Objective 2

Organization of Living Systems

Chemistry connection;

Elements Found in Living Things                             

                                                                                                                                                                                                            

                                  

The student will demonstrate an understanding of the organization of living systems

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE

Specific size and shape

•Metabolism - activities of the cells that provide for an organism's growth, maintenance and repair

•Movement - Some organisms have obvious movement from muscular contraction (e.g. swim, fly, run). Some move by beating of cilia or flagella, or oozing like an amoeba. Others like corals and oysters do not move from place to place.

•Irritability - response to a stimulus (e.g. light or chemicals such as food)

•Growth - increase in cellular mass, and/or increase in number of cells

•Reproduction - formation of another organism. Since viruses cannot reproduce on their own without being inside a host cell, they are not regarded as living organisms.

•Adaptation - ability to adapt to an environment, by either seeking a more suitable environment, or by undergoing modifications to be better fitted to its present surroundings

Living things are . . .

Organized into cells. Grow and develop

Respond to the environment.

Use energy Reproduce

Cells are organized into. . .

Tissues are made of cells Organs are made (not ) from layers of tissue

Organ systems are organs Organ systems that work that work together together make an organism

Reasons for Classification

1.To show relationships between groups

2.To provide a scientific name that is accepted and communicated by scientists from different countries

3.To identify organisms accurately (e.g. poisonous organisms)

Binomial Classification Scientific names

• two-part names in Latin

• first part- Genus (capitalized)

• second part- species (never capitalized)

• Scientific names are used because the same plant or animal in different places may have different common names.

Your scientific name is- Homo sapiens

Taxonomy-how to classify lifeB io log ica l C lass ifica tion

Genus Genus

Genus

Family

Order

Family

Order

C lass

Genus Genus

Family Family

Order

C lass

Phylla

Genus Genus

Genus Genus

Family

Order

Genus

Family

Order

C lass

Family

Genus Genus

Genus Genus

Family

Order

C lass

Phylla

K ingdom

Species

12 The bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, is most closely related to the —

F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki

G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax

H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens

J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus

Related in biological terms means family, genus, species.

F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki

G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax

H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens

J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus

• Genus is always a capital letter,

species is lower case.

• Most closely related would be in the

same genus, Rana.

• ANSWER? • H

49 Which of these classifications is most specific?

A Family

B Genus

C Phylum

D Order

The taxonomy divisions from largest to smallest are:

Kingdoms (5)

Phylum

Class

Order

Family

Genus

species

B- Genus

Animal

PlantFungi

Protista Archebacteria eubacteria

5 Kingdoms

Animalia Plantae

Fungi Protista Archeabacteria Eubacteria

•Mnemonic for Remembering the Classification within a Kingdom•King Paul Cries Out For Good Soup

KingdomPhylum Class Order Family Genus Species

Classification

Animal Kingdom*multicellular*have nuclei*do move *heterotrophic

*examples - sponge, jellyfish, insect, fish, frog, bird, man

Animal Kingdom

Vertebrates- with backbones

Reptiles, mammals, fish, birds… *people, whales, bears, dogs,

cats, frogs, parrots, monkeys etc…

Invertebrates – no backbonesInsects, crustacean …

*jellyfish, snails, sea urchins, lobster,

ants, cockroaches, etc…

Two divisions

Vertibrates are divided into

Cold BloodedDo not generate internal heat

(they sit in the sun to warm up)

ReptilesSnakes, lizards

Fish

Amphibians

Etc…

Warm BloodedThey generate internal

heat

People

Dogs

Cats

Birds

Etc…

Plant Kingdom

*multicellular*have nuclei*do not move *autotrophic*examples - multicellular algae, mosses, ferns, flowering plants (dandelions, roses, etc.), trees, etc

Plant Systems

• There are 3 main plant systems:

• Reproductive – the flower structure

• Transport – the shoot and roots and their xylem and phloem

• Energy – the leaf and other areas of Photosynthesis.

Leaf Tissue – What happens where?

6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2

Photosynthesis

Carbon dioxide Plus Water Produces Glucose And Oxygen

Plants do photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

Kingdom Fungi

*multicellular or single cell*have nuclei*mainly do not move from place to place*heterotrophic (food is digested outside of fungus) *Made of ChitinFeed on dead things – rotting logs etc*examples - mushroom, mold, puffball, shelf/bracket fungus, yeast, etc.

Kingdom Protista 1 cell

*have a true nucleus - eukaryote*some move (cilia, flagella, pseudopodia); others don't*some are autotrophic; others are heterotrophic *examples - amoeba, diatom, euglena, paramecium, some algae (unicellular), etc

Kingdom Monerans

*1 cell*no true nucleus - prokaryote (genetic material scattered and not enclosed by a membrane)*some move (flagellum); others don't*some make their own food (autotrophic); others can't make their own food (heterotrophic)*examples - bacteria, blue-green bacteria (cyanobacteria

Prokaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes are very simple cells they containa membrane (sometimes a cell wall), cytoplasm and a strand of DNA. Prokaryotic cells do not contain a membrane bound nucleus. Bacteria are prokaryotes.

The word "prokaryote" means "before the nucleus"

Bacteria

Cscope no longer uses Moneria

We know classify into two groups

1 Archeobacteria and Eubacteria Archeo is ancient bacteria – can live in extreme enviroments

2 Eubacteria is new bacteria

Outer coat is made of different compositions

8 Some bacteria benefit mammals by helping with —F growth

G defense

H digestion

J respiration

• Kingdom Bacteria has beneficial and harmful members

• The best answer here is H, since digestion systems of mammals contain bacteria.

• Bacteria found in the respiratory system usually result in illness, which would trigger the defenses, not help them.

The building blocks of life

Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells are more advanced cells.

These cells are found in plants, animals, and protists

The eukaryotic cell is composed of 4 main parts: •cell membrane - outer boundary of the cell•cytoplasm - jelly-like fluid interior of the cell•nucleus - the "control center" of the cell, contains the cell's DNA (chromosomes) •organelles - "little organs" that carry out cell functions 

Animal Cell

Cell Part Function Cell membrane Controls what enters and leaves the

cell

Nuclear membrane Controls what enters and leaves the nucleus

Nucleus Control center of the cell

Chromosomes Genetic information in the nucleus

Endoplasmic Reticulum Transport system in cell

Ribosome Organelle makes proteins

Golgi Body Organelle packages proteins

Vacuole Stores water and/or waste

Lysosome Breaks down old cell parts

Mitochondria Organelle for cellular respiration – provides energy

Plant Cells

Chloroplasts –organelle responsible for photosynthesis

Cell Walls – a structure outside of the membrane to provide support

Large vacuoles to store extra water

*These are only in plant cells, not animal cells or bacteria

Plant Cell

Pant cells contains a cell wall, chloroplasts, and a very large vacuole, (animal cells do not have these organelles)Why do plants need large vacuoles?

•ANSWER: This is where food and water are stored.

52 Compared to annual rings of trees that have experienced years of sufficient rainfall, the annual rings of trees that have experienced a dry period will —

F be softer

G grow at a faster rate

H be thinner

J photosynthesize at a faster rate

These would indicate more water, not less

Transporting into Cells -

• Passive movement from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration is diffusion.

• The diffusion of water is called osmosis.

Diffusion

Osmosis is the diffusion of H2O

What is Active Transport?

Energy is used to move selected molecules into a cell, even if they are at a low concentration.

   

34 When a sea urchin egg is removed from the

ocean and placed in freshwater, the egg swells

and bursts. Which of these causes water to enter the egg?

F Coagulation

G Sodium pump

H Active transport

J Osmosis

Means to clump together – Incorrect

Sodium is not being moved – Incorrect The egg would not use energy

to do this since it kills the cell.

This is the movement of water from an area of high concentration (the fresh water) to low concentration (inside the Salt Water Urchin EggSalt Water Urchin Egg)

Cellular Respiration

• C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O

• Occurs in mitochondria of all living things

Cell Reproduction

Mitosis is nuclear division plus cell division, and produces two identical daughter cells – Diploid – double strand DNA

Meiosis is the type of cell division by which germ cells (eggs and sperm) are produced. Meiosis involves a reduction in the amount of genetic material. It creates genetic diversity. It Produces 4 non-identical cells – Haploid -½ DNA

Interphase is the process of growing and functioning.

The Cell Cycle is the life cycle of a cell It has two parts. interphase and reproduction

Mitosis

1

2

3

4

the chromosomes start to gradually shorten and thicken.

chromosome have divided into 2 chromatids, joined at the centromere.

They begin to move towards the equator of the cell.

the centromeres attach to threads of a spindle then pull apart from one

another and move towards opposite ends of the cell.

new nuclear membrane begins to form ll into 2 new cells

26 If a cat has 38 chromosomes in each of its body cells, how many chromosomes will be in each daughter cell after mitosis?

• F 11

• G 19

• H 38

• J 76Mitosis is the normal division of any body cell, so the chromosomes replicate exactly and then separate into two identical cells. So the answer is

H

Genetics – How traits are inherited

• Gregor Mendel- Father of Genetics, he experimented with pea plants.

• Dominant traits always are visible, and are represented by capital letters.

• Recessive traits are hidden unless both alleles are the recessive one -lower case – tt or rr

• At least one pair of alleles determines the trait in genetic inheritance.

Homozygous both are the same – TT or RR

Heterosygous they are different – Tt or Rr

Phenotype is what you see

• How do you know the phenotype?

•

• LOOK!! • Color of hair or eyes, height- etc

Phenotype refers to what is visible – the dominant trait or the recessive trait.

Genotype – actual combination of alleles (genes)

Only 3 possibilities;

BB = Homozygous Dominant

Bb = Heterozygous

bb = Homozygous recessive

You must look at inheritance patterns to find out.

Punnett Squares

D D

d Dd Dd

d Dd Dd

d d

D Dd Dd

d dd dd

D d

D DD Dd

d Dd dd

D d

D DD Dd

D DD Dd

Heterzygous & Homozygous Recessive Heterzygous & Heterozygous

Homozygous Dominant & Heterozygous

Homozygous Recessive & Homozygous Dominant

Genetic Code

• All of the information to make a new organism is contained in the chromosomes of the cell.

• Chromosomes are made of tightly coiled DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid.

• Chromosomes contain genes each of which codes for a single protein.

• There are hundreds to thousands of genes on each chromosome.

Pedigree shows the Family Tree

Male ParentFemale Parent

Carrier

Male Colorblind Male Normal Female ?Female ?

Male Female

Male

Male Female

Male Colorblind Female

Parents: Father has; Mother is a Carrier

Colorblindness Inheritance

The Stuff of Life

• The structure of DNA is called a double helix, or twisted ladder

• The base Guanine always pairs to Cytosine. Adenine pairs to Thymine.

• Except RNA – U is used instead of T

• Mutations are mistakes in the coding.

DNA

DNA is formed of nucleotides, which have 3 parts; a sugar, a phosphate and a nitrogen base make up a nucleotide.

Replication the process of copying DNA

The 4 different nitrogen bases of DNA are;

Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine Guanine.

They pair to form the rungs of the ladder.

Transcription and Translation

Transcription . . .

the messenger RNA reads the DNA in the nucleus

Then it leaves the nucleus to take the information to the ribosome.

The DNA then wraps back up until next time.

Translation . . . Code into words • mRNA takes the code from the

nucleus to the Ribosome• It pairs with Transfer RNA to put

Amino Acids into chains called proteins.

• mRNA pairs to tRNA in the ribosomes

• This protein building is called TRANSLATION.

• *There is no thymine found in RNA, instead there is a similar compound called uracil.

                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               

What does this chart represent? It says codons, and has U instead of T, so it must be mRNA.

53 The table shows a comparison of some amino acids found in cytochrome c. The two organisms in the table that are most closely related are —

A Q and T B R and SC Q and R D Q and S

To be closely related means the amino acid composition should be almost the same, since that is what the DNA is coding. Between Q and T, only 4 levels are

the same – Between R and S only 4 levels are

the same – Between Q and S 5 of the levels

are the same, but – Between Q and R 5 of the levels

are the same and differ in the other 2 by a smaller percent. Answer:

Not A

Not B

Not D

C

What is the DNA base pair rule?

24 If the template of a strand of DNA is 5' AGATGCATC 3', the complementary strandwill be —F 3' TCTACGTAG 5'G 5' CTACGTAGA 3'H 3' AGATGCATC 5'J 5' AGACGTCTA 3'

In DNA A to T and T to A, C to G and G to C

5' AGATGCATC 3‘

TCTACGTAG

• Base pair each letter by the above rule.

• So the answer is:

• F

38 In DNA, which of the following determines the traits of an organism? F Amount of adenine

G Number of sugars

H Sequence of nitrogen

Bases

J Strength of hydrogen bonds

This is only one of the 4 nitrogen bases, it can’t code for anything by itself.

Every nitrogen base is attached to a sugar,

so this is not correct.

Hydrogen bonds strength does not change enough to code for trait changes.

Correct

For more information on body systems go tohttp://www.innerbody.com/image/skelfov.html

Homeostasis

The body must maintain a balanced state:

body temperature, pulse rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, urine output, digestive absorption, metabolism rate, growth rate and hormone levels

This is the maintenance of the normal operating conditions of an organism.

Integumentary System

Skin, Nails & Hair

The skin is the largest organ in the body: 12-15% of body weight.

• mucous membranes that line the mouth, etc• Two distinct layers occur in the skin: the dermis and

epidermis. • for protection, temperature regulation, sensory

reception, biochemical synthesis, and absorption.

Skeletal System

Bones are the support system & structure of the body

*Make blood cells

*Allow movement

Muscles are on the outside of the endoskeleton.

Note- Sharks, and rays have skeletons composed entirely of cartilage

;

Vertebrates have developed an internal mineralized endoskeleton composed of bone and/or cartilage.

Structural System – Muscles

*3 types of muscles Smooth, involuntary

Striated, voluntary

Cardiac, heart muscle

*Allow for movement

*Attached by tendons

above and below joints

17 Which structure in the upper arm isresponsible for raising the lower arm?A 1B 2C 3D 4

1 or 2 is used to lower the arm

4 is a bone not a muscle

3

Nervous System

Nerve cells send and receive information

Voluntary- you control and choose Involuntary- allows parts to keep functioning without you knowing

Consists of brain, spinal chord, nerves

Nervous System

Axon – Sends signal

Cell Body – controls cell functions

Dendrite – Receives signal from another

Nerve cells have 3 parts:

*Synapse space between cells

Digestive System

Animals are heterotrophs, they must absorb nutrients or ingest food sources.

The majority of animals, use a mouth to ingest food. .

Circulatory System This system helps to connect many other systems as it provides the transport of substances from one organ to another.

Every cell must touch a blood vessel to take in what it needs and get rid of waste.

Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry it back to the heart.

The heart pumps the blood

Circulatory System - 2

The top parts of the heart receive blood – Atrium

The bottom two are very muscular and pump the blood – Ventricles

Two contractions,right ventricle pumps to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps to the body and brain.

A circulatory system

B integumentary system

C excretory system

D endocrine system

29 Nutrients from digested food move from the digestive system directly into the —

Endocine system does not transport anything. So . . .

Excretory system gets rid of waste CO2 and H2O, not food. So . .

Integumentary system holds organs and tissues in place. So. . .

The Circulatory System carries everything to every cell, so it is . . C

The Respiratory System and Gas Exchange

A supply of oxygen is required for the aerobic respiratory.

There must be an exchange of gases: carbon dioxide leaving the cell, oxygen entering.

Animals have organ systems involved in facilitating this exchange as well as the

transport of gases .

Reproductive System

The ability to reproduce one self is a characteristic of all living things.

Sexual reproduction produces offspring that are genetically different from their parents.

Asexual reproduction produces offspring genetically identical to their parent.

The medulla, part of the brain stem, reacts quickly to increased levels of CO2 in the blood and stimulates a response from the —

A excretory system

B immune system

C respiratory system

D integumentary system

Increased respiration gets rid of excess CO2

Immune System - 1• Your immune system protects you from

infections and illness • 1st Order Non-specific includes skin,

mucous membranes, cilia of trachea and bronchi, stomach acid, tears

• 2nd Order includes the inflammatory response (swelling, redness due to histamine release), fever, white blood cells such as phagocytes and macrophages destroying the pathogens and infected tissue cells.

Bacterial InfectionMost bacteria are beneficial to living organism, even

necessary, but some are harmful. Bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics. They can be

killed since they are alive.

Bacteria are living cells and can multiply very rapidly. Inside the body they attack tissues and release poisons or toxins.

Diseases caused by bacteria include:•food poisoning, or salmonella •cholera •typhoid •whooping cough

Bacteria• Bacteria can cause illnesses too, however

90% of all bacteria is helpful, NOT harmful. • Without bacteria, you would not be able to

make or eat cheese or ice cream. Without them, you would be ill most of the time.

• Strep Throat and Staph infections are examples of bacterial infections.

Viral Illness

Viruses are specific to their hosts. They can only attack specific cells, and not all viruses can pass between different species (though some can).

Rabies, for instance, can be passed from animal to human. HIV is a virus that seems specific to humans.

The common cold is a virus that attacks cells of the respiratory track (hence the coughing and sneezing and sniffling).

HIV virus specifically attacks white blood cells.

Measles, mumps, colds, influenza, Cold Sores, mononucleosis, Epstein-Barr virus are all illnesses that are caused by a virus.

Virus

Viruses are made of DNA and a protein coat, since they do not actually grow, reproduce (on their own) or carry out other life functions, they are not considered to be living organisms. They use other organism’s cells to reproduce.

j)

                                                                                                                                             

HIV Virus attaching to the helper T-cells

How HIV infects cells

HIV infects an immune system cell, the T Helper Cell.

Once infected, the T-Helper cell turns into an HIV replicating cell.

There are 1 million T-cells per one milliliter of blood

HIV will slowly reduce the number of these cells until the person develops the disease AIDS.

HIV Infection

1 - HIV enters the host by attaching to host receptors. It is as if the virus has a specific key that only works on the host cell with the right lock.

2 - The viral RNA and core proteins are released into the cytoplasm where reverse transcription converts the viral RNA to DNA..

3 - Viral DNA, now double stranded is transported into the nucleus. In the nucleus, the enzyme called integrase fuses it with the host cell's normal DNA. Viral DNA can persist within the cell's DNA for many years in a

latent state, which further complicates efforts to treat or cure the disease.

4 - The RNAs are transported to the cytoplasm and the golgi apparatus where their message is used to create viral proteins, which will become part of the completed virus.

5 - Using the proteins assembled from the golgi apparatus and the completed viral RNA, the mature virus buds off from its host cell.

6-The process of budding destroys the host cell.

Treating viral infections

Drugs such as AZT by inhibiting the function of reverse transcript, thus preventing the virus from converting the

RNA to DNA.

Another enzyme, protease is needed to assemble the proteins. Protease inhibitors are another drug used to combat AIDS.

Viruses are not alive so you cannot kill them.

(You have to treat the symptoms or prevent replication)

6 Most viruses infect a specific kind of cell. Which of the following are infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)?

F Helper T cells

G Liver cells

H GABA-receptor cells

J Red blood cells

Ask yourself, which cell type deals with immunity?

F Helper T cells

G Liver cells

H GABA-receptor cells

J Red blood cells

• Answer? F

Helper T cells.

• All the rest are body cells with specific jobs that do not relate to immunity.

Cells AliveHttp://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/index.htm

When cells reproduce out of control tumors are formed. It may or may not be malignant (the type that spreads and kills).

Cancer