02535 3.

27. Bailey RL, Parker EA, Rhodes DG, Goldman JD, Clemens JC, Moshfegh AJ, Thuppal

SV, Weaver CM (2016) Estimating sodium and potassium intakes and their ratio in the

American diet: data from the 2011–2012 NHANES. J Nutr. https ://doi.

org/10.3945/jn.115.22118 4.

28. Perez V, Chang ET Sodium-to-potassium ratio and blood pressure, hypertension, and

related factors. Adv Nutr (Bethesda, Md) 2014; 5(6): 712–741.

https ://doi.org/10.3945/an.114.00678 3.

29. Mishra S, Monro JA Kiwifruit remnants from digestion in vitro have functional attributes

of potential importance to health. Food Chem 2012; 135(4): 2188–2194. https ://doi.

org/10.1016/j.foodc hem.2012.06.102.


555


30. Sims IM, Monro JA Fiber: Composition, structures, and functional properties. In: Boland

M, Moughan PJ (eds) Advances in food and nutrition research: nutritional benefits of

kiwifruit, Academic Press, 2013; 68: 81–99.

31. Cummings JH, Antoine J-M, Azpiroz F, Bourdet-Sicard R, Brandtzaeg P, Calder PC,

Gibson GR, Guarner F, Isolauri E, Pannemans D, Shortt C, Tuijtelaars S, Watzl B

PASSCLAIM—Gut health and immunity. Eur J Nutr 2004; 43(Supp 2): 118–173.

32. McRorie JW Jr, McKeown NM Understanding the physics of functional fibers in the

gastrointestinal tract: an evidence-based approach to resolving enduring misconceptions

about insoluble and soluble fiber. J Acad Nutr Diet 2017; 117(2): 251–264.

https ://doi.org/10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.021.

33. Ansell J, Parkar S, Paturi G, Rosendale D, Blatchford PA Modification of the colonic

microbiota. In: Boland M, Moughan PJ (eds) Nutritional Benefits of kiwifruit. Advances

in food and nutrition research, Elsevier, 2013; 68: 205–217.

34. Rush E, Drummond LN The glycaemic index of kiwifruit. N Z Kiwifruit J 2009;

192(May/June): 29–33.

35. Chen YY, Wu PC, Weng SF, Liu JF Glycemia and peak incremental indices of six

popular fruits in Taiwan: healthy and Type 2 diabetes subjects compared. J Clin Biochem

Nutr, 2011; 49(3): 195–199. https ://doi.org/10.3164/jcbn.11-11.

36. Wojdyło A, Nowicka P, Oszmiański J, Golis T. Phytochemical compounds and biological

effects of Actinidia fruits. J Funct Foods 2017; 30: 194–202. https ://doi.org/10.1016/j.

jff.2017.01.018.

37. Du G, Li M, Ma F, Liang D Antioxidant capacity and the relationship with polyphenol

and Vitamin C in Actinidia fruits. Food Chem 2009; 13(2): 557–562.

38. Park Y-S, Jung S-T, Kang S-G, Drzewiecki J, Namiesnik J, Haruenkit R, Barasch D,

Trakhtenberg S, Gorinstein S In vitro studies of polyphenols, antioxidants and other

dietary indices in kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa). Int J Food Sci Nutr 2006; 57(1–2):

107–122.

39. Fiorentino A, D‘Abrosca B, Pacifico S, Mastellone C, Scognamiglio M, Monaco P

Identification and assessment of antioxidant capacity of phytochemicals from kiwi fruits.

J Agric Food Chem 2009; 57(10): 4148–4155. https ://doi. org/10.1021/jf900 210z.

40. Latocha P, Krupa T, Wołosiak R, Worobiej E, Wilczak J Antioxidant activity and

chemical difference in fruit of different Actinidia sp. Int J Food Sci Nutr, 2010; 61(4):

381–394. https :// doi.org/10.3109/09637 48090 35177 88.


556


41. Leontowicz H, Leontowicz M, Latocha P, Jesion I, Park YS, Katrich E, Barasch D,

Nemirovski A, Gorinstein S Bioactivity and nutritional properties of hardy kiwi fruit

Actinidia arguta in comparison with Actinidia deliciosa ‗Hayward‘ and Actinidia eriantha

‗Bidan‘. Food Chem 2016; 196: 281–291. https ://doi. org/10.1016/j.foodc

hem.2015.08.127.

42. Park YS, Namiesnik J, Vearasilp K, Leontowicz H, Leontowicz M, Barasch D,

Nemirovski A, Trakhtenberg S, Gorinstein S Bioactive compounds and the antioxidant

capacity in new kiwi fruit cultivars. Food Chem 2014; 165: 354–361. https ://doi.

org/10.1016/j.foodc hem.2014.05.114.

43. Pérez-Burillo S, Oliveras MJ, Quesada J, Rufián-Henares JA, Pastoriza S Relationship

between composition and bioactivity of persimmon and kiwifruit. Food Res Int 2018;

105: 461–472. https ://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodr es.2017.11.022.

44. Montefiori M, McGhie TK, Costa G, Ferguson AR Pigments in the fruit of red-fleshed

kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis and Actinidia deliciosa). J Agric Food Chem, 2005;

53(24): 9526–9530.

45. Wang H, Cao G, Prior RL Total antioxidant capacity of fruits. J Agric Food Chem, 1996;

44(3): 701–705.

46. Beekwilder J, Hall RD, de Vos CH Identification and dietary relevance of antioxidants

from raspberry. Biofactors 2005; 23(4): 197–205.

47. Wilson DW, Nash P, Buttar HS, Griffiths K, Singh R, De Meester F, Horiuchi R,

Takahashi T The role of food antioxidants, benefits of functional foods, and influence of

feeding habits on the health of the older person: an overview. Antioxidants (Basel

Switzerland). 2017. https ://doi.org/10.3390/antio x6040 081.

48. Svendsen M, Tonstad S, Heggen E, Pedersen TR, Seljeflot I, Bohn SK, Bastani NE,

Blomhoff R, Holme IM, Klemsdal TO The effect of kiwifruit consumption on blood

pressure in subjects with moderately elevated blood pressure: a randomized, controlled

study. Blood Press 2015; 24(1): 48–54. https ://doi. org/10.3109/08037 051.2014.97697 9.

49. Karlsen A, Svendsen M, Seljeflot I, Laake P, Duttaroy AK, Drevon CA, Arnesen H,

Tonstad S, Blomhoff R Kiwifruit decreases blood pressure and whole-blood platelet

aggregation in male smokers. J Hum Hypertens. 2012. https ://doi.org/10.1038/

jhh.2011.116.

50. Bohn S, Myhrstad M, Thoresen M, Holden M, Karlsen A, Tunheim S, Erlund I, Svendsen

M, Seljeflot I, Moskaug J, Duttaroy A, Laake P, Arnesen H, Tonstad S, Collins A,

Drevon C, Blomhoff R Blood cell gene expression associated with cellular stress defense


557


is modulated by antioxidant-rich food in a randomised controlled clinical trial of male

smokers. BMC Med 2010; 8(1): 54.

51. Brevik A, Gaivão I, Medin T, Jørgenesen A, Piasek A, Elilasson J, Karlsen A, Blomhoff

R, Veggan T, Duttaroy AK, Collins AR (2011) Supplementation of a western diet with

golden kiwifruits (Actinidia chinensis var.‘Hort 16A‘:) effects on biomarkers of oxidation

damage and antioxidant protection. Nutr J. https ://doi. org/10.1186/1475-2891-10-54.

52. Dizdarevic LL, Biswas D, Uddin MD, Jorgenesen A, Falch E, Bastani NE, Duttaroy AK

Inhibitory effects of kiwifruit extract on human platelet aggregation and plasma

angiotensinconverting enzyme activity. Platelets 2014; 25(8): 567–575. https ://doi.

org/10.3109/09537 104.2013.85265 8.

53. Duttaroy AK, Jørgensen A (2004) Effects of kiwi fruit consumption on platelet

aggregation and plasma lipids in healthy human volunteers. Platelets 15(5):287–292.

54. Prior RL, Gu L, Wu X, Jacob RA, Sotoudeh G, Kader AA, Cook RA (2007) Plasma

antioxidant capacity changes following a meal as a measure of the ability of a food to

alter in vivo antioxidant status. J Am Coll Nutr 26(2):170–181.

55. He M, Zeng J, Zhai L, Liu Y, Wu H, Zhang R, Li Z, Xia E (2017) Effect of in vitro

simulated gastrointestinal digestion on polyphenol and polysaccharide content and their

biological activities among 22 fruit juices. Food Res Int (Ottawa Ont) 102:156–162.

https ://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodr es.2017.10.001.

56. Quan W, Tao Y, Lu M, Yuan B, Chen J, Zeng M, Qin F, Guo F, He Z Stability of the

phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity of five fruit (apple, orange, grape, pomelo

and kiwi) juices during in vitro-simulated gastrointestinal digestion. Int J Food Sci

Technol. https ://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.13682.

57. Haminiuk CWI, Maciel GM, Plata-Oviedo MSV, Peralta RM Phenolic compounds in

fruits—an overview. Int J Food Sci Technol 2012; 47(10): 2023–2044.

https ://doi.org/10.111 1/j.1365-2621.2012.03067 .x.

58. Park YS, Im MH, Ham KS, Kang SG, Park YK, Namiesnik J, Leontowicz H, Leontowicz

M, Katrich E, Gorinstein S Nutritional and pharmaceutical properties of bioactive

compounds in organic and conventional growing kiwifruit. Plant Foods Hum Nutr 2013;

68(1): 57–64. https ://doi.org/10.1007/s1113 0-013-0339-z.

59. Giangrieco I, Proietti S, Moscatello S, Tuppo L, Battistelli A, La Cara F, Tamburrini M,

Famiani F, Ciardiello MA Influence of geographical location of orchards on green

kiwifruit bioactive components. J Agric Food Chem 2016; 64(48): 9172–9179.

https ://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.6b039 30.


558


60. Yoshihara D, Fujiwara N, Suzuki K Antioxidants: benefits and risks for long-term health.

Maturitas 2010; 67(2): 103–107. https :// doi.org/10.1016/j.matur itas.2010.05.001.

61. Lewis DA, Luh BS Development and distribution of Actinidin in kiwifruit (Actinidia

chinensis) and its partial characterization. J Food Biochem 1988; 12(2): 109–116.

https ://doi. org/10.1111/j.1745-4514.1988.tb003 63.x.

62. Arcus AC Proteolytic enzyme of Actinidia chinensis. Biochim Biophys Acta 1959; 33(1):

242–244.

63. Grozdanovic MM, Ostojic S, Aleksic I, Andjelkovic U, Petersen A, Gavrovic-Jankulovic

M Active actinidin retains function upon gastro-intestinal digestion and is more

thermostable than the E-64-inhibited counterpart. J Sci Food Agric., 2014. https ://

doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.6656.

64. Bayer SB, Gearry RB, Drummond LN Putative mechanisms of kiwifruit on maintenance

of normal gastrointestinal function. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr., 2017.

https ://doi.org/10.1080/10408 398.2017.13278 41.

65. Sun Q, Zhang B, Yan QJ, Jiang ZQ Comparative analysis on the distribution of protease

activities among fruits and vegetable resources. Food Chem, 2016; 213: 708–713.

https ://doi. org/10.1016/j.foodc hem.2016.07.029.

66. Cavic M, Grozdanovic MM, Bajic A, Jankovic R, Andjus PR, Gavrovic-Jankulovic M

The effect of kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa) cysteine protease actinidin on the occludin

tight junction network in T84 intestinal epithelial cells. Food Chem Toxicol Int J Publ Br

Ind Biol Res Assoc 2014; 72c: 61–68. https ://doi. org/10.1016/j.fct.2014.07.012.

67. Palacin A, Rodriguez J, Blanco C, Lopez-Torrejon G, Sanchez- Monge R, Varela J,

JimÈnez MA, Cumplido J, Carrillo T, Crespo JF, Salcedo G Immunoglobulin E

recognition patterns to purified Kiwifruit (Actinidinia deliciosa) allergens in patients

sensitized to Kiwi with different clinical symptoms. Clin Exp Allergy 2008; 38(7):

1220–1228.

68. Beck K, Conlon CA, Kruger R, Coad J, Stonehouse W Gold kiwifruit consumed with an

iron-fortified breakfast cereal meal improves iron status in women with low iron stores: a

16-week randomised controlled trial. Br J Nutr 2010; 105(1): 101–109.

https ://doi.org/10.1017/S0007 11451 00031 44.

69. Gammon CS, Kruger R, Minihane AM, Conlon CA, von Hurst PR, Stonehouse W

Kiwifruit consumption favourably affects plasma lipids in a randomised controlled trial in

hypercholesterolaemic men. Br J Nutr FirstView, 2012; 1–11. https ://doi.

org/10.1017/S0007 11451 20044 00 doi.


559


70. Lucas JSA, Atkinson RG What is a food allergen? Clin Exp Allergy, 2008; 38(7): 1095–

1099. https ://doi.org/10.111 1/j.1365-2222.2008.02988 .x.

71. Chen L, Lucas JS, Hourihane JO, Lindemann J, Taylor SL, Goodman RE Evaluation of

IgE binding to proteins of hardy (Actinidia arguta), gold (Actinidia chinensis) and green

(Actinidia deliciosa) kiwifruits and processed hardy kiwifruit concentrate, using sera of

individuals with food allergies to green kiwifruit. Food Chem Toxicol, 2006; 44(7):

1100–1107.

72. Fiocchi A, Restani P, Berbardo L, Martelli A, Ballabio C, D‘Auria E, Riva E (2004)

Tolerance of Heat-treated kiwi by children with kiwifruit allergy. Pediatr Allergy

Immunol, 2004; 15(5): 454–458.

73. Tuppo L, Giangrieco I, Palazzo P, Bernardi ML, Scala E, Carratore V, Tamburrini M,

Mari A, Ciardiello MA Kiwellin, a modular protein from green and gold kiwi fruits:

evidence of in vivo and in vitro processing and IgE binding. J Agric Food Chem2008;

56(10): 3812–3817. https ://doi.org/10.1021/jf703 620m.

74. Hamiaux C, Maddumage R, Middleditch MJ, Prakash R, Brummell DA, Baker EN,

Atkinson RG Crystal structure of kiwellin, a major cell-wall protein from kiwifruit. J

Struct Biol 2014; 187(3): 276–281. https ://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsb.2014.07.005.

75. Ciacci C, Russo I, Bucci C, Iovino P, Pellegrini L, Giangrieco I, Tamburrini M,

Ciardiello MA The kiwi fruit peptide kissper displays anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant

effects in invitro and ex-vivo human intestinal models. Clin Exp Immunol 2014; 175(3):

476–484. https ://doi.org/10.1111/cei.12229.

76. Ciardiello MA, Meleleo D, Saviano G, Crescenzo R, Carratore V, Camardella L, Gallucci

E, Micelli S, Tancredi T, Picone D, Tamburrini M Kissper, a kiwi fruit peptide with

channel- like activity: structural and functional features. J Pept Sci 2008; 14(6): 742–754.

https ://doi.org/10.1002/psc.992.

77. Rush, E.C., Patel, M., Plank, L.D., and Ferguson, L.R. Kiwifruit promotes laxation in the

elderly. Asia. Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002; 11(2): 164–168. doi:10.1046/j. 1440-

6047.2002.00287.x. PMID:12074185.

78. Chan, A.O., Leung, G., Tong, T., and Wong, N.Y. Increasing dietary fiber intake in terms

of kiwifruit improves constipation in Chinese patients. World J. Gastroenterol., 2007;

13(35): 4771–4775. PMID:17729399.

79. Chang, C.C., Lin, Y.T., Lu, Y.T., Liu, Y.S., and Liu, J.F. Kiwifruit improves bowel

function in patients with irritable bowel syndrome with constipation. Asia Pac. J. Clin.

Nutr. 2010; 19(4): 451–457. PMID:21147704.


560


80. Redgwell, R.J., Melton, L.D., and Brasch, D.J. Cell wall dissolution in ripening kiwifruit

(Actinidia deliciosa): solubilization of the pectic polymers. Plant Physiol. 1992; 98(1):

71–81. doi:10.1104/pp.98.1.71. PMID:16668651.

81. Redgwell, R.J., Fischer, M., Kendal, E., and MacRae, E.A. Galactose loss and fruit

ripening: high-molecular-weight arabinogalactans in the pectic polysaccharides of fruit

cell walls. Planta, 1997; 203(2): 174–181. doi:10.1007/s004250050179.

82. Marlett, J.A., Kajs, T.M., and Fischer, M.H. 2000. An unfermented gel component of

psyllium seed husk promotes laxation as a lubricant in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000;

72(3): 784–789. PMID:10966900.

83. Kaur, L., Rutherfurd, S.M., Moughan, P.J., Drummond, L., and Boland, M.J. Actinidin

enhances protein digestion in the small intestine as assessed using an in vitro digestion

model. J. Agric. Food. Chem. 2010b; 58(8): 5074–5080. doi:10.1021/ jf903835g.

PMID:20232891.

84. Food and Nutrition Board: Institute of Medicine. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin

A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese,

Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium and Zinc. National Academy Press,

Washington, D.C., 2001.

85. Beck, K., Conlon, C.A., Kruger, R., Coad, J., and Stonehouse, W. Gold kiwifruit

consumed with an iron-fortified breakfast cereal meal improves iron status in women with

low iron stores: a 16-week randomised controlled trial. Br. J. Nutr. 2011; 105(1): 101–

109. doi:10.1017/80007114510003144. PMID:20727238.

86. Diaz, M., Rosado, J.L., Allen, L.H., Abrams, S., and Garcia, O.P. The efficacy of a local

ascorbic acid-rich food in improving iron absorption from Mexican diets: a field study

using stable isotopes. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2003; 78(3): 436–440. PMID:12936926.

87. Ballot, D., Baynes, R.D., Bothwell, T.H., Gillooly, M., MacFarlane, B.J., MacPhail, A.P.,

et al. The effects of fruit juices and fruits on the absorption of iron from a rice meal. Br. J.

Nutr. 1987; 57(3): 331–343. doi:10.1079/ BJN19870041. PMID:3593665.

88. Garcia-Casal, M.N. Carotenoids increase iron absorption from cereal-based food in the

human. Nutr. Res. 2006; 26(7): 340–344. doi:10.1016/j.nutres.2006.06. 015.

PMID:9482776.

89. Eccles, R. Understanding the symptoms of the common cold and influenza. Lancet Infect.

Dis. 2005; 5(11): 718–725. doi:10.1016/s1473-3099(05)70270-x. PMID:16253889.


561


90. Monto, A.S., and Sullivan, K.M. Acute respiratory illness in the community — frequency

or illness and the agents involved. Epidemiol. Infect. 1993; 110(1): 145–160.

doi:10.1017/S0950268800050779. PMID:8432318.

91. Proud, D., and Chow, C.W. Role of viral infections in asthma and chronic obstructive

pulmonary disease. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 2006; 35(5): 513–518.

doi:10.1165/rcmb.2006-0199TR. PMID:16778148.

92. Wald, E.R., Guerra, N., and Byers, C. Upper respiratory tract infections in young

children: duration of and frequency of complications. Pediatrics, 1991; 87(2): 129–133.

PMID:1987522.

93. Lampe, J.W. Health effects of vegetables and fruit: assessing mechanisms of action in

human experimental studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1999; 70(3): 475S–490S.

PMID:10479220.

94. Grimm, H., and Calder, P.C. Immunonutrition. Br. J. Nutr. 2002; 87(Suppl. 1): S1.

doi:10.1079/bjn2001450. PMID:11895145.

95. Hunter, D.C., Greenwood, J., Zhang, J., and Skinner, M.A. Antioxidant and ‗natural

protective‘ properties of kiwifruit. Curr. Top. Med. Chem. 2011; 11(14): 1811–1820.

PMID:21506926.

96. Skinner, M.A. Wellness foods based on the health benefits of fruit: gold kiwifruit for

immune support and reducing symptoms of colds and influenza. J. Food Drug Anal.

2012; 20(Suppl. 1): 261–264.

97. Ma, A.G., Han, X.X., Zhang, Y., Gao, Y.H., and Lan, J. Effect of kiwifruit extract

supplementation on levels of serum immunoglobulins and phagocytosis activity in mice.

FASEB J. 2006; 20(5): A1057–A1057.

98. Skinner, M.A., Loh, J.M., Hunter, D.C., and Zhang, J. Gold kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis

‗Hort16A‘) for immune support. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 2011; 70(2): 276–280. doi:

10.1017/S0029665111000048. PMID:21349229.

99. Adaim, A., Kruger, R., Stonehouse, W., Wohlers, M., and Skinner, M.A. Consumption of

ZESPRI GOLD kiwifruit by children aged 2–5 years reduces symptoms and the incidence

of upper respiratory tract infection. Proc. Nutr. Soc. NZ. 2010; 34: 121. ISSN:0110-4187.

100. Hunter, D.C., Skinner, M.A., Wolber, F.M., Booth, C.L., Loh, J.M., Wohlers, M., et al.

Consumption of gold kiwifruit reduces severity and duration of selected upper respiratory

tract infection symptoms and increases plasma vitamin C concentration in healthy older

adults. Br. J. Nutr. 2012; 108(7): 1235–1245. doi:10.1017/S0007114511006659.

PMID:22172428.


562


101. Lucas, J.S., Nieuwenhuizen, N.J., Atkinson, R.G., Macrae, E.A., Cochrane, S.A.,

Warner, J.O., et al. Kiwifruit allergy: actinidin is not a major allergen in the United

Kingdom. Clin. Exp. Allergy, 2007; 37(9): 1340–1348. doi:10.1111/j.1365-

2222.2007.02776.x. PMID:17845415.

102. Lucas JSA, Grimshaw KEC, Collins K, Warner JO, Hourihane JOB Kiwi fruit is a

significant allergen and is associated with differing patterns of reactivity in children and

adults. Clin Exp Allergy 2004; 34(7): 1115–1121.

103. Bublin, M., Mari, A., Ebner, C., Knulst, A., Scheiner, O., Hoffmann- Sommergruber, K.,

et al. IgE sensitization profiles toward green and gold kiwifruits differ among patients

allergic to kiwifruit from 3 European countries. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2004; 114(5):

1169–1175. doi:10.1016/j.jaci.2004. 07.016. PMID:15536427.

104. Rance, F., Grandmottet, X., and Grandjean, H. Prevalence and main characteristics of

schoolchildren diagnosed with food allergies in France. Clin. Exp. Allergy, 2005; 35(2):

167–172. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2222.2005.02162.x. PMID:15725187.

105. Deters A, Schroder K, Hensel A. Kiwi fruit (Actinidia chinensis L.) polysaccharides

exert stimulating effects on cell proliferation via enhanced growth factor receptors,

energy production and collagen synthesis of human keratinocytes, fibroblasts and skin

equivalents. J Cell Physiol. 2005; 202: 717Y722.

106. Redgwell R. Cell-wall polysaccharides of kiwi fruits (Actinidia deliciosa): chemical

features in different tissue zones of the fruit at harvest. Carbohydr Res. 1988; 182:

241Y258.

107. Park E, Kim B, Eo H, et al. Control of IgE and selective T(H)1 and T(H)2 cytokines by

PG102 isolated fromActinidia arguta. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2005; 116: 1151Y1157.

108. Park E, Park K, Eo H, et al. Suppression of spontaneous dermatitis in NC/Nga murine

model by PG102 isolated from Actinidia arguta. J Invest Dermatol. 2007; 127:

1154Y1160.

109. Kim J, Lee I, Son M, Kim K. Effects of orally administered Actinidia arguta (hardy

kiwi) fruit extract on 2-chloro-1,3,5- trinitrobenzene-induced atopic dermatitis-like skin

lesions in NC/Nga mice. J Med Food. 2009; 12: 1004Y1015.

110. Choi J, Park B, Kim D, et al. Blockade of atopic dermatitis-like skin lesions by DA-

9102, a natural medicine isolated from Actinidia arguta, in the Mg-deficiency induced

dermatitis model of hairless rats. Exp Biol Med. 2008; 233: 1026Y1034.

111. Marsella R, Messinger L, Zabel S, et al. A randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled

study to evaluate the effect of EFF1001, an Actinidia arguta (hardy kiwi) preparation, on


563


CADESI score and pruritus in dogs with mild to moderate atopic dermatitis. Vet

Dermatol., 2010; 21: 50Y57.

112. Ricketts J, Rothe M, Grant-kels J. Nutrition and psoriasis. Clin Dermatol. 2010; 28:

614Y626.

113. Hafezi F, Rad H, Naghibzadeh B, Nouhi A, Naghibzadeh G. Actinidia deliciosa

(kiwifruit), a new drug for enzymatic debridement of acute burn wounds. Burns. 2010;

36: 352Y355.

114. Mohajeri G, Masoudpour H, Heidarpour M, et al. The effect of dressing with fresh

kiwifruit on burn wound healing. Surgery. 2010; 148: 963Y968.

115. Xia L, Ng T. Actinchinin, a novel antifungal protein from the gold kiwifruit. Peptides.

2004; 25: 1093Y1098.

116. Wang H, Ng T. Isolation of an antifungal thaumatin-like protein from kiwi fruits.

Phytochemistry. 2002; 61: 1Y6.

117. Basile A, Vuotto M, Violante U, Sorbo S, Martone G, Castaldo- Cobianchi R.

Antibacterial activity in Actinidia chinensis, Feijoa sellowiana and Alberia caffra. Int J

Antimicrob Agents. 1997; 8: 198Y203.

118. Lu Y, Zhao Y, Wang Z, Chen S, Fu C. Comparison and antimicrobial activity of the

essential oil of Actinidia macrosperma from China. Nat Prod Res. 2007; 21: 227Y233.

119. Lahlou E, Hirai N, Kamo T, Tsuda M, Ohigashi H. Actinidic acid, a new triterpene

phytoalexin from unripe kiwi fruit. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem. 2001; 65: 480Y483.

120. Motohashi N, Shirataki Y, Kawase M, et al. Biological activity of kiwifruit peel extracts.

Phytother Res. 2001; 15: 337Y343.

121. Stepek G, Lowe A, Buttle D, Duce I, Behnke J. In vitro and in vivo antihelminthic

efficacy of plant cysteine proteases against the rodent gastrointestinal nematode, Trichuris

muris. Parasitology. 2006; 132: 681Y689.

122. Stepek G, Buttle D, Duce I, Lowe A, Behnke J. Assessment of the antihelminthic effect

of natural plant cysteine proteases against the gastrointestinal nematode,

Heligmosomoides polygyrus, in vitro. Parasitology. 2005; 130: 203Y211.

123. Stepek G, Lowe A, Buttle D, Duce I, Behnke J. Anti-helminthic action of plant cysteine

proteinases against the rodent stomach nematode, Protospirura muricola, in vitro and in

vivo. Parasitology. 2007; 134: 103Y112.

124. Wang Z, Song Y, Hu J, You B. Morphological identification and the clinical application

of the roots of Actinidia chinensis and Actinidia valvata. Pharm Care Res. 2005; 5:

134Y137.


564


125. Freese R. Markers of oxidative DNA damage in human interventions with fruit and

berries. Nutr Cancer. 2006; 54: 143Y147.

126. Collins A, Harrington V, Drew J, Melvin R. Nutritionalmodulation of DNA repair in a

human intervention study. Carcinogenesis. 2003; 24: 511Y515.

127. Brevik A, Karlsen A, Azqueta A, Esteban A, Blomhoff R, Collins A. Both base excision

repair and nucleotide excision repair in humans are influenced by nutritional factors. Cell

Biochem Funct. 2011; 29: 36Y42.

128. Hunter D, Skinner M, Ferguson A, Stevenson L. Kiwifruit and health. In: Watson R,

Reedy V, eds. Bioactive Foods in Promoting Health: Fruits and Vegetables. Atlanta, GA:

Elsevier, Inc; 2010: 565Y580.

129. Bai X, Qui A, Guan J, Shi Z. Antioxidant and protective effect of an oleanolic acid-

enriched extract of A. deliciosa root on carbon tetrachloride induced rat liver injury. Asia

Pac J Clin Nutr. 2007; 16: S169YS173.

130. Liao J, Lin K, Cheng H, Wu J, Hsieh M, Feng W. Actinidia rubricaulis attenuates

hepatic fibrosis induced by carbon tetrachloride in rats. Am J Chin Med. 2007; 35:

81Y88.

131. Lu Y, Fan J, Chen S, Zheng X, Yin Y, Fu C. Immunomodulatory activity of aqueous

extract of Actinidia macrosperma. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2007; 16: S261YS265.

132. Takano F, Tanaka T, Tsukamoto E, Yahagi N, Fushiya S. Isolation of (+)-catechin and

(-)-epicatechin from Actinidia arguta as bone marrow cell proliferation promoting

compounds. Planta Med. 2003; 69: 321Y326.

133. Takano F, Tanaka T, Aoi J, Yahagi N, Fushiya S. Protective effect of (+)-catechin

against 5-fluorouracilYinduced myelosuppression in mice. Toxicol. 2004; 201: 133Y142.

134. Hunter D, Denis M, Parlane N, Buddle B, Stevenson L, Skinner M. Feeding ZESPRI

GOLD kiwifruit puree to mice enhances serum immunoglobulins specific for ovalbumin

and stimulates ovalbuminspecific mesenteric lymph node cell proliferation in response to

orally administered ovalbumin. Nutr Res. 2008; 28: 251Y257.

135. Kim D, Kim S, Kang C, Cho S, Kim S. Anti-allergic effects of PG102, a water-soluble

extract prepared from Actinidia arguta, in a murine ovalbumin-induced asthma model.

Clin Exp Allergy. 2008; 39: 280Y289.

136. Kim S, Kim S, Lee S, et al. The effects of PG102, a water-soluble extract from Actinidia

arguta, on serum total IgE levels; a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled

exploratory clinical study. Eur J Nutr. 2011; 50: 523Y529.


565


137. Di C, Yi Y, Hwi M, Chiu Z. The effects of Actinidia sinensis Planch (kiwi) drink

supplementation on athletes training in hot environments. J Sports Med Phys Fitn. 1990;

30: 181Y184.

138. Lin H, Tsau P, Fang S, Liu J. Effect of kiwifruit consumption on sleep quality in adults

with sleep problems. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 2011; 20: 169Y174.

139. Aminlari M, Shekarforoush S, Gheisari H, Golestan L. Effect of actinidin on the protein

solubility, water holding capacity, texture, electrophoretic pattern of beef, and on the

quality attributes of a sausage product. J Food Sci. 2009; 74: C221YC225.

140. Sivam A, Sun-Waterhouse D, Waterhouse G, Quek S, Perrera C. Physiochemical

properties of bread dough and finished bread with added pectin fiber and phenolic

antioxidants. J Food Sci. 2011; 76: H97YH107.

nutritional content and therapeutic potential of …

Documents