on the explicit and implicit effects of in-game advertising

On the Explicit and Implicit

Effects of

In-Game Advertising

A master's thesis by Joël Bosch

On the Explicit and Implicit Effects of In-Game Advertising

Joël Bosch

s0823287

[email protected]

January 2014

Master's Thesis

Communication and Information Sciences

Radboud University Nijmegen

Tutor: Prof. dr. W. Spooren

Second assessor: I. Stassen, MA

1

Summary In this thesis, a study is reported on the effects of in-game advertising. The study

combines qualitative and quantitative methods. Interviews with in-game advertising

professionals have been conducted to help understand the current thoughts of professionals

about the effectiveness of in-game advertising and how it is currently used within the

industry. After that an experiment was conducted to investigate the effectiveness of in-game

billboards using a paper questionnaire and an Implicit Association Test. The professionals

were pessimistic about the current state of in-game advertising, optimistic about its

possibilities and potential, but noted that game developers were hesitant to conduct research

themselves out of fear for unbeneficial results. The experimental results provide evidence for

the positive effects of in-game brands on the explicit and implicit attitudes and possible

moderating effects of cognitive capacity. Additionally, it was found that recognition may play

an important role in the effects of in-game advertising on the explicit attitude.

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Table of contents

Summary .............................................................................................................................. 1

Chapter 1 - Introduction ..................................................................................................... 4

§ 1.1 - In-game advertising and the gaming industry ....................................................... 4

§ 1.2 - Shortcomings of in-game advertising research ..................................................... 6

Chapter 2 - Literature review ............................................................................................. 7

§ 2.1 - Subconscious influences ........................................................................................ 7

§ 2.2 - Explicit and implicit attitudes ................................................................................ 8

§ 2.3 - The moderating effect of difficulty level ................................................................ 9

Chapter 3 - Method ........................................................................................................... 11

§ 3.1 - Interviews ............................................................................................................ 11

§ 3.2 - Experimental design and sample ......................................................................... 12

§ 3.3 - Materials .............................................................................................................. 12

§ 3.4 - Experimental conditions ...................................................................................... 14

§ 3.5 - Measures .............................................................................................................. 14

§ 3.5.1 - Explicit attitude ................................................................................................ 14

§ 3.5.2 - Implicit attitude ................................................................................................ 15

§ 3.5.3 - Control variables .............................................................................................. 17

§ 3.6 - Analysis ................................................................................................................ 18

§ 3.7 - Analysis model ..................................................................................................... 20

Chapter 4 - Qualitative results ......................................................................................... 21

§ 4.1 - In-game advertising in the present ...................................................................... 21

§ 4.2 - In-game advertising in the future ........................................................................ 23

Chapter 5 - Quantitative results ....................................................................................... 24

§ 5.1 - Testing the main model ........................................................................................ 24


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§ 5.2 - Testing the associative explanation and other control variables ........................ 27



Chapter 6 - Conclusion and discussion ............................................................................ 31

§ 6.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 31

§ 6.1.1 Interviews ............................................................................................................ 31

§ 6.1.2 Explicit attitude ................................................................................................... 32

§ 6.1.3 Implicit attitude ................................................................................................... 32

§ 6.2 Limitations ............................................................................................................. 33

§ 6.3 Discussion .............................................................................................................. 34

References ........................................................................................................................... 36

Ludology ............................................................................................................................. 42

Appendices ......................................................................................................................... 43

Appendix I: In-game screenshots .................................................................................... 43

Appendix II: IAT pictures ............................................................................................... 47

Appendix III: Paper questionnaire ................................................................................. 48

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Chapter 1 - Introduction § 1.1 - In-game advertising and the gaming industry

In-game advertising is a form of advertising that holds a lot of promise for advertisers,

game developers and even gamers. It is hard to place a number on how many people play

games exactly because of how many different gaming platforms there are and because not all

companies involved share sales figures. It is apparent, however, that games enjoy a large

audience, most of which is very interesting for advertisers. A few examples of the popularity

of some of the more successful games will illustrate the impressive size of the gaming

industry:

The game World of Warcraft (Blizzard Entertainment, 2004) currently has over 8 million

active subscribers (Nunneley, 2013; Tassi, 2013), all paying a fairly substantial fee of €11 to

€13 per month. The fairly recent game Call of Duty: Black Ops 2 (Activision Blizzard, 2012)

hit one billion dollars in sales in just fifteen days (Thier, 2012). And one of the currently most

played pc games is League of Legends (Riot Games, 2009). The game is played by 32 million

players each month and they play it for more than one billion hours every month (Merrill,

2012).

Besides these high-budget games, low-budget games are sold more and more with the

increased popularity of social media and smartphones. The popular game Candy Crush Saga

(King, 2012), available both on Facebook and as an application on phones, has over 6.6

million daily active users with an estimated $632.867 daily revenue (MacIsaac, 2013). Other

big players on the market are Rovio and Zynga. Rovio has had its games downloaded more

than 1 billion times (Rovio, 2013) thanks to the success of Angry Birds (Rovio, 2009) and in

2012 Zynga had a total revenue of close to $1.3 billion thanks to popular games such as

Farmville (Zynga, 2009; Zynga, 2013).

The gaming audience is more diverse than is usually assumed. The stereotypical image of

a gamer is a young male. According to research by Newzoo (2011) amongst 20.000 people

from ten different countries, 47 % of all gamers are female, although with an average of 3.6

hours per week they spend less time on gaming than males (5.3 hours per week on average).

According to research by the Entertainment Software Association (ESA; 2012), 47 % of the

gamers in the USA is female as well (p. 3). While games are mostly played by younger

people, older people also play games frequently. According to the ESA the average age of

gamers in the USA is thirty and only 32 % of the gamers is younger than eighteen (p. 2).

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Besides the potential to reach a very large audience, another important advantage of in-

game advertising for advertisers is that this type of advertising cannot be easily avoided.

Because advertisements are mainly seen as a nuisance by many consumers, they may try to

avoid advertising (Stühmeister & Wenzel, 2010, p. 2) and they have various ways of doing so.

They can avoid television commercials by changing the channel, diverting their attention to

other things, by leaving the room entirely, muting or turning off the television while the

commercials are playing and with the aid of a digital video recorder they can even fast-

forward through the commercials to the next program (Wilbur, 2008, p. 143). On the internet

it is not so different. Of all the different forms of advertising, unsolicited e-mails and pop-up

ads are found to be the most intrusive and annoying (Kim & Pasadeos, 2006), causing

consumers to ignore the advertisements (called 'banner blindness', see Cho & Cheon, 2004, p.

89) and even use software like spam-filters and ad-blockers (e.g., adblockplus.org) to prevent

themselves from being exposed to the advertisements entirely. In-game advertising does not

suffer nearly as much from these issues. Even though in-game advertising can be ignored,

there is hardly any software and no hardware available that will remove it completely and

because gamers are busy working on their game objectives, they cannot easily walk away

from the advertising.

Another key aspect of in-game advertising is that most gamers do not want to avoid

exposure to it. Several studies have indicated that gamers do not mind in-game advertising or

even appreciate it when used congruently and in an appropriate gaming genre, so that it may

enhance the realism of the game (Lewis & Porter, 2010; Nelson, 2002; Nelson, Keum &

Yaros, 2004). This is both of benefit to consumers, who can enjoy games with in-game

advertising more, and to game developers, who do not receive as much criticism for including

in-game advertisements.

Game developers can sell in-game advertising space to advertisers to help finance the

investments that are involved with the development of the games, which can be up to €40

million for a top-quality game (Yildiz, personal communication, March 29th, 2011). Except

for the income some developers manage to get through pre-order sales, in-game advertising is

the only income games can generate before they are released. Another way in which game

developers can benefit from in-game advertising is through joint promotion. An example is

the extra downloadable content (DLC) for the game Your Shape Fitness Evolved (Ubisoft,

2010) by Nivea. This DLC involved some extra workouts for the game provided by Nivea and

had plenty of in-game advertising for Nivea. The benefit for Ubisoft was that this DLC would

be also be included in a Nivea advertising campaign, creating much more exposure for the

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game than Ubisoft would have been able to afford by themselves (Yildiz, personal

communication, March 29th, 2011).

In-game advertising sees great use, achieving an extra yearly revenue in the gaming

industry of between one and two billion dollars (Batchelor, 2011; MarketingCharts, 2007;

Yildiz, 2007), although they are not sure about the actual effectiveness of the advertisements

for the advertised brands (Bosch, 2013, pp. 6-7). In order to paint a more accurate picture of

how in-game advertising is currently valued by developers and advertisers, interviews with

professionals have been conducted.

§ 1.2 - Shortcomings of in-game advertising research

The main issues that are addressed in this thesis deal with the actual effectiveness of in-

game advertising. There has been plenty of research that has looked into this problem, but it

has not yet yielded a complete image.

The majority of the early research on in-game advertising was focused on how well

gamers could consciously recognize and recall the advertisements (Chaney, Lin & Chaney,

2004; Grigorovici & Constantin, 2004; Herrewijn & Poels, 2011; Janssen & Helmich, 2011;

Lee & Faber, 2007; Lemon, 2006; Leng, Quah & Zainuddin, 2010; Lewis & Porter, 2010;

Nelson, 2002; Nelson, Yaros & Keum, 2006; Schneider & Cornwell, 2005; Winkler &

Buckner, 2003; Yang, Roskos-Ewoldsen, Dinu & Arpan, 2006). The results of these studies

mostly point at mediocre recall and recognition, suggesting that in-game advertising is not

very efficient. Psychological research in other areas, however, has unveiled the possibility of

information affecting people's memory and behaviour without the necessity for recalling or

recognizing the information (Graf & Schacter, 1985; Schacter, 1987; Shapiro, MacInnis &

Heckler, 1997; see also: Milner, Corkin & Teuber, 1968). Recent research seems to indicate

that these subconscious effects are also present in in-game advertising (Yang et al., 2006;

Glass, 2007; Bosch, 2013). This might be one of the most important aspects of the

effectiveness of in-game advertising and warrants further investigation.

For the purpose of achieving a better understanding of the effects of in-game advertising,

this thesis investigates the effects on both the conscious, explicit attitude and the

subconscious, implicit attitude (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995). For the experiment, participants

played a game in which in-game billboards were manipulated to be one of two distinct brands.

After the gaming session, their explicit and implicit attitudes were measured with the help of

survey questions and an Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee & Schwartz,

1998), respectively.

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Chapter 2 - Literature review § 2.1 - Subconscious influences

In the 1950s, when the western world had started to recover from the Second World War,

the consumer society was flourishing in the United States. At first factories were producing

their products en masse and the only thing that could hinder their profit was their inability to

produce more. But as technological advances enabled factories to produce more and more, the

American consumers started to be satisfied with what they had. The economy would surely

collapse if consumers would stop buying new products because their needs were already

satisfied. This is when the demand for advertising experts grew, for they were the ones to

create demand for their products and keep the consumers consuming (Packard, 1957/1960).

With the need for advertising, the need for advertising research grew as well. It became

apparent to the researchers that it was hard to predict consumer behaviour. When a brewery

that produced two different kinds of beer commissioned a study, the interviewers asked

customers what their favourite kind of beer was: the regular beer or the export-quality. 75 %

of the customers answered that they preferred the export-quality beer, but in reality the

brewery sold 9 times more regular beer than export-quality (Packard, 1957/1960, p. 21). This

led the researchers to believe there was more than meets the eye and they started investigating

subconscious processes.

In the beginning researchers tried to find consumers' true motives by using motivational

research and psycho-analytical methods such as the Rorschach inkblot test, the Thematic

Apperception Test and the Szondi test (Packard, 1957/1960, pp. 42-44). All of these tests

seemed to indicate that people could have hidden motives differing from their conscious

motives and that these hidden motives could influence consumer behaviour without them

being aware of it. And not only did the researchers find that it was possible for consumers'

decisions to be influenced by hidden motives, they later also discovered that it was possible

for outside sources to influence these hidden motives without consumers being aware of it

(e.g., Shapiro et al., 1997; Tulving & Schacter, 1990; Zajonc, 2001). Experiments with

patients suffering from amnesia have indicated that people are capable of processing

information without being fully aware of it (Graf & Schacter, 1985; Schacter, 1987; Tulving,

Schacter & Stark, 1982; see also: Milner et al., 1968). Graf and Schacter (1985) call this

‘implicit memory’; they called the conscious processing of information ‘explicit memory’.

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§ 2.2 - Explicit and implicit attitudes

The distinction between explicit and implicit memory can also be made for attitudes

(Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Wilson, Lindsey & Schooler, 2000). People can have two

attitudes about the same object that can differ from each other. Which attitude has the most

influence on behaviour is determined by the amount of available cognitive capacity and the

motivation to reason (Friese, Hofmann & Wänke, 2008; Wilson et al., 2000). When sufficient

cognitive capacity is available and the motivation to reason is high, one will consciously

consider one’s actions and behaviour will most likely be guided by the conscious, explicit

attitude. When an individual is stressed for time or otherwise not motivated or able to

consciously consider his actions, he will act spontaneously and his actions will unknowingly

be guided by his implicit attitude (Fazio & Olson, 2003, pp. 304-305; Rydell & McConnell,

2006). Not only do they guide behaviour in different situations, explicit and implicit attitude

are also formed in different ways. Whereas explicit attitudes changed quickly and were

affected by deliberate processing goals, implicit attitudes changed slowly, were unaffected by

processing goals and more influenced by associative information (Rydell & McConnell, 2006,

p. 1006).

Two studies have looked at the potential effects of in-game advertising on the implicit

attitude. They both seem to indicate that in-game advertising can affect the implicit attitude.

Glass (2007) found that in-game product placements can positively affect the participants’

implicit attitude for the advertised brands. Bosch (2013) found that in-game billboards can

positively affect the participants’ implicit attitude for the advertised brands when they were

not under a high cognitive load. Results from studies that have looked into the effects on the

explicit attitude (Grigorovici & Constantin, 2004; Herrewijn & Poels, 2011; Sharma, Mizerski

& Lee, 2007) suggest that in-game billboards and product placements also have a positive

effect on the corresponding explicit attitude.

Distinguishing between explicit and implicit attitudes and including both in the same

analysis can help yield a more complete image about the effects of in-game advertising.

Hence the following hypotheses will be tested:

Hypothesis 1: The presence of in-game billboards has a positive effect on the explicit attitude

towards the advertised brand.

Hypothesis 2: The presence of in-game billboards has a positive effect on the implicit attitude

towards the advertised brand.

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§ 2.3 - The moderating effect of difficulty level

Previous in-game advertising research has indicated that there may be an important

moderator involved in the effects of in-game advertising on brand attitude. Herrewijn and

Poels (2011) investigated the moderating effect of difficulty level on the effect of in-game

advertising on the explicit brand attitude. They found that the positive effect of in-game

advertising on the explicit attitude was significantly stronger in the lowest difficulty level than

in the highest. Their explanation of this moderation was based on associations. They argued

that this could be explained by participants enjoying the game more at the lower difficulty

level and thus forming more positive associations with the advertised brands than participants

who enjoyed the game less because they were more frustrated by playing at a higher difficulty

level. In this thesis, an alternative explanation is proposed.

This alternative explanation is provided by the Limited Capacity Model (LCM; Lang,

2000) and is based on cognitive processing capacity. According to the LCM, a human being’s

information processing capacity is limited. Before information can be processed any further, it

will first have to reach our senses. Our sensory store may well be able to store a virtually

unlimited amount of information (Lang, 2000, p.48), but is available for only a short amount

of time. This information will have to be stored in the long term memory in order to be

remembered or recognized. However, people cannot house all of the information in their

sensory store in their long term memory, so specific information will have to be selected for

further processing. Both controlled and automatic processes can influence this selection

(Donohew, Lorch & Palmgreen, 1998, p. 454; Lang, 2000, p. 48). Controlled processes work

towards the goals of individuals. They can, for instance, decide to pay extra attention to

people in white shirts, which could mean they will no longer have sufficient cognitive

capacity available to notice what else might happen (Simons & Chabris, 1999). Automatic

processes are mostly activated by the stimulus because it is relevant to the goals and needs of

the individual or represents change or an unexpected occurrence in the environment (Lang,

2000, p. 49). These controlled and automatic processes guide the allocation of cognitive

processing capacity. When playing a game, cognitive capacity will be allocated to the

processing of the information that is needed to play the game through controlled processes.

Through automatic processes, other stimuli in the digital environment may attract the

allocation of the remaining available cognitive processing capacity. In the study by Herrewijn

and Poels (2011), it is possible that there was a moderating effect of difficulty level because

participants in higher difficulty levels would have to process more information through in

order to play the game than in lower difficulty levels. This could lead participants in the

10

higher difficulty levels to be so occupied with playing the game that they had insufficient

cognitive resources left to process advertising to a degree where they would be influenced as

much as the participants in the lower difficulty levels, who had more cognitive resources left

to process other stimuli in the digital environment, like advertisements.

This cognitive explanation would expect the same results as found in the article by

Herrewijn and Poels (2011). Results from another study concerning the effects of in-game

advertising on the explicit attitude seem to support the proposed cognitive explanation. This

study by Grigorovici and Constantin (2004) included secondary tasks. It was found that for at

least one out of three brands, the secondary tasks moderated the effects of the in-game

advertising, indicating that participants under a high cognitive load were less positively

affected by the in-game advertising. The cognitive explanation seems to fit the results of both

of these studies. To test this, the following hypothesis is stated:

Hypothesis 3: When the difficulty level of a game is higher, the positive effect of in-game

billboards on the explicit attitude is weaker.

A similar hypothesis was stated for the moderating effect of the difficulty level of the

game on the relation between the in-game brand and the implicit attitude, even though Bosch

(2013, p. 32) argued that an increased cognitive load would not necessarily hinder the effect

of in-game advertising on the implicit attitude, because it is known that attention for the

advertisement is no prerequisite for implicit memory (Shapiro & Krishnan, 2001) or the

influence of the advertisement on the consideration of advertised brands (Shapiro et al.,

1997). Surprisingly, the results from his study showed that the positive effect of in-game

advertising on the implicit attitude could only be found in the low difficulty condition, which

does suggest a moderating effect of difficulty level. However, only two difficulty levels were

used, which does not indicate whether the moderating effect might be linear or shaped like an

inverted U. Adding a medium difficulty level will give us more information about the

moderating effect of cognitive load. Hence the last hypothesis is as follows:

Hypothesis 4: When the difficulty level of a game is higher, the positive effect of in-game

billboards on the implicit attitude is weaker.

However, testing these hypotheses will not give an estimation of whether the associative

explanation by Herrewijn and Poels (2011) is superior to the proposed cognitive explanation

11

of the effect. If the moderating effect of difficulty level is best explained by the associative

explanation because difficulty level of the game correlates with the frustration level of the

player which affects the associations with the advertised brand, then a more direct

measurement of frustration during the play session should be able to give better a prediction

of the player’s explicit or implicit attitude than the difficulty level. Whether this holds true

will be examined in § 5.2.

Chapter 3 - Method § 3.1 - Interviews

To paint a proper picture of how in-game advertising is currently valued by developers

and advertisers, interviews have been conducted with professionals. These professionals were

contacted using a snowball sample, starting with professionals who had previously been

interviewed by the researcher. For the purpose of this research, the professional opinion of the

interviewed on a number of subthemes were interesting and for this reason half-structured

interviews (Baudoin, 2010) were used, using a topic list in accordance with the Grounded

Theory approach (Hijmans & Wester, 2006, p. 508) to be able to expand upon the existing

understanding of the in-game advertising business as is described in the first chapter. The

topic list initially featured a set of topics regarding present professional opinions about in-

game advertising and expected future directions. Once the first interviews had been conducted

and relevant new topics had been brought up or previous topics had reached the point of

saturation, the topic list was altered and new interviews were conducted until a relatively

cohesive picture was discovered. The interviews were all conducted in Dutch, hence the

interviewed will not be quoted, only paraphrased.

The three in-game advertising professionals who were interviewed for this thesis were

Hufen (personal communication, October 9th, 2013), owner of BrandNewGame and author of

a book about in-game advertising, Yildiz (personal communication, October 10th, 2013),

strategic sales manager at Ubisoft and Te Brake (personal communication, October 21th,

2013), owner of iQU. Hufen has worked for a game developer (Atari Benelux), a clothing

brand that has actively advertised in games (Diesel) and an advertising agency (Crossmarks).

After that he founded BrandNewGame, a consultancy and concepting company. Yildiz has

been successful as a strategic sales manager at game developer Ubisoft, setting up numerous

partnerships that involved in-game advertising. Te Brake has been a successful investor,

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specializing in games and gaming companies. These three professionals were able to share the

viewpoints of advertisers, game developers and investors in gaming companies.

§ 3.2 - Experimental design and sample

A two by three between-subjects experiment was conducted with male students at the

Radboud University campus in Nijmegen in the Netherlands. The experiment was a variation

of the experiment done by Bosch (2013). It differed from the original experiment in that an

extra difficulty level was added during the gaming session and a different measure was used

for the explicit attitude. The participants started the experiment with a gaming session, using a

game in which billboard advertisements had been manipulated. Participants then filled in a

paper questionnaire (Appendix III) to measure their explicit attitude and additional variables

and demographics. After completing the questionnaire, they performed an IAT (Greenwald et

al., 1998) to measure their implicit attitude. The IAT is described in greater detail in § 3.5.2.

The sample consisted of 103 male students. The sample only included men in order to

prevent sex differences from influencing the experiment and only students in order to limit

age-related influences. It is likely that there are distinct differences in the ways men and

women experience computer games (Hartmann & Klimmt, 2006) and in the pace at which

men of differing ages can process information (Deary & Der, 2005). Hence it is possible that

the effects of in-game advertising differ for people of different sexes or ages.

§ 3.3 - Materials

The game Need for Speed: Underground 2 (Electronic Arts, 2004) was used for the

experiment. Similar to games used in many other research articles (Lee & Faber, 2007;

Nelson, 2002; Nelson et al. 2006; Schneider & Cornwell, 2005; Sharma et al., 2007; Winkler

& Buckner, 2006; Yang et al., 2006), this is a racing game. The racing game genre offers

certain advantages for use in experiments, because it often includes in-game advertising and is

easy to pick up for the participants (Bosch, 2013, p. 15). Moreover, this specific racing game

has been used in previous studies (Bosch, 2013; Ho, 2007; Janssen & Helmich, 2011), which

makes the results more easily comparable.

Need for Speed: Underground 2 is the eighth title of the popular Need for Speed racing

games. The goal in the game is to win races that are situated in a city. In-game advertising can

be found on many billboards along the tracks throughout the city, as decoration on the racing

cars and in the brands of the cars themselves. All of the playable cars in the game resemble

real cars and brands outside of the game and the billboards in the city feature both fake and

13

real brands such as Burger King, Autozone and Old Spice. For the purpose of this research, the

branded decoration on the cars was not used in the experiment and the brand of the car was

kept constant for all conditions. The brands of the fast cars in the high difficulty condition

were randomly selected and the slow moving cars in the medium and high difficulty

conditions were not branded.

Billboards were manipulated in this study, resulting in two modified versions of the game,

each with a different brand represented on certain billboards (Appendix I). Because

differences in size and position of the billboards can have an impact on the effect of the

advertisement (Janssen & Helmich, 2011) the exact same billboards were manipulated in both

versions and the same track was used for all participants. In order to equalize the amount of

exposure to the manipulated billboards as much as possible for all participants, special care

was taken when selecting the billboards that were used in the experiment. The billboards that

were selected are in positions along the track where it is unlikely for a participant to make a

mistake which could cause the participant to slow down and be exposed to a manipulated

billboard for a longer amount of time. The track called 'Jackpot' was used for the experiment,

because it features very few alternate routes which could limit exposure to the manipulated

billboards.

The brands that were added to the game for the experiment were the beer brands

Carlsberg and Budweiser. The effects of the advertisements for the two different brands were

compared between subjects, because a standard IAT requires a comparison between two

independent variables. Each experimental condition featured one of these brands on a selected

numbers of billboards along the track. These brands are very well suited for researching the

development of the attitudes of Dutch students (Bosch, 2013, p. 16), because in order to

measurably affect an attitude with a manipulation as subtle as an in-game advertisement, the

participants need to be interested in the subject of the advertisements, without already having

a very strong attitude for the specific brand (Campbell & Keller, 2003). Carlsberg and

Budweiser are both well advertised internationally, so that Dutch students were likely to know

that they are beer brands. But because Carlsberg and Budweiser are hardly available in the

Netherlands, it was unlikely that the participants would have a very strong preference for

either of these brands. On top of that, these brands have clear brand logos that are both easily

recognizable and distinguishable and featured a white background. These logos could both be

implemented in the game and in the IAT.

14

§ 3.4 - Experimental conditions

For each brand, there were three different conditions featuring different difficulty levels.

Each of these difficulty levels was meant to put a different amount of strain on the cognitive

capacity of the participant (Bosch, 2013, p. 16). In each of these difficulty levels the goal for

the participants was to race three laps as quickly as possible. In the low difficulty level, the

participant only had to race three laps as quickly as possible on an empty track. In the medium

difficulty level, the participant also had to race three laps as quickly as possible, but now had

to avoid a low amount of slow moving traffic along the way. In the high difficulty level, the

participant had to race three laps as quickly as possible while avoiding a high amount of slow

moving traffic and a number of fast moving opponents guided by artificial intelligence. The

easy difficulty level demanded the lowest amount of cognitive capacity to be directed at

playing the game, because it provided the lowest amount of important information to be

processed. The medium difficulty level demanded a moderate amount of cognitive capacity to

be directed at playing the game, because the participant had to pay extra attention to avoid

hitting other traffic on the track. Finally, the high difficulty level demanded the highest

amount of cognitive capacity to be directed at playing the game, because there was much

more traffic to avoid on the track and opponents to beat. Each of these difficulty levels

confronted the participant with a different amount of important information to process in

order to quickly reach the finish line.

§ 3.5 - Measures

All variables except for the implicit attitude were measured with a paper questionnaire.

The implicit attitude was measured with an IAT. After the participants had played their

gaming session, they first completed the paper questionnaire. Once they had completed the

questionnaire, they returned to the computer to do the IAT. How the implicit and the explicit

attitudes were measured and which control variables were taken into account is discussed in

the following paragraphs.

§ 3.5.1 - Explicit attitude

In previous in-game advertising research, the explicit attitude has often been measured

with a Likert-scale (Grigorovici & Constantin, 2004; Herrewijn & Poels, 2011; Lemon,

2006). However, Bosch (2013, p. 31) suggested that a single 7-point scale might not have a

level of sensitivity that is comparable to that of an IAT, making it possible that a similarly

subtle effect of exposure to in-game advertising is picked up by the IAT, but not by the

15

explicit attitude self-report measure. In previous studies that compared explicit attitudes to

IAT outcomes (e.g., Greenwald et al. 1998; Karpinski & Hilton, 2001) respondents were often

asked to rate their level of liking on a thermometer scale ranging from 0 (cold) to 50 (neutral)

to 100 (hot). Hence, the explicit attitude was measured using a thermometer scale instead of

Likert-scales so that subtler effects might still be measurable. To prevent this measure from

influencing the participants for the recognition task at the end of the questionnaire,

participants were asked to rate their level of liking for 24 different beer and soda brands, only

one of which was the advertised beer brand.

§ 3.5.2 - Implicit attitude

The implicit attitude was measured by an IAT (Greenwald et al., 1998). There are many

different versions of the IAT available, but in this study a version was used which was

translated to Dutch and used pictures to represent the brands that are advertised in-game

(Bosch, 2013, pp. 49-58). This IAT was designed to measure which of two categories of

stimuli was associated most with either positive or negative evaluative terms. People associate

their favourite brand more with positive terms and can more easily categorize their favourite

brand in the same category as positive terms than negative terms, causing them to react

quicker than when they are tasked to categorize the same brand in the same category as

negative terms. The IAT can measure the reaction times for each task and compare them to

calculate their implicit preference.

The categories used in the IAT in this experiment represent Carlsberg and Budweiser - the

brands that were advertised in the game. Nosek, Greenwald & Banaji (2005) noted that two

pictures per category can be sufficient to find measurable effects. They also found that a

larger amount of pictures increased the accuracy of the IAT by only a minimal amount; it is

better to use a few pictures that are strong representations of the category than to use a

multitude of pictures that are weak representations. Thus only three different pictures were

chosen to form each category. The pictures were adopted from Bosch (2013, p. 48; Appendix

II). They all clearly represented their category and were clearly distinguishable due to the

dominance of the colour green in the pictures which represented Carlsberg and the colour red

in the pictures which represented Budweiser.

The IAT consisted of seven blocks. The participant received a different task for each

block. Before the start of each block, they were provided with an explanation of their specific

task for that block. During the IAT, the participants only had to use three keys: the 'e'-key and

the 'i'-key during the block and the spacebar to continue after the explanation (the

16

international default US keyboard settings were used). In the top left and the top right side of

the screen, the categories which the keys represented were displayed. The 'e'-key, which is

situated on the left side of the keyboard, always represented the categories on the top left side

of the screen. The 'i'-key, which is situated on the right side of the 'e'-key, represented the

categories on the top right side of the screen. The participant was to place one finger of each

hand on one of these keys and every time an image or a word popped up in the middle of the

screen, they had to press the key that corresponded to the right category for that image or

word. For example: when the category 'good' was noted in the top left side of the screen and

the word 'pleasant' appeared in the middle of the screen, the participant was to hit the 'e'-key.

In the first two blocks, the participant was explained how they were supposed to use the

IAT. In the first block, they were introduced to the pictures for the beer brands, which they

were to categorize under Carlsberg or Budweiser. In the second block, they were introduced

to the positive and negative evaluative terms, which they were to categorize under 'good' or

'bad'. Every time they hit the right key, they instantly went on to the next picture or word until

they had completed the entire block. If the participant hit the wrong key, he was notified that

he made a mistake and had to click the other key before he moved on to the next picture or

word. All participants were explicitly asked to complete the tasks as fast as they could.

Once the introduction blocks had been completed, both tasks of categorizing the beer

brand pictures and categorizing the evaluative words were merged into one block. In each top

corner of the screen there were both the category 'good' or 'bad' and the name of one of the

beer brands. The participants were now randomly assigned either an evaluative term or a beer

brand picture to categorize. Once they had completed two blocks with this assignment, the

placement of the brands changed. The brand that had been in the top left was now in the top

right of the screen, causing the task to change: the beer brand the participants had been tasked

to categorize on the same side as the positive evaluative terms was now to be paired with the

negative evaluative terms and vice versa. For this task, the participants first completed one

block in which they were introduced to the new task. After this, they completed two more

blocks with this task. The recorded reaction times from the introduction blocks at the start and

the one in the middle were not used in the calculation of the implicit preference. Because the

task change in the middle of the IAT might have thrown off participants, causing them to

react significantly slower and make more mistakes in the second part of the IAT, the outcome

of the IAT might have been slightly biased towards the association in the first half of the IAT.

To prevent this effect from interfering with the results, half of the participants began with the

task to categorize Carlsberg on the same side as the positive evaluative terms in the first half

17

of the IAT and the other half of the participants began with the task to categorize Budweiser

on the same side as the positive evaluative terms in the first half of the IAT.

§ 3.5.3 - Control variables

In addition to the explicit measure, several extra questions were added to the paper

questionnaire (Appendix III) about variables that might interfere with the results, but could

not be excluded from the experiment entirely.

Before the explicit self-report measure, a few questions about age, interest in beer, gaming

experience and enjoyment were asked. Even though only students were invited to participate

in the experiment, the influence of age differences could not be entirely excluded. To be able

to account for these age differences, the year of birth was asked. Students are generally known

for their interest in beer, but it was still possible that some students included in the experiment

did not drink beer and were thus less likely to form an attitude after seeing a beer

advertisement. It is also possible that extreme beer enthusiasts are less likely to change their

attitude after seeing a beer advertisement, because they already have strong attitudes about

beer brands. In order to be able to account for some of the varying levels of beer interest,

participants were asked how many glasses of beer they drank in an average week. Several

researchers have suggested that experienced gamers might process in-game advertising

differently from inexperienced gamers (Chaney et al., 2004; Lee & Faber, 2007; Lemon,

2006; Schneider & Cornwell, 2005). How experienced gamers' processing differs from

inexperienced gamers is yet unclear, because the results from previous studies seem to be

contradicting each other. Schneider and Cornwell (2005) found that experienced gamers were

more capable of recognizing and remembering in-game banners than inexperienced gamers.

Lemon (2006), however, could only partially confirm this. Lee and Faber (2007) found that

experienced gamers were slightly better at recognizing brands that were placed in focal

positions than brands placed in peripheral vision when they were only moderately involved

with the brand. They did not find this effect for inexperienced players, suggesting that

inexperienced players may distribute their attention more equally over all parts of the screen,

whereas experienced players pay extra attention to the most important parts. Chaney et al.

(2004) did not find any difference in the recall of advertised brands between experienced and

inexperienced gamers. The apparent contradictions in these findings may be caused by

different ways of measuring experience. This is why participants were asked whether they had

played the specific version of the game used in the experiment (Need for Speed: Underground

2, Electronic Arts, 2004) before and to make a judgement call about their own experience

18

with racing games on a 7-point Likert-scale. The degree to which participants in the

experiment were frustrated with the gaming session might have a moderating effect on the

effects of in-game advertising, because gamers might form less favourable associations with

the brand if they were frustrated while playing the game (Herrewijn & Poels, 2011, p. 5). To

control for this effect, participants were asked to indicate their frustration during the gaming

session on a 7-point Likert-scale.

At the end of the questionnaire, after the participants had indicated their level of

preference for 24 different beer and soda brands for the explicit attitude measure, they were

asked which brands they believed to have seen during the gaming session. The same 24 beer

and soda brands were displayed on a new page and the participants were asked to indicate

which brands they had seen by marking them. For this task, the participants were asked to

mark a brand even if they had only a vague suspicion that they might have seen it. They were

able to mark any number of brands they liked and they were not told that there was only one

correct answer. If they truly had no idea, they were allowed to leave all brands unmarked.

§ 3.6 - Analysis

Before the data were analyzed, outliers on the dependent variables for the explicit and

implicit attitude and the outliers on the variable measuring beer interest were considered for

removal from the dataset in order to prevent them from significantly skewing the results. Due

to procedural mistakes, four participants were removed from the data entirely and for one

participant the IAT results were removed.

Greenwald, Banaji and Nosek (2003) have done extensive research on extrapolating a

meaningful measure from the IAT. Several different methods were analyzed using a very

large data pool in order to find the measure that has the highest correlation with the explicit

attitude. This might not be the best way to find a good measure for the implicit attitude,

because there is plenty of research indicating that the explicit and implicit attitudes are

independent from each other (Friese et al., 2008; Karpinski & Hilton, 2001; Olson & Fazio,

2001; Rydell & McConnell, 2006; Wilson et al., 2000). However, because the aim of this

study was to find differences between the explicit and the implicit attitude, it was a good idea

to follow the advice given by Greenwald et al. (2003) for data processing; if, after following

this advice, a clear distinction between the explicit and implicit attitude could still be found,

this could not be simply due to the manner in which the data were processed.

Following the recommendations of Greenwald et al. (2003), an extremely slow reaction

time of more than 10 seconds was removed from the data. Even though the first two reactions

19

in each block were significantly slower than the rest of the reactions, Greenwald et al. (2003,

p. 202) found that including these two reactions would cause the implicit attitude measure to

correlate better with the explicit measure and correlate less with the extreme values in the

IAT. Hence, they were included in the data. Extremely fast reactions and mistakes may have

been caused by participants who did not take the IAT seriously and spammed random keys in

order to complete the IAT as fast as possible. This can lead to uninterpretable data and while

it is desirable to compensate for this, it is not desirable to delete too large an amount of data,

which would increase the risk that important data would be lost. Greenwald et al. (2003, pp.

204-205) recommended excluding participants with more than 10 % fast (< 300 milliseconds)

or slow (> 3000 milliseconds) reactions. None of the participants fitted this description, so no

data were removed on the basis of this criterion.

No special treatment was given to false answers, because they were recorded as slow

reactions (Greenwald et al., 2003, p. 202). Every time a participant made a mistake he was

prompted to correct his answer. The IAT then recorded the time between the first appearance

of the image or word and the moment the right answer was given. This way a false answer

was composed of both the time it took to give a false answer and the time it took to correct it

and thus the false answer was recorded as a slow reaction time. Because both slow and false

answers indicate that the participant had trouble associating the matched evaluative terms and

brand, there was no need to treat them differently.

The best measure to calculate the implicit attitude, according to Greenwald et al. (2003, p.

212), is the D-measure (p. 201; Bosch, 2013, p. 23), which was also used in this thesis. The

D-measure is the standardised difference between the compatible (where brand A is to be

categorized with positive evaluative terms) and the incompatible part (where brand A is to be

categorized with negative evaluative terms) of the IAT. Each of these parts is divided up into

introductory blocks which are not used in the calculation of the D-measure and two main

blocks: one block with 20 reaction tasks, followed by a block with 40 reaction tasks. For the

smaller blocks with the 20 reaction tasks and the larger blocks with the 40 reaction tasks, the

difference was calculated and standardised separately. In practise, this means that the D-

measure subtracts the mean reaction time in block 6 from the mean reaction time in block 3,

then divides this by the standard deviation of blocks 3 and 6 combined. Similarly, the mean

reaction time in block 7 is subtracted from the mean reaction time in block 4, then divided by

the standard deviation of blocks 4 and 7 combined. These two values are then averaged to

create the D-measure. Because the order of the IAT was varied to prevent order effects from

affecting the results, the D-measure had to be adjusted to be in accordance with the order in

20

which the brands appeared in the IAT. This was done so that a negative value would indicate

an implicit preference for Budweiser and a positive value would indicate an implicit

preference for Carlsberg. The value 0 is an indication of a participant who has no preference

of one brand over the other. Values closer to 0 also indicate a smaller preference than values

further away from 0.

To strengthen the comparability to the implicit measure, the explicit measure was

calculated in a similar fashion. The grade for Budweiser was subtracted from the grade for

Carlsberg. In this way, a measure was created with negative values indicating an explicit

preference for Budweiser compared to Carlsberg and positive values indicating an explicit

preference for Carlsberg compared to Budweiser. The value 0 is an indication of a participant

who graded both brands equally. Values closer to 0 also indicate a smaller preference of one

brand over the other than values further away from 0.

The control variables did not lead to the exclusion of any participants. Participants had an

average age of M = 20 (SD = 2.46), the youngest being 17 and the oldest being 31. An

exploration of the interest in beer, measured by the amount of glasses consumed weekly, did

not produce more outliers than was to be expected. Other control variables were included in

the regression analyses discussed in § 5.2.

§ 3.7 - Analysis model

The hypotheses can be presented in a model (Figure 1) with in-game advertising as an

independent variable with direct effects on both the explicit and the implicit attitude, both

modified by the available cognitive capacity. In-game advertising is a nominal factor

consisting of two levels, determining the presence of one brand and the absence of the other.

In-game advertising is hypothesized to have a direct influence on the explicit and implicit

attitudes. This influence can be viewed as a positive relation, whereas the presence of a brand

in-game will increase the explicit and implicit preference for that brand. The cognitive load

acts as a moderating factor in this model. This ordinal factor consists of three levels: low,

medium and high cognitive load. It was hypothesized that a higher cognitive load would lead

to a lesser influence of the advertised brand on the explicit and implicit attitude. The implicit

D-measure is an interval variable with both positive (preference for Carlsberg) and negative

(preference for Budweiser) values, centred around 0, which means there was no preference for

either brand. The explicit measure is the difference between two ratio variables, ranging from

0 (cold) to 50 (neutral) to 100 (hot), to indicate the level of preference.

21

H3 (-)

H4 (-) H1 (+)

H2 (+)

This model will be tested in § 5.1 using an analysis of variance, looking at the main effects

of the in-game brands and the difficulty level as indications of the effects of in-game

advertising and cognitive load. Furthermore, the moderating effect of cognitive load will be

tested by looking at the interaction effect of the in-game brands and the difficulty level. This

interaction will be more closely examined using pairwise comparisons and separate univariate

tests. This analysis will be done separately for the explicit attitude and the implicit attitude.

Chapter 4 - Qualitative results § 4.1 - In-game advertising in the present

Even though they had all worked on multiple in-game advertising projects in the past, the

interviewed were pessimistic about the usefulness of in-game advertising in the current

gaming business. All of the interviewed could explain from their own perspective that in-

game advertising was not that important.

To advertisers, in-game advertising is not important because it is either unknown to them

or they do not see the potential (Hufen, 2013). They will often contact advertising agencies to

do their advertising for them and those advertising agencies are hardly ever experienced with

in-game advertising (Hufen, 2013; Yildiz, 2013). According to Yildiz, advertising agencies

hardly use in-game advertising because of numerous reasons that hardly have anything to do

with in-game advertising itself. He was often confronted with people in advertising agencies

who had a very negative or niche depiction of games, who do not view themselves as gamers,

despite of them often playing games on their mobile phone or tablet. They would rather

advertise on television, because that is easier and they can better understand it. In-game

Cognitive load

In-game

advertising

Implicit attitude

Explicit attitude

Independent variables Dependent variables

Figure 1: Hypothesized model of analysis

22

advertising seems risky and obscure to them since there is no model of effectiveness for in-

game advertising yet. This lack of certainty and familiarity coupled with the high investment

costs to do in-game advertising makes advertising agencies shy away from in-game

advertising (Yildiz, 2013).

Other issues for advertisers are the nature of the game and the nature of game

development. A lot of popular games are quite violent and most brands are hesitant to

associate themselves with a game like that (Yildiz, 2013). Only technological companies for

which gamers are specifically an important target demographic dare to advertise in and

around these games, because they know the gamers will associate the brand with a fun game,

not the violence that occurs in the game.

High budget games are complex and can take a long time to develop. Developing a game

is a creative process and creating processes have difficulty dealing with restrictions, hence

extended release dates for games are quite common. This is hard for advertisers to deal with,

because they often have to report short term results (Yildiz, 2013).

To big game developers, in-game advertising is not important because it delivers very

little revenue compared to the often enormous investments they make in order to create a new

game (Yildiz, 2013). For them, it can be more interesting as a part of an integrated

partnership. For example, Yildiz launched a partnership with Nivea, a large global brand

which would advertise in one of Ubisofts games and include the game in their global

marketing campaign. Another reason for game developers to use in-game advertising is to

strengthen the credibility of their game.

For investors, in-game advertising is not all that important either. When asked about the

importance of in-game advertising, Te Brake (2013) mentioned that it can be much more

interesting to invest in a game that is driven by in-game purchases than a game that is driven

by in-game advertising. Instead of relying on the income generated by advertisements, these

games allow the players to purchase in-game items with actual money. While there is more

risk involved with investing in a game that relies on in-game purchases to flourish because

this source of income is less certain, there is a chance that the game might be the next big

thing and profits go through the roof. Whereas if a game that relies on in-game advertising

goes big, the profits will most likely have to be shared with an advertising agency that's

shaving off a good percentage.

23

§ 4.2 - In-game advertising in the future

Even though they were pessimistic about the current state of in-game advertising, the

interviewed were enthusiastic for the possibilities that games offer to advertising. Especially

with the far-stretching integration of social networking and the possibilities of mobile games

they saw potential in in-game advertising.

All three thought that in-game advertising should not be used as a onetime thing; instead,

it should be incorporated in a larger media campaign (Hufen, 2013; Te Brake, 2013) and

preferably as part of a longer running project. This is currently hindered by a generation gap;

the people who run advertising agencies are not familiar with games and do not see their

advertising potential. Only certain progressive advertising agents actually dare to go with an

in-game advertising project, but since these advertising agents are often only temporarily

working for the agency, these are short term projects which do not utilize the fact that games

can keep being played for years on end (Yildiz, 2013). Over time, these agents will be

replaced with people from newer generations who are more familiar with games and this

might give in-game advertising a new boost. Yildiz already mentioned that he had noticed the

start of a trend towards this, saying that for example car brands are no longer hesitant to let

game developers use their cars in games, where they used to be hesitant about this out of fear

that gamers would damage their car in the game and that this would make their brand look

bad. More recently the dynamic nature of games is more and more accepted and brands no

longer see this as a serious issue.

While game developers are in a good position to study the effectiveness of in-game

advertising, none of them are interested because they would rather not do any research than

risk finding out that in-game advertising is not effective. Mobile gaming might be a different

story, since game developers are using customer information tools as a unique selling point,

using the fact that most mobile phones are always online and have tools like GPS to gather

data. Yet this is still in its infancy (Yildiz, 2013). Using this technology to create databases

with customer profiles may help to advertise more efficiently (Hufen, 2013; Te Brake, 2013)

and makes it easier to sell in-game advertising. Other information about the effectiveness of

in-game advertising may also help convince advertising agencies of the value of in-game

advertising. The results of the quantitative part of this study may contribute to that.

24

Chapter 5 - Quantitative results § 5.1 - Testing the main model

Univariate analyses of variance were performed with IBM's SPSS Statistics (SPSS) to test

the hypotheses with the explicit and implicit attitudes as the dependent variables. All analyses

included the in-game brand (either Carlsberg or Budweiser) and the difficulty level (low,

medium and high) as independent variables, including the interaction between the two. The

interaction effects were more closely examined using pairwise comparisons and separate

univariate tests. The results are discussed in this paragraph.


As can be seen in Table 1, the explicit attitude cannot be significantly predicted with brand

(F < 1) or difficulty (F(2,90) = 1.183, p = .311, η2 = .026) alone. This does not support the

first hypothesis, which stated that brands advertised in the game would affect the explicit

attitude.

There is, however, a significant interaction between the two (F(2,90) = 3.674, p = .029, η2

= .075). How effective the in-game branded billboards are at affecting the explicit attitude

differed between difficulty levels. In the low difficulty condition, the in-game brand did not

significantly affect the explicit attitude (F < 1), nor in the high difficulty condition (F(1,90) =

2.544, p = .114, η2 = .027). Only in the medium difficulty condition did the in-game

billboards significantly affect the explicit attitude (F(1,90) = 4.973, p = .028, η2 = .052). In the

medium difficulty condition, participants who had played the game with Carlsberg billboards

gave Carlsberg higher grades than Budweiser (M = 16.467, SE = 6.010) and participants who

had played the game with Budweiser billboards gave Budweiser higher grades than Carlsberg

(M = -2.188, SE = 5.819). This supports the first hypothesis that in-game brands influence the

explicit attitude of the gamer and partially supports the third hypothesis, which stated that the

Table 1: Analysis of Variance for the Effects on the Explicit Attitude

Source df F η2 p

Brand (B) 1 0.415 0.005 0.521

Difficulty (D) 2 1.183 0.026 0.311

Interaction (B x D) 2 3.674* 0.075 0.029

Error 90 (541.8)

Note. Value in parenthesis represents mean square error. *p <.05

25

effect that brands have on the explicit attitude is modified by difficulty. However, the

effectiveness of brands does not simply decrease with increased difficulty; there seems to be a

certain optimum at the medium difficulty level where brands can have a significant effect on

the explicit attitude, whereas brands do not significantly affect the explicit attitude at a low or

high difficulty level (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Explicit preference for Carlsberg after playing a game with Carlsberg or

Budweiser billboards in low, medium and high difficulty conditions.

Note: Positive values correspond with a preference for Carlsberg; negative values

correspond with a preference for Budweiser.


As can be seen in Table 2, the results were rather different for the implicit attitude. There

was no significant interaction between brand and difficulty, but both brand (F(1,90) = 10.422,

p = .002, η2 = .102) and difficulty (F(2,90) = 3.203, p = .045, η2 = .065) could significantly

explain some of the variation in the implicit attitude. Participants who had played the game

with billboards advertising Carlsberg preferred Carlsberg over Budweiser (M = .206, SE =

.082) and participants who had played the game with billboards advertising Budweiser

preferred Budweiser over Carlsberg (M = -.168, SE = .082). The three difficulty levels

-10

-5

0

5

10

15

20

Low Medium* High

Budweiser

Carlsberg

Difficulty level *p < .05

26

together showed a significant trend whereby participants in the easiest difficulty condition

preferred Carlsberg over Budweiser (M = .147, SE = .101), participants in the medium

difficulty condition preferred Carlsberg over Budweiser, but less strongly (M = .097, SE =

.098) and participants in the high difficulty condition preferred Budweiser over Carlsberg (M

= -.188, SE = .101), although pairwise comparisons did not yield any significant differences

between the average implicit attitudes of participants in conditions with different difficulty

levels. These results support the second hypothesis, stating that in-game brands can affect the

implicit attitude, but they do not support the fourth hypothesis. Instead of the hypothesized

moderating effect of the difficulty level, a main effect of difficulty level was found.

Table 2: Analysis of Variance for the Effects on the Implicit Attitude

Source df F η2 p

Brand (B) 1 10.422* 0.102 0.002

Difficulty (D) 2 3.203* 0.065 0.045

Interaction (B x D) 2 0.555 0.012 0.576

Error 92 (.329)

Note. Value in parenthesis represents mean square error. *p <.05

A closer inspection of the interaction of brand and difficulty level reveals that while the

interaction variable did not reach significance in the analysis of variance, the means do follow

a pattern that fits an interaction model. Participants who had played the game in which

Budweiser was advertised showed greater preference for Budweiser than participants who had

played the version of the game in which Carlsberg was advertised at all difficulty levels, but

the differences of the implicit attitude between the participants of both versions was largest in

the lowest difficulty condition (M = -.126, SE = .143 for Budweiser, M = .421, SE = .143 for

Carlsberg), smaller in the medium difficulty condition (M = -.056 SE = .139 for Budweiser, M

= .251, SE = .139 for Carlsberg) and smallest in the high difficulty condition (M = -.323, SE =

.143 for Budweiser, M = -.054, SE = .143 for Carlsberg). The difference between the two

versions in the low difficulty condition was significant (F(1,92) = 7.269, p = .008, η2 = .073),

whereas the differences in the medium difficulty condition (F(1,92) = 2.442, p = .122, η2 =

.026) and the high difficulty condition (F(1,92) = 1.754, p =.189, η2 = .019) were not. This

leads to a more easily interpretable model, detailed in Figure 3.

27

Figure 3: Implicit preference for Carlsberg after playing a game with Carlsberg or

Budweiser billboards in low, medium and high difficulty conditions.



§ 5.2 - Testing the associative explanation and other control variables

In the theory chapter, the explanation of the moderating effect of difficulty level by

Herrewijn and Poels (2011) was considered and several control variables were added to the

questionnaire. Using regression analysis, the predictive strength of their explanation and the

control variables can be compared to that of the variables used in the main analysis. The

results of these analyses are discussed in this paragraph.


In this analysis, the associative explanation of the moderating effect of difficulty level is

tested. It was theorized that difficulty level would interact with brand because a higher

difficulty level would introduce more information to process, leaving less cognitive capacity

to process the advertisements. However difficulty level is also likely to correlate with

frustration, meaning participants were more likely to get frustrated in higher difficulty levels.

This frustration could lead to less positive associations with the brand, reducing the

advertising effectiveness in higher difficulty levels. While it is not possible to completely

-0,4

-0,3

-0,2

-0,1

0

0,1

0,2

0,3

0,4

0,5

Low* Medium High

Budweiser

Carlsberg

Difficulty level *p < .05

28

disentangle difficulty level in this study, it is possible to compare the predictors of difficulty

level and frustration in a regression analysis, using the standardized Beta coefficients. If the

associative explanation is superior to the cognitive explanation, an interaction between the

effects of frustration and in-game brand should be able to explain more variance than an

interaction between difficulty level and in-game brand. Additionally, recognition was added

to the analysis in order to check if it might be a prerequisite for the influence of the in-game

brands or if it is possible to be influenced by the in-game billboards without recognizing them

after the gaming session.

Several adaptations had to be made to properly execute the regression analysis. Even

though there were not more outliers than was to be expected, two outliers were extreme

outliers of more than three times the standard deviation, which is why they were filtered out

for the regression analyses regarding the explicit attitude. Because difficulty level is an

ordinal variable containing three categories, dummy variables were used. The variables

regarding difficulty level, frustration and recognition were then centred to prevent collinearity

from hindering the regression and new interaction variables were calculated using these

centred variables. After that, sheaf coefficients were calculated from the dummy variables to

allow them to be compared to the other variables.

The seven included predictors explained 20 % of the variance (R2 = .200, F(7,85) = 3.042,

p = .007, see Table 3). Of these seven predictors, only the interaction between brand and

difficulty (β = .258, t = 2.598, p = .011) and the interaction between brand and recognition (β

= .232, t = 2.243, p = .027) significantly predicted the explicit attitude. The interaction

between brand and frustration (β = .014, t < 1) could not significantly predict the explicit

Table 3: Regression Analysis for the Effects on the Explicit Attitude

Source β t p

Brand (B) 0.088 0.895 0.374

Difficulty (D) 0.111 1.115 0.268

Frustration (F) 0.102 1.109 0.311

Recognition (R) -0.147 -1.411 0.162

Interaction (B x D) 0.258 2.598* 0.011

Interaction (B x F) 0.014 0.014 0.891

Interaction (B x R) 0.232 2.243* 0.027

R2 = .200, *p <.05

29

attitude and no significant main effects were found. These results do not suggest that the

associative explanation is superior to the cognitive capacity explanation regarding the

influence of in-game advertising on the explicit attitude. Additionally, it shows that

recognition of the brand may help the in-game brand to influence the explicit attitude.

An analysis of variance was used to examine the interaction between brand and

recognition more closely, using pairwise comparisons and separate univariate analyses. The

difference in the explicit attitude of participants that were able to indicate which brand was

advertised between the condition in which Budweiser was advertised (M = -9.429, SE =

5.223) and the condition in which Carlsberg was advertised (M = 12.604, SE = 6.691) was

significant (F = 6.410, p = .013, η2 = .069). This difference was also greater than the

difference in explicit attitude of participants that did not recognize the brand between the

condition in which Budweiser was advertised (M = 8.282, SE = 3.005) and the condition in

which Carlsberg was advertised (M = 6.148, SE = 2.897), which was not significant (F < 1).

This suggests that participants were more susceptible to the in-game advertising when they

were able to correctly guess the brand that was advertised in the game (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Explicit preference for Budweiser or Carlsberg when participants were able or

unable to recognize the advertised brand.



-15

-10

-5

0

5

10

15

Not recognized Recognized

Budweiser

Carlsberg

Recognition *p < .05

30

To test for any possible interference of gaming experience, another regression analysis

was performed. Gaming experience was measured in two ways: the participants indicated

whether they had previously played this specific version of the game and how much

experience they deemed themselves to have playing racing games. Both of these variables and

their interactions with the in-game brands and the main effect of in-game brands were

included. This model could not significantly predict the explicit attitude (R2 = .045, F(5,88) <

1). Both having previously played the game (β = -0.030, t < 1) and self-reported race game

experience (β = .053, t < 1) had no significant main effect on the explicit attitude, nor did they

significantly interact with the in-game brand conditions (respectively: β = .164, t = 1.471, p =

.145; β = .045, t < 1).


The same explanation and control variables were tested for the implicit attitude. The same

adaptations that were made for the regression analysis involving the explicit attitude were

made for this regression analysis, except no extreme outliers were found.

The seven included predictors explained 19.1 % of the variance (R2 = .191, F(7,88) =

2.968, p = .008, see Table 4). Of these seven predictors, only the main effects of brand (β =

.305, t = 3.158, p = .002) and difficulty (β = .232, t = 2.366, p = .020) significantly predicted

the implicit attitude. Interactions between brand and frustration (β = .121, t = 1.191, p = .237),

brand and difficulty (β = .127, t = 1.298, p = .198) and brand and recognition (β = .087, t < 1)

could not significantly predict the explicit attitude and no significant main effects were found

for frustration (β = -.061, t < 1) and recognition (β = .100, t < 1). These results do not suggest

that the associative explanation is superior to the cognitive capacity explanation regarding the

influence of in-game advertising on the implicit attitude. Additionally, it suggests that

recognition of the brand is not required for the in-game brand to influence the implicit

attitude.

To test for any possible interference of gaming experience, another regression analysis

was performed. Gaming experience was measured in two ways: the participants indicated

whether they had previously played this specific version of the game and how much

experience they deemed themselves to have playing racing games. Both of these variables and

their interactions with the in-game brands and the main effect of in-game brands were

included. This model could significantly predict the implicit attitude (R2 = .119, F(5,91) =

2.449, p = .040). However only the main effect of brand could significantly predict the

31

implicit attitude (β = .301, t = 3.050, p = .003). Having previously played the game (β =

0.024, t < 1) and self-reported race game experience (β = -0.036, t < 1) had no significant

main effect on the implicit attitude, nor did they significantly interact with the in-game brand

conditions (β = -0.075, t < 1; β = -0.112, t = -1.064, p = .290, respectively).

Chapter 6 - Conclusion and discussion § 6.1 Conclusion

This thesis consists of two parts, a qualitative part with interviews to place the study in the

right professional context and a quantitative part with an experiment testing the effectiveness

of in-game advertising in influencing both the explicit and the implicit attitudes. In this

chapter, the conclusions to each of these will be given are discussed, followed by a short

paragraph touching on some of the limitations of the current study and finally a general

discussion.

§ 6.1.1 Interviews

The qualitative part of this study largely confirms the introduction to this thesis: in-game

advertising shows potential as a great advertising platform, yet it is currently underutilized.

Some of the reasons behind why in-game advertising is not more common became clear.

There are a lot of factors around games that complicate investing in in-game advertising. High

costs, long development and thus a late return on investment, a lack of knowledge about in-

game advertising and unfamiliarity with in-game advertising and games in general are some

of the major hindering factors for advertisers and the often involved advertising agencies. For

game developers in-game advertising adds only a relatively small amount to their revenue and

Table 4: Regression Analysis for the Effects on the Implicit Attitude

Source β t p

Brand (B) 0.305 3.158* 0.002

Difficulty (D) 0.232 2.366* 0.020

Frustration (F) -0.061 -0.598 0.522

Recognition (R) 0.100 0.981 0.329

Interaction (B x D) 0.127 1.298 0.198

Interaction (B x F) 0.121 1.191 0.237

Interaction (B x R) 0.087 0.865 0.389

R2 = .191, *p <.05

32

investors can seek greater rewards from games that rely on in-game purchases instead of

advertising. Yet the interviewed still all saw potential for in-game advertising with some

trends in integrating social networking and mobile gaming. In addition, it was found that

game developers do not research the effectiveness of their in-game advertisements out of fear

that the results may be unbeneficial to them. The efforts of the current study can help create a

clearer image of the value of in-game advertising that may reassure the advertising agencies.

§ 6.1.2 Explicit attitude

The analysis of variance regarding the explicit attitude showed that the explicit attitude

was not affected by only the in-game advertisements. Rather, the influence of in-game

advertisements on the explicit attitude was moderated by difficulty level. Contrary to the

expectations, this moderating effect was not linear. Instead the effect of in-game brands was

absent in the low and high difficulty levels and only present in the medium difficulty level.

This suggests that there may be a optimum difficulty level where gamers are intrigued to

allocate enough cognitive resources to the game, yet are not overly burdened with information

processing that they can no longer process the advertisements.

Furthermore the regression analysis regarding the explicit attitude showed clear results. It

showed that frustration wasn't able to more accurately predict when in-game advertising was

effective than simply difficulty level, which means that both the associative and the cognitive

explanation of the moderating effect of difficulty still stand. Further research is needed to

settle which explanation is superior or whether both partially explain the moderating effect of

difficulty level. The interaction between brand and recognition in the regression analysis also

showed that gamers who manage to recognize the in-game brand after the playing session are

more influenced by the in-game advertisement than those who did not recognize the brand

after the play session. Finally, it did not matter whether the participants knew the game or

were experience with racing games.

§ 6.1.3 Implicit attitude

The results of the analysis of variance regarding the implicit attitude showed at first glance

that was no interaction effect between the in-game brands and the difficulty level. It was clear

that the in-game brand significantly predicted the implicit attitude. Furthermore, there seemed

to be a main effect of difficulty level, which would mean that participants preferred Carlsberg

in the low difficulty level and Budweiser in the high difficulty level. Such an effect proves

difficult to explain. However, pairwise comparisons showed that the participants in the

33

different difficulty conditions did not have significantly different implicit attitudes and the

data showed a pattern that could be expected in case of an interaction between the in-game

brands and the difficulty level. This more easily comprehensible explanation showed that the

implicit attitudes of participants who had played the low difficulty version of the game with

in-game Carlsberg billboards were significantly more in favour of Carlsberg than the

participants who had played the version of the game with in-game Budweiser billboards,

while there were no significant differences between the versions in the medium and high

difficulty conditions. This explanation also fits the results found by Bosch (2013). While it is

clear that brands do affect the implicit attitude and the data do seem to indicate that difficulty

plays a role in this, it is not clear cut what that role is. Most of the data seems to point at an

interaction effect, but the analysis of variance did not confirm that.

The regression analysis suggests that frustration and recognition do not play any role of

significance. It is worth noting that while recognition did explain some of the variance in the

influence of the in-game advertisements on the explicit attitude, it does not significantly

predict any of the variance of the effect of the in-game advertisements on the implicit attitude.

This suggests that the effect of in-game advertising on the implicit attitude is indeed different

from the effect on the explicit attitude. Finally, it did not matter whether the participants knew

the game or were experienced with racing games.

§ 6.2 Limitations

Special care should be taken when generalizing the results of this thesis. The study was

conducted with Dutch male university students only and specifically involved a racing game.

It can be expected that these results do not directly translate to how in-game advertising

affects people of another nationality, gender, age or education and they may not apply to other

games or ways of advertising within a game other than billboards. Moreover, while it is

designed specifically to limit the hindrance of external factors, the laboratory where the

experiments were conducted was very different from a natural gaming environment. Next, the

statistical evidence pointing at an interaction effect of brand and difficulty on the implicit

attitude is weak at best. Finally, while the regression analysis did indicate that the associative

explanation of the moderating effect of difficulty was not superior to just difficulty level,

neither the associative nor the cognitive explanation can be ruled out at this point.

34

§ 6.3 Discussion

This thesis bears theoretical and practical relevance. There is strong evidence that brands

on in-game billboards can affect both gamers' explicit and the implicit attitude towards those

brands. This information can provide advertisers and advertising agencies with some

reassurance that even a very short exposure to a game with in-game advertising can have a

significant positive effect on gamers' attitudes towards their brands. Moreover, this thesis

found that difficulty level likely moderates these effects, which provides some insight in

which conditions the in-game billboards may have an effect. More specifically, in-game

billboards are likely to have an effect on the implicit attitude on a low difficulty level,

whereas they are more likely to have an effect on the explicit attitude on a medium difficulty

level.

On a theoretical level this thesis provides more insight in the processes that are behind the

effects of in-game advertising. The results suggest that in-game billboards can both affect the

explicit and the implicit attitude. Moreover, an interaction between the in-game brand and

difficulty level seems to influence the explicit attitude, whereas Bosch (2013) did not find an

effect of in-game advertising on the explicit attitude at all. This fits better with other studies

that have found effects of in-game advertising on the explicit attitude (Grigorovici &

Constantin, 2004; Herrewijn & Poels, 2011; Sharma et al., 2007). The difference with the

study by Bosch (2013) can be explained by looking at the number of difficulty levels. Bosch

only used a low and a high difficulty level and found no effects of brand on the explicit

attitude. In the current study, no significant effects of the in-game brand could be found at

these difficulty levels either, despite improving on the sensitivity of the measurement. Only at

the newly added medium difficulty level could a significant effect of the in-game brand on the

explicit attitude be found. It seems that there may be an optimum difficulty level to stimulate

the gamer to assign a large amount of cognitive resources to the game without providing too

much information so that an optimum amount of unallocated resources is available. Further

research may add different difficulty levels in order to find out what the extend is of this

optimum level.

The results surrounding the effects of the in-game brands on the implicit attitude were less

conclusive. The main effects of both the in-game brand and difficulty level were significant,

but their interaction was not. A main effect of difficulty level is unexpected and has no

meaningful explanation. Pairwise comparisons may however have indicated that there was a

interaction effect that did not predict enough of the variance to reach significance, which

provides a more meaningful explanation and would fit the results of Bosch (2013). This does

35

mean that an interaction between brand and difficulty level on the implicit attitude could not

be confirmed, perhaps because of noise caused by an unknown variable. Further research with

a different sample may be needed to confirm or reject the interaction hypothesis.

The associative explanation of the interaction effect between in-game brand and difficulty

level by Herrewijn and Poels (2011) involved varying levels of frustration. However,

frustration could not provide a better prediction than just difficulty level, so for now, the

cognitive explanation explains the moderating effect of difficulty just as well. A new study in

which an extremely easy condition is added which is more frustrating than the easy difficulty

level, but does not provide more information to process, may be able to settle this.

Other than that it was discovered that recognition may play an important role in the effect

of in-game brands on the explicit attitude. The in-game brands seem to predict the explicit

attitude better when gamers can recognize the in-game brand after the play session.

Interestingly, this was not the case for the effect of in-game brands on the implicit attitude,

which suggests that the processes involved with the effect on the explicit attitude may differ

from the processes involved with the effect on the implicit attitude. It would be interesting to

see what other differences there could be between the effects of in-game brands on these

attitudes.

36

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Ludology

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43

Appendices Appendix I: In-game screenshots

47

Appendix II: IAT pictures

48

Appendix III: Paper questionnaire

Vragenlijst (deel 1/4)

1) Vul hieronder het nummer in dat je hebt meegekregen voor deze vragenlijst:

. .

2) Wat was je eindtijd in de speelsessie?

. . minuten, . . seconden, . . honderdste.

3) Wat is je geboortejaar?

Hier volgen enkele vragen over jouw ervaring van de speelsessie:

4) Hoe leuk vond je de speelsessie?

Helemaal niet leuk 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Erg leuk**

5) Hoe moeilijk vond je de speelsessie?

Erg gemakkelijk 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Erg moeilijk**

6) Hoe goed vond je dat de speelsessie ging?

Helemaal niet goed 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Erg goed**

Hier volgen enkele vragen over jouw ervaring met computerspellen voor de speelsessie:

7) Had je dit spel (Need for Speed: Underground 2) ooit al eerder gespeeld?

Ja / Nee*

8) Hoeveel ervaring heb jij met het spelen van racespellen?

Geen ervaring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Expert**

* Haal door wat niet van toepassing is.

** Omcirkel het getal dat het beste bij je past. Als je een fout hebt gemaakt, zet dan een kruis door

het foute antwoord en omcirkel het juiste antwoord.

49


Geef van de volgende merken aan waar op de schaal jouw voorkeur ligt:

In deze lijst geef je voor ieder merk met behulp van een temperatuur op een schaal van 0 (koud) tot

50 (neutraal) tot 100 (heet) aan wat je van dat merk vindt.

Hier volgt eerst een voorbeeld van iemand die dol is op Red Bull:

Red Bull 0 9 0

9) Coca Cola 21) Pepsi

10) Heineken 22) Grolsch

11) Fanta 23) Sisi

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

12) Amstel 24) Hertog Jan

13) Jupiler 25) Dommelsch

14) 7-Up 26) Sprite

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

15) Nestea 27) Lipton Ice Tea

16) Budweiser 28) Carlsberg

17) AA Drink 29) Extran

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

18) Guinness 30) Murphy's

19) Hoegaarden 31) Wieckse Witte

20) Spa 32) Chaudfontaine

50


33) Omcirkel van de volgende merken alle merken waarvan je denkt dat deze in de speelsessie

aan het begin van het experiment te zien waren. Omcirkel ook de merken waarvan je slechts

een vaag vermoeden hebt dat je ze in de speelsessie hebt gezien.

Mocht je totaal geen vermoeden hebben, dan kun je er ook voor kiezen om geen cirkels te

zetten, maar sta wel even goed bij stil bij deze vraag voordat je verder gaat met de volgende.

Coca Cola Nestea

Pepsi Lipton Ice Tea

Heineken Budweiser

Grolsch Carlsberg

Amstel AA Drink

Hertog Jan Extran

Fanta Guinness

Sisi Murphy's

Dommelsch Hoegaarden

Jupiler Wieckse Witte

7-Up Spa

Sprite Chaudfontaine

Hier volgt een vraag over je drinkgedrag:

34) Hoeveel glazen bier (reken andere alcoholische dranken NIET mee) drink je gemiddeld per

week?

. .

51


35) Wil je meedingen naar een kratje bier?

Ja / Nee* Indien ‘nee’ is ingevuld, ga verder met vraag 27.

36) Van welk merk bier zou je het liefst een kratje winnen?

37) Wat is je telefoonnummer (incl. netnummer)?***

38) Wil je op de hoogte gehouden worden van dit onderzoek?

Ja / Nee* Indien ‘nee’ is ingevuld, einde vragenlijst.

39) Wat is je e-mailadres?****

Dit waren de laatste vragen in deze vragenlijst: je kunt nu verdergaan met de reactietijdentest.

* Haal door wat niet van toepassing is.

*** Wordt enkel gebruikt voor het opnemen van contact indien je de prijs hebt gewonnen.

**** Wordt enkel gebruikt voor het toesturen van een samenvatting van het onderzoek.