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Organic Chemistry 1 م خدا به ناDr Morteza Mehrdad University of Guilan, Department of Chemistry, Rasht, Iran [email protected] 5

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Page 1: Organic Chemistry 1 - Guilanstaff.guilan.ac.ir/staff/users/m-mehrdad/fckeditor_repo/file/Org... · Organic Chemistry 1 ... 4 5.1 Kinds of Organic Reactions ... Radicals react to complete

Organic Chemistry 1

به نام خدا

Dr Morteza Mehrdad

University of Guilan, Department of Chemistry,

Rasht, Iran [email protected]

5

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An Overview of Organic

Reactions نگاهی اجمالی به واکنش های شیمیایی

Based on McMurry’s Organic Chemistry, 7th edition

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Why this chapter?

To understand organic and/or biochemistry, it

is necessary to know:

:برای درک شیمی آلی و بیوشیمی باید بدانیم که -

-What occurs

چه چیزی رخ می دهد -

-Why and how chemical reactions take place

چرا و چگونه واکنش شیمیایی انجام می شود -

We will see how a reaction can be described

و چگونه می توان یک واکنش را توصیف کرد -

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5.1 Kinds of Organic Reactions

In general, we look at what occurs and try to learn how it

happens

Common patterns describe the changes

Addition reactions two molecules combine- افزایشی های واکنش

Elimination reactions one molecule splits – حذفی های واکنش

into two

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Substitution reactions parts from two – جانشینیواکنش های

molecules exchange

Rearrangement reactions بازآرایی واکنش های – a molecule

undergoes changes in the way its atoms are connected

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5.2 How Organic Reactions Occur: Mechanisms مکانیسم : چگونگی انجام واکنش های آلی

In a clock the hands move but the mechanism behind

the face is what causes the movement

In an organic reaction, we see the transformation that

has occurred. The mechanism describes the steps

behind the changes that we can observe

Reactions occur in defined steps that lead from reactant

to product

تبدیل ، بیانگر جزئیات دقیق انجام واکنش در هر مرحله یک واکنش آلیمکانیسم استاز واکنش دهندگان به محصوالت شیمیایی،

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Steps in Mechanisms

We classify the types of steps in a sequence

A step involves either the formation or breaking of a

covalent bond

یک مرحله شامل تشکیل یا گسستن یک پیوند کوواالنسی است

Steps can occur in individually or in combination with

other steps

مراحلی می توانند به تنهایی یا در ترکیب به مراحل دیگر بوقوع بپیوندند

When several steps occur at the same time they are

said to be concerted

گفته همزمان واکنش زمانیکه چند مرحله در یک زمان اتفاق می افتد به آن .می شود

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Types of Steps in Reaction

Mechanisms

Bond breaking

گسست پیوند

Symmetrical homolytic - متقارن جور

Unsymmetrical ناجور heterolytic - نامتقارن

Bond formation

تشکیل پیوند

Symmetrical homolytic - متقارن جور

Unsymmetrical ناجور heterolytic - نامتقارن

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Indicating Steps in Mechanisms

Curved arrows indicate breaking and forming of bonds

Arrowheads with a “half” head (“fish-hook”) indicate

homolytic and homogenic steps (called ‘radical processes’)

Arrowheads with a complete head indicate heterolytic and

heterogenic steps (called ‘polar processes’)

(قالب ماهی)پیکان تک خار

پیکان خمیده کامل

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5.3 Radical Reactions Not as common as polar reactions مانند واکنشهای قطبی متداول نیستند

Radicals react to complete electron octet of valence shell

رسندشیوه های گوناگون به هشتایی الیه ظرفیت می به رادیکال ها

A radical can break a bond in another molecule and abstract

a partner with an electron, giving substitution in the original

molecule

A radical can add to an alkene to give a new radical, causing

an addition reaction

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Three types of steps

Initiation آغاز – homolytic formation of two reactive species with

unpaired electrons

Example – formation of Cl atoms

form Cl2 and light

Propagation reaction with molecule to generate radical – پیشرفت

Example - reaction of chlorine atom with methane to give HCl and CH3

.

Termination combination of two radicals to form a stable – پایان

product: CH3. + CH3

. CH3CH3

Steps in Radical Substitution

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5.4 Polar Reactions های قطبیواکنش

Molecules can contain local unsymmetrical electron distributions due to

differences in electronegativities

قطبیت پیوند، نتیجه توزیع نامتقارن الکترون در یک پیوند است و از تفاوت الکترونگاتیوی اتم های متصل به یکدیگر سرچشمه می گیرد

This causes a partial negative charge on an atom and a compensating

partial positive charge on an adjacent atom

بنابراین این حالت باعث یک بار منفی جزئی روی یک اتم و جبران بار مثبت جزئی در بودیک اتم مجاور خواهد

The more electronegative atom has the greater electron density

اتم دارای الکترونگاتیوی بیشتر دارای دانسیته الکترونی بیشتری خواهد بود

Elements such as O, F, N, Cl more electronegative than carbon

Y = O, F, N, Cl

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واکنشگر در جز به کربن لیتیم آلکیل و گرینیار های مثبت صورت به همیشه ها،

است شده قطبیده

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Polarizability قطبش پذیری

Polarization is a change in electron distribution as a

response to change in electronic nature of the

surroundings

تغییر اثر در مولکول الکترونی توزیع در تغییری از عبارت پذیری قطبش با یا حالل با برهمکنش اثر در) است آن پیرامون الکترونی ماهیت در

(قطبی مولکولهای سایر Polarizability is the tendency to undergo polarization

است شدن قطبی به گرایش و تمایل از عبارت پذیری قطبش

Polar reactions occur between regions of high electron

density and regions of low electron density

و زیاد الکترونی دانسیته دارای نواحی بین عموما قطبی های واکنش شود می انجام کم دانسیته نواحی

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وسیله به اکسیژن اتم شدن دار پروتون اثر در متانول در اکسیژن-کربن پیوند قطبیت به راC-O پیوند های الکترون اکسیژن، روی بر کامل مثبت بار و شود می تشدید اسید، .بود خواهد پذیرتر واکنش بسیار و تر الکترون کم بسیار کربن اتم و کند می جذب شدت

های بزرگتر با الکترون های آزادتر، قطبش پذیرتر ازاتم اتم های کوچکتر با الکترون های نزدیک به هسته هستند

قطبش پذیریS > O

I > Cl

در اثر قطبش پذیری باالی گوگرد و ید پیوند های غیر قطبی کربن با آنها مانند یک پیوند قطبی واکنش می دهد

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Generalized Polar Reactions تعمیم دادن واکنشهای قطبی

An electrophile الکترون دوست, an electron-poor species,

combines with a nucleophile دوست هسته , an electron-rich

species

An electrophile is a Lewis acid

A nucleophile is a Lewis base

The combination is indicate with a curved arrow from

nucleophile to electrophile

Lewis base Lewis acid

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5.5 An Example of a Polar Reaction:

Addition of HBr to Ethylene

HBr adds to the part of C-C double bond

The bond is electron-rich, allowing it to function as

a nucleophile

H-Br is electron deficient at the H since Br is much

more electronegative, making HBr an electrophile

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Mechanism of Addition of HBr to Ethylene http://cd1.edb.hkedcity.net/cd/science/chemistry/s67chem/reaction_mechani

sm_animation_e.swf

HBr electrophile is attacked by electrons of ethylene (nucleophile) to form a carbocation intermediate and bromide ion

Bromide adds to the positive center of the carbocation, which is an electrophile, forming a C-Br bond

The result is that ethylene and HBr combine to form bromoethane

All polar reactions occur by combination of an electron-rich site of a nucleophile and an electron-deficient site of an electrophile

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5.6 Using Curved Arrows in Polar Reaction Mechanisms قطبیکاربرد پیکان خمیده در مکانیسم واکنشهای

Curved arrows are a way to keep track of changes in

bonding in polar reaction

The arrows track “electron movement”

Electrons always move in pairs

Charges change during the reaction

One curved arrow corresponds to one step in a

reaction mechanism

The arrow goes from the nucleophilic reaction site to

the electrophilic reaction site

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Rules for Using Curved Arrows

The nucleophilic site can be neutral or negatively charged

nu

cle

op

hilie

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The electrophilic site can be neutral or positively

charged

Don’t exceed the octet rule (or duet)

ele

ctr

op

hil

e

هنگامی که یک جفت الکترون دیگر از پیوند دوگانه به . این هیدروژن دارای دو الکترون است باید هیدروژن را ترک کند H-Oاین هیدروزن منتقل می شود، جفت الکترون پیوند

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5.7 Describing a Reaction: Equilibria,

Rates, and Energy Changes

Reactions can go either forward or backward

to reach equilibrium

The multiplied concentrations of the products

divided by the multiplied concentrations of the

reactant is the equilibrium constant, Keq

Each concentration is raised to the power of

its coefficient in the balanced equation.

aA + bB cC + dD

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Magnitudes of Equilibrium

Constants

If the value of Keq is greater than 1, this indicates

that at equilibrium most of the material is present as

products

If Keq is 10, then the concentration of the product

is ten times that of the reactant

A value of Keq less than one indicates that at

equilibrium most of the material is present as the

reactant

If Keq is 0.10, then the concentration of the

reactant is ten times that of the product

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Free Energy and Equilibrium

The ratio of products to reactants is controlled by their relative Gibbs free energy

This energy is released on the favored side of an equilibrium reaction

The change in Gibbs free energy between products and reacts is written as “DG”

If Keq > 1, energy is released to the surroundings (exergonic reaction انرژی زا واکنش یا اگزرگونیک )

If Keq < 1, energy is absorbed from the surroundings (endergonic reaction)

( انرژی خواهواکنش یا اندرگونیک)

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Numeric Relationship of Keq and

Free Energy Change

The standard free energy change at 1 atm pressure

and 298 K is DGº

The relationship between free energy change and an

equilibrium constant is:

DGº = - RT ln Keq

where

R = 1.987 cal/(K x mol)

T = temperature in Kelvin

e = 2.718

ln Keq = natural logarithm of Keq

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شرح کمیت های ترمودینامیکی

.واکنش یک طی در مولکولی نظمی بی در تغییر پیدا کاهش نظمی بی باشد، منفی DSº که هنگامی نظمی بی DSºبودن مثبت صورت در کرد؛ خواهد .یافت خواهد افزایش

DSº تغییر آنتروپی

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گسسته پیوندهای قدرت بین تفاوت یا واکنش گرمای منفی DHº اگر .واکنش یک در شده تشکیل و شده

اگر .زاست گرما و کند می آزاد گرما واکنش باشد،DHº و کند می جذب انرژی واکنش باشد، مثبت .بود خواهد خواه گرما

DHº تغییر آنتالپی

عبارت نام شرح DGº اگر .ها فراورده و دهندگان واکنش بین تفاوت داشتن با و بود خواهد زا انرژی واکنش باشد، منفی .گیرد انجام خود به خود تواند می مطلوب تعادل ثابت

DGº تغییر انرژی آزاد گیبس

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5.8 Describing a Reaction: Bond

Dissociation Energies

Bond dissociation energy (D): amount of energy required to

break a given bond to produce two radical fragments when the

molecule is in the gas phase at 25˚ C

The energy is mostly determined by the type of bond,

independent of the molecule

The C-H bond in methane requires a net heat input of 105

kcal/mol to be broken at 25 ºC.

Table 5.3 lists energies for many bond types

Changes in bonds can be used to calculate net changes in heat

(Enthalpy = DH)

formed) D(bonds-broken) D(bondsΔH

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5.9 Describing a Reaction: Energy

Diagrams and Transition States

The highest energy point in

a reaction step is called the

transition state

The energy needed to go

from reactant to transition

state is the

activation energy (DG‡)

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واکنش انرژی زای سریع

کوچک

منفی

واکنش انرژی زای آهسته

بزرگ

منفی

واکنش انرژی خواه سریع

کوچک

کوچک و مثبت

واکنش انرژی خواه آهسته

بزرگ

مثبت

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First Step in Addition

In the addition of HBr the (conceptual) transition-state structure for the first step

The bond between carbons begins to break

The C–H bond begins to form

The H–Br bond begins to break

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5.10 Describing a Reaction:

Intermediates If a reaction occurs in more

than one step, it must involve species that are neither the reactant nor the final product

These are called reaction intermediates or simply “intermediates”

Each step has its own free energy of activation

The complete diagram for the reaction shows the free energy changes associated with an intermediate

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5.11 A Comparison between Biological

Reactions and Laboratory Reactions

Laboratory reactions usually

carried out in organic solvent

Biological reactions in

aqueous medium inside cells

They are promoted by

catalysts that lower the

activation barrier

The catalysts are usually

proteins, called enzymes

Enzymes provide an

alternative mechanism that is

compatible with the

conditions of life

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