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Over100yearsold–

Barrierstoimplementingstudent-centredlearning

SharonAltena

sharon.altena@qut.edu.au

QueenslandUniversityofTechnology

Brisbane,Australia

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Abstract

Student-centredlearningisnotanewconcept,buttherehasbeenlimitedprogressmadetowardsthe

adoptionofstudent-centredapproachesinthehighereducationsector.Universitiesareunderincreasing

pressuretoadoptmorestudent-centredapproachestobettermeettheincreasinglydiverseneedsof

students.Today,thelecturecontinuestoreignsupremeasthepervasivemethodofinstructionwithin

universities.

Thispaperreviewsthescholarlyliteratureonstudent-centredlearningtoestablishwhatiscurrentlyknown

aboutstudent-centredapproachesinhighereducationcontexts.Itdefinesstudent-centredlearning,

exploresbarrierstoadoption,andhighlightsareaswherefurtherresearchisneeded.

Theoutcomesindicatethatstudent-centredapproachesarepredominantlypiecemeal,occurringin

isolatedpocketswithinuniversities.Thereisaneedforresearchtobeconductedonhowtoimplement

student-centredlearningataprogrammaticanduniversitylevelifitistogaintractioninouruniversities.

Thisreviewwillbeusefultoacademicstaffandacademicdeveloperstohighlightthebarrierstothe

adoptionofstudent-centredlearningandimportantlytopresentsomesuggestionsonhowthesebarriers

canbeameliorated.

Keywords

student-centredlearning,learner-centred,highereducation,challenges,barriers.

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Introduction

The21stcenturyisatimeofunprecedentedchangeaswetransformfromanindustrialeconomytoa

knowledgeeconomy,whereanation’sinnovation,entrepreneurialandresearchcapabilitieswillbethe

driversofeconomicsuccess(Bradley,2008).Neverbeforeinourhistoryhastheabilityto“knowwhattodo

whenyoudon’tknowwhattodo”(Claxton,2001)beensoimportant.NolongerarethethreeR’s(Reading,

WritingandArithmetic)adequateforpreparingstudentsforlifeandworkinthe21stcentury.Therehas

beenasignificantshifttowardsthedevelopmentof21stcenturylearningskillssuchascreativity,critical

thinkingandproblemsolving,communication,collaboration,information,mediaandICTliteracy,flexibility

andadaptability,initiativeandself-direction,socialandcross-culturalskills,productivityandaccountability,

andleadershipandresponsibility(Partnershipfor21stcenturylearning,2007).

Aroundtheworld,highereducationreformsarerespondingtothisshiftbycallingfortheadoptionof

student-centredapproaches(McCabe&O'Connor,2013;PhamThiHong,2011;Sweetman,2017;Yusoff,

AbdulKarim,Othman,Mohin,&AbdullRahman,2013).Thepassive,unidirectional20thcenturyteacher-

centredpedagogiesthathaveservedpreviousgenerationswellarenotadequatetofacilitatethe

developmentof21stcenturylearningskills(Guneyli&Zeki,2014).Therehasbeenaclearparadigmshiftin

universitiesfromafocusonteachingtoafocusonlearning(Barr&Tagg,1995).Consequently,universities

areunderincreasingpressureacrosstheglobetoadoptmorestudent-centredapproachestobettermeet

theneedsoftheirheterogeneousstudentbodyandtoremainrelevantwithinthesocietytheyserve.

GlobalDrivers

Inthe1990sandearly2000swehaveexperiencedrapidanddramaticchangesdrivenbyadvancesin

technology,resultinginthetransitionfromanindustrialtoaknowledgeeconomy.Acrosstheglobe,

educationpolicymakersbegantolookat21stcenturylearningskillsneededbytheircitizenstoremain

productive.Inresponse,highereducationreformsinmanycountriesareattemptingtodrivetop-down

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pedagogicalinnovationsbymandatingtheadoptionofstudent-centredlearningacrossalleducational

sectors.

In1990,theAmericanPsychologicalAssociationdeveloped“TheLearner-CenteredPsychological

Principles”,whichprovidesablueprintforlearner-centredlearningintheUnitedStates(Phungphol,2005).

AcrossAsia,policiessuchasMalaysia’s“Vision2020”(releasedin1991),Singapore’s“ThinkingNation”

(releasedin1997)andThailand’sNationalEducationActreforms(releasedin1999)allseektosupport

morelearner-centredteachingstrategiesratherthanfocusoninformationretention(PhamThiHong,

2011).TheEuropeanhighereducationsector,throughtheBolognaProcessestablishedin2009andnow

with48membercountries,setsouttoestablishcomparabilityandcompatibilityofstandardsandqualityof

highereducationacrossEuropeandtomoderniseeducationandtrainingsystems.Althoughstudent-

centredlearningwasnotdirectlymentionedintheoriginalCommuniqué,thesubsequentLeuven/Louvain-

la-NeuveCommuniqué(2009)makesspecificreferenceoftheneedforuniversitiestomovetoward

student-centredlearning.

However,despitethesewidespreadeducationreforms,therehasbeenlimitedprogresstowardsthe

adoptionofstudent-centredapproachesinthehighereducationsector.Thetraditional,didactic,teacher-

centredlecturecontinuestoreignsupremeasthedominantmethodofinstructionatuniversities.Clearly

thereisquiteadifferencebetweentherhetoricofpolicymakersandtherealityofwhathappensin

universityclassrooms.Thequestionremains,whyisittakingsolongtoimplementstudent-centredlearning

inhighereducation?

Theliteratureindicatesthatonereasonforthisistheconsiderableconfusionandambiguityovertheterm

“student-centredlearning”andwhatitmeansinpractice(Lea,Stephenson,&Troy,2003;O’Neill,2005;

Severiens,Meeuwisse,&Born,2014;Tangney,2014).Unliketermssuchasflippedlearning,authentic

learning,problem-basedlearningandproject-basedlearning,whichallhaveveryspecific,distinctand

clearlydefinedmeanings,student-centredlearningdoesnothaveoneclear,singledefinition.

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Ananalysisofsevendifferentdefinitionsofstudent-centredlearningreportedintheliteraturehas

highlightedseveralcommonbeliefsthatunderpinstudent-centredlearning(SeeFigure1).

Figure1:Analysisofthemesfromstudent-centredlearningdefinitions

(Barr&Tagg,1995;Brandes&Ginnis,1986;Cannon&Newble,2000;Gibbs,1995;Leaetal.,2003;McCombs&Whisler,1997;

Weimer,2013)

Thesebeliefsformthebasisofaconsolidateddefinitionofstudent-centredlearningasanapproachthatis

groundedinaconstructivistepistemologyandemphasisesthecriticalimportanceofstudentsconstructing

theirownmeaningfromexperiences.Assuch,itrequires:

• ashiftfromafocusonwhattheteacherdoestoafocusonhowthestudentlearns;

• studentresponsibility;

• activelearning;

• deepratherthansurfacelearning;

• teacherasafacilitatoroflearning;

• powersharingbetweenteacherandstudent;

• contentusedasatool;and

• assessmentusedtopromotelearning.

(Barr&Tagg,1995;Brandes&Ginnis,1986;Cannon&Newble,2000;Gibbs,1981;Leaetal.,2003;

McCombs&Whisler,1997;Weimer,2013)

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Forthemostpart,student-centredlearningisviewedintheliteratureasbeingtheantithesisofteacher-

centredlearning(Kember,1997;O’Neill,2005;Tangney,2014).Forbothteachersandstudents,student-

centredlearningcanrepresentquitearadicalviewoflearningrequiringsignificantchange.Several

researchersindicatethateitherendofthecontinuumisundesirable(Elen,Clarebout,Léonard,&Lowyck,

2007;McCabe&O'Connor,2013;Sweetman,2017).

Teacher-centredlearning§ Lowlevelstudentchoice§ Studentpassive§ Powerisprimarilywithteacher

Student-centredlearning§ Highlevelofstudentchoice§ Studentactive§ Powerisprimarilywiththestudent

Figure2:Teacher-centredandstudent-centredcontinuum(O’Neill,2005)

AnapproachthatmaybehelpfulistodevelopaContinuumofStudent-Centredness(Figure3)tailoredto

eachuniversitycontextthatprovidesaroadmaptoassistteachers,studentsandinstitutionstotransition

toamorestudent-centredapproach.

Figure3:Continuumofstudent-centredness

Student-focussed learning

outcomes

Some student choice in

assessment

Personalised Learning

Increasing student activity, responsibility, choice, ownership and power

Active Learning in

Lectures

Balance between active lectures and

active and collaborative learning

and assessment

Active, collaborative learning and assessment

Student initiated

collaborative learning

Degree of student-

centredness

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Methodology

ThisliteraturereviewtakestheformofascopingreviewusingAskeyandO’Malley’s(2005)ScopingReview

MethodologicalFramework.Ascopingreviewisdefinedas“aformofknowledgesynthesisthataddresses

anexploratoryresearchquestionaimedatmappingkeyconcepts,typesofevidence,andgapsinresearch

relatedtoadefinedareaorfieldbysystematicallysearching,selecting,andsynthesizingexisting

knowledge”(Colquhounetal.,2014).

Asthisresearchisexploratory,ascopingreviewisanappropriatemethodologyandtheframeworkensures

thattheresearchissystematic,disciplinedandreliable.Theresearchquestionbeinginvestigatedis:

RQ:Whatarethebarriersthathaveslowedtheprogressofimplementingstudent-centred

learninginhighereducationsettings?

Alignedtothespecificintentionofascopingreviewmethodology,theresearchquestionisdesignedto

takeaverybroadviewoftheliterature(Arksey&O'Malley,2005)togainanunderstandingofthebodyof

workthathasbeenproducedinrelationtobarrierstotheadoptionofstudent-centredlearninginthe

highereducationsectorandtoenabletheidentificationofkeythemes.

Asetofinclusionandexclusioncriteriawasdevisedtoestablishsomeboundariesaroundthispieceof

research(SeeTable1).Toreflectcurrentthinkingandcontemporaryevidence,thisresearchhasbeen

limitedtopeerreviewedjournalarticlesreportingonprimaryresearchstudiesandliteraturereviews

publishedbetweenJanuary1997andJune2017.In1997,aseminalpieceofresearchontheconceptionsof

teachingwasconductedbyKemberanditseemedthatanexaminationofstudiesovera20-yearperiod

wouldbeappropriate.ThereviewsoughttoincludeinternationalperspectivesandassuchusedERICand

EducationSourcedatabases.

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Table1

InclusionandExclusioncriteria

Criterion Inclusioncriteria Exclusioncriteria

Timeperiod 1997–2017 Studiesearlierthan1997

Language English Non-English

Countries Any None

Typeofarticle Originalresearchand

literaturereviews,publishedin

peerreviewedjournal

Articlesthatwerenotpeer

reviewed,conferencepapers,

opinionpieces,editorialsand

greyliterature

Studyfocus Highereducationoruniversity

wherestudent-centred

approacheswereused

Primary,secondary,vocational

education,college

Literaturefocus Articlesthatwere

predominantlyaboutstudent-

centredlearningoraspecific

aspectofstudent-centred

learningincludingstudent

perceptions,teacher

perceptions,challenges,

barriers.

Articlesthatdidnotrelateto

student-centredlearningand

specificteachingapproaches

suchasFlippedLearningor

PBL.

Academicdiscipline Any None

Databases ERIC,EducationSource Otherdatabases

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ThekeysearchtermswerequitebroadandincludedboththeEnglishandAmericanspellingoftheword

“centred”.Booleanoperatorswereusedtowiden,narrowandexcludestudiesthatappearedinthesearch

results.

Table2

Keysearchterms

“student-centred”OR“student-centered”

“learner-centred”OR“learner-centered”

AND“highereducation”ORuniversity

barriersORobstaclesORchallenges

NOTschoolOR“K-12”

Duetotimeconstraints,only2200titlesandabstractswerescanned,whichresultedinthe47most

relevantarticlesbeingselectedandread,afterduplicateswereremoved.Followinganinitialreadingofthe

articles,thiswasreducedto30articlesbeingselectedforthisstudy.Afurtherfivestudiesreferencedinthe

reviewedarticleswerealsoincluded.

Limitations

Thispaperisreportingonpreliminaryfindings.Duetotimeconstraints,itwasnecessarytolimitthesearch

toonlytwodatabases.Thismayhaveresultedinotherimportantstudiesbeingmissed.However,itwas

feltthatthiswassufficienttogiveabroadcoverageofthetopic.

Discussion

Theidentifiedstudiesrepresentedacross-sectionofcountriesandtypicallyfocussedonasinglegroupof

studentsand/orteachersfromoneuniversity,acomparisonbetweentwouniversities,oracomparison

betweencountries.Thereviewoftheliteraturerevealsthatthebarrierstotheimplementationofstudent-

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centredlearninginuniversitiesfallintofourmainthemes:

1. Teachers

2. Students

3. Culture

4. Assessment.

Thediscussionthatfollowswillexaminethefourthemesidentifiedintheliteratureandproposesstrategies

foramelioratingthesebarriers.

1. Teachers

Theliteratureonteacherbarriersisdividedintotwobroadcategories:institutionalbarriers,i.e.those

barriersthatareoutsidethecontroloftheindividualteacher,andpersonalbarriersthatarewithinthe

individualandpreventormakeitmoredifficultforthemtoimplementstudent-centredapproaches.

Classsizes

Severalstudieshaveidentifiedthatteachersperceivelargeclasssizesasabarriertotheimplementationof

student-centredlearning(Aksit,Niemi,&Nevgi,2016;Bordaetal.,2017;Connell,Donovan,&Chambers,

2016;Guneyli&Zeki,2014;Jordanetal.,2014;Sweetman,2017;Tawalbeh&AlAsmari,2015).Large

classeslimitstudentparticipation,thetypesoflearningactivities,andtheabilityoftheteachertomeetthe

individualneedsofstudents(Hockings,2005).Supportingthisperception,Mulryan-Kyne(2010)reports

thatsmallerclassesaremoreeffectivefordevelopinghigherorderskills,whicharethetypesofthinking

skillswearetryingtodevelopinstudent-centredenvironments.AstudybyBordaetal.(2017),who

increasedthesizeofastudent-centredchemistryclassfrom24to96students,foundthatstudentsinthe

largerclassdidnotperformaswellasstudentsinthesmallerclass.Incontrast,Mulryan-Kyne(2010)states

thatthereisagrowingbodyofevidencesuggestingthatteacherexpertisehasagreaterimpactonstudent

learningthanclasssize.

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Withtheincreasingcostsofhighereducationanddecreasinggovernmentfunding,itisunlikelythatclass

sizesatuniversitieswillbedecreased.Thereisaneedformoreresearchaboutstudent-centredlearning

andthedevelopmentofhigherorderskillswithinlargeclasses,thatmovesbeyondsimpleengagement

toolssuchasaudienceresponsesystems,think-pair-sharesandone-minutepapers.If,assuggested,

teachereffectivenesshasgreaterimpactonstudentlearningthanthesizeoftheclass,thenclearlyan

investmentinteacherdevelopmentandfurtherresearchisneeded,particularlyinrelationtothe

facilitationofstudent-centredlearningwithlargeclasses.

Space

Theinflexibilityofteachingspaceswithimmovablefurnitureisreportedtobeabarrierfortheadoptionof

student-centredlearning(Aksitetal.,2016;Guneyli&Zeki,2014;Hernandez,Ravn,&Forero-Shelton,

2014;Hockings,2005;Tawalbeh&AlAsmari,2015).Anenvironmentwithfixed,forward-facingimmovable

furnitureissimplynotconducivetocollaborativegroupwork.Furthermore,spaceswithimmovable

furniturerestricttheabilityofteachersandtutorstoeasilymovearoundaroom,resultinginsomegroups

notreceivingthesamelevelofsupportasothergroups(Hernandezetal.,2014).

Althoughuniversitiesareincreasinglybuildingcollaborativelearningspacesforteachers,thesespacesare

takingtoolongtobemadeavailable,orthespacesaretypicallybeingcreatedonlyforsmallclasssizes.Itis

unlikelythatclasseswillbesmaller,thereforeuniversitiesneedtoinvestinflexiblespacesthatcanbe

scaledupforlargerclassesandscaleddownforsmallerclasses,tosupporttheadoptionofstudent-centred

approaches.

Thetimetablingofspacesisalsoanissue,whereefficiencyistypicallyprioritisedoverpedagogyinthe

allocationofteachingspaces(Hockings,2005).Administratorsresponsiblefortimetablingneedtothink

differentlyandcreativelyabouthowtoallocatetheavailablespacesandprioritisepedagogicalneedsofthe

classoverwhatiseasyorefficient.

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Time

Alackoftimeisidentifiedintheliteratureasamajorbarriertostudent-centredlearning.Someteachers

havecitedthelackoftimetoteachusingstudent-centredapproachesduetoanovercrowdedcurriculum

(Aksitetal.,2016;Tawalbeh&AlAsmari,2015).AccordingtoConnelletal.(2016),reducingthebreadthof

whatistaughtisanessentialpartoftheprocessofadoptingstudent-centredapproaches.Thisisfurther

supportedbyLuckie,et.al.(2012)citedinConnelletal.(2016)whoalsohighlightedsignificantlearning

gainsmadebyreducingthebreadthofmaterialscovered.Thereneedstobeashiftfromcoveringthe

syllabustoafocusonhowstudentslearnandthedepthoftheirlearning(Blackie,Case,&Jawitz,2010;

Connelletal.,2016).Active,deeplearningthatencouragesstudentstoconstructtheirownmeaningwill

alwaystakemoretimethanlecturing.Weneedtoconsiderthepurposeofeducation:isitforstudentsto

bingeandpurgeknowledgetopassatest(Leaetal.,2003)ortodeveloplife-long,21stcenturylearning

skillsandadeepunderstandingofthedisciplinesweteach?Student-centredlearningrequiresteachersto

focusonthestudentandoutcomes;thiswillresultintheneedforteacherstorationalisethecontentthat

is“covered”incourses.

Theincreasedtimerequiredtodesignandprepareforstudent-centredclasseswasalsoraisedasabarrier

tostudent-centredlearning(Mulryan-Kyne,2010;Sweetman,2017).Thereisconsiderablework,atleast

initially,intranslatinganexistingtraditional“content-focussed”coursetoastudent-centredcourse

(McCabe&O'Connor,2013).Universities’prioritisationofresearchoverteachingresultsinacademics

beingunderpressuretopublishorperish(Leaetal.,2003).This,combinedwithotherinstitutional

demandsandlargerheterogeneousstudentcohorts,makesitdifficultforlearningandteachinginnovation

tobeallocatedsufficienttime.Clearly,ifstudent-centredlearningistobeimplementedinhigher

education,teachingneedstobeprioritisedandrecognitionoftheadditionaltimerequiredforpreparing

student-centredclassesneedstobeconsideredinteacherworkloads.

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ConceptionsofTeaching

Teacherswithinuniversitiesareinapowerfulpositiontobringaboutchangeinthewaystudentslearn.In

westernuniversities,theymaybeguidedbyabroadcurriculumdocument,buttypicallyexertenormous

poweroverwhathappensintheclassroom(Weimer,2013).Theydeterminethecontenttobetaught,

studentlearningexperiences,assessmentandgrading.Thewillingnessofteacherstoconcedesomeof

theirpowertostudentsbyadoptingmorestudent-centredapproachesisdependentonteachers’beliefs

abouttheroleoftheteacher(Blumberg,2016;Jordanetal.,2014;Pham,2016;PhamThiHong,2011).

InaseminalworkbyKember(1997)itwasfoundthatteachers’conceptionofteachingfallsintooneoftwo

broadorientations:teachercentred/contentorientatedorstudent-centred/learningorientated.This

orientationnotonlyhasadirectimpactontheirapproachtoteachingbutalsodirectlyimpactsthe

students’approachtolearning.

Teacherswhoadoptateachercentred/contentorientationtendtoviewtheirroleasoneofsharingtheir

knowledgewithstudents.Assuch,theytendtoadoptdidacticandsurfaceapproachestoteachingand

assessment,resultinginstudentsmirroringthesameapproachtotheirlearning.Teacherswhoadopta

student-centred/learningorientationviewtheirroleasassistingstudentstoconstructtheirownmeaning

tounderstandthecontent,usestudent-centredapproachesandencouragedeeplearning.Essentially,they

attempttochangestudents’conceptionsoflearning(Baeten,Kyndt,Struyven,&Dochy,2010;Sadler,

2012).Thereis,however,somedebatewithintheliteratureregardingthecausalityofteacherconceptions

ofteachingandtheimpactonstudentlearning,particularlyasstudiesthatadvocatethiscausalityare

reportingonteachers’espousedbeliefsratherthanobservationofactualteachingpractice(Devlin,2006).

Thiswouldindicatethatfurtherresearchthatobservesactualteachingpracticesintheclassroomwould

strengthenorrefutetheseclaims.

Astudyonthechallengesfornewacademicsinadoptingstudent-centredapproachesfoundthatnew

academicsoftenhavestudent-centred/learningorientatedconceptionsofteaching,butstruggletoput

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themintopractice(McLeanandBullard,2000citedinSadler,2012,p.743).Thismaybeinpartduetothe

self-survivalstageofuniversityteaching,wherebeginningteachersareinitiallyinwardlyfocussedon

themselvesandtheirroleasateacherbeforemovingtotheskillsstage,wheretheydeveloptheirteaching

skills,andthentotheoutcomesstage,wheretheirfocusfinallyswitchestostudentsandstudentlearning

(NyquistandWulff,1996ascitedinDevlin,2006).Contradictingthis,aSaudiArabianstudyfoundno

significantdifferenceinuniversityteachers’perceptionsoflearner-centredapproachesbasedontheir

qualificationsorexperience(Tawalbeh&AlAsmari,2015).

Ithasbeensuggestedthattargetedprofessionaldevelopmentmayincreasetheadoptionofstudent-

centredlearningbyuniversityteachers(Blackieetal.,2010;Jordanetal.,2014;Kember,2009;McCabe&

O'Connor,2013).Teacherdevelopmentiscomplex-simplydeliveringadidacticpresentationofnew

teachingapproachesisinadequate,itmustaimtobetrulytransformational(Blackieetal.,2010).Assuch,

emphasisshouldbeplacedonbothdevelopingteachers’conceptionsofteachingandatthesametime

introducingnewteachingapproaches(Degago&Kaino,2015)throughexperientialprofessional

development.

Lackofconfidenceanddifferentskillset

Ithasbeenrecognisedintheliteratureasfarbackasthelate1960sthatteacherstypicallyteachtheway

theyweretaught(Osman,Jamaludin,&Iranmanesh,2015).Teachinginstudent-centredlearning

environmentsconflictswiththetraditionalimageoftheteacherbeingresponsibleforthetransmissionof

knowledge.Thisrepresentsachallengetotheidentityofteachers,particularlyinnon-westerncountries

(Aksitetal.,2016).Beginningteachersfrequentlyreceivereinforcementtocontinuedidacticteaching

practice,eventhoughtheymayhaveexperiencedthebenefitsofstudent-centredlearningintheir

universitycourses(Struyven,Dochy,&Janssens,2010).Teacherswhoarenotconfidentintheirdiscipline

knowledgetendtousedidacticapproachestocontrolthelearningenvironmentandavoidhavingtocope

withtheunpredictablenatureofstudent-centredclasses(Sadler,2012).Student-centredteachingalso

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requirestheteachertogiveupsomecontrolovertheirclassandthisrequiressignificantprofessional

confidence(McCabe&O'Connor,2013).

Teachinginstudent-centredlearningenvironmentsrequiresteacherstohaveadifferentandexpandedskill

setthatincludestheabilitytofacilitateandmanagegroups,guideratherthandirectstudentlearning,and

usestudent-centredpedagogies.However,mostteacherswillnothavedirectlylearnedthesefacilitation

skills.Ifnewlearningandteachingapproachesaretobeembraced,theremustbeawillingnesstofail,be

vulnerable,takerisksandengageinuncertainty(Blackieetal.,2010).

2.StudentPerceptions

Inasimilarwaytoteachers,studentsarriveatthestudent-centredlearningenvironmentwiththeirown

preconceptionsaboutteachingandlearning(Lee&Branch,2017).Forthemostpart,studentsinboth

westernandnon-westerncountrieshave,throughtheirschooling,beenconditionedtobeapassive

recipientofteachers’wisdom(Aksitetal.,2016;Connelletal.,2016;Kember,2009;McCabe&O'Connor,

2013;McFarlane&Berg,2008;PhamThiHong,2011;Sweetman,2017;Tawalbeh&AlAsmari,2015).

Studentscanfinditquiteachallengetobeconfrontedwithastudent-centredlearningenvironmentwhere

theyareexpectedtobeanactiveparticipantintheirlearning(McCabe&O'Connor,2013;McFarlane&

Berg,2008),particularlythosefromcultureswherethereisahighpower-distancerelationshipbetween

teacherandstudent(McFarlane&Berg,2008;PhamThiHong,2011).

Itmustbeacknowledgedandunderstoodthatstudent-centredlearningrepresentsasignificantchangefor

studentsthatcannotbeignoredorunderestimated.Formanystudents,student-centredlearning

environmentsarenotwhattheyexpectofhighereducation(Leaetal.,2003).Theydonotexpecttobe

activeparticipants,andberesponsiblefortheirownlearning.Wright(2011)reportedonastudybyTymain

2009thatinasmallclassoffivemediastudentswhowereaskedtobeinvolvedinthedesignofthecourse,

twostudentshadleftbytheendofweek2.Similarly,astudybyMcFarlaneandBerg(2008)involving

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Taiwaneseuniversitystudentsfoundthatnewapproachessuchasgroupworkcouldnotbesustained,with

studentsrevertingbacktotheirfamiliartraditionalapproachestolearning.

AstudybyLea(2003)foundthatsomestudentshadacynicalviewofstudent-centredlearning.Insteadof

seeingitasagenuinecommitmenttoimprovinglearning,theysawitasbeingaboutacademicpressuresto

publish.

Unexpectedly,studentacceptanceandvaluingofthestudent-centredlearningenvironmentcanbequite

mixed,andstudentsarepolarisedbasedontheirpreferenceforteachingmethods(Stuyven,2008citedin

Severiensetal.,2014).InastudybyTawalbehandAlAsmari(2015),77.1%ofteachersindicatedthat

studentattitudetowardsstudent-centredlearningwasabarrier.

Toaddresstheseperceptionsofstudent-centredlearningenvironments,teachersneedtoensurethat

studentsareproperlyinductedintotheenvironmentandappreciatetheuniquelearningandassessment

opportunitiesthatastudent-centredapproachoffers(Lee&Branch,2017;McCabe&O'Connor,2013;

McFarlane&Berg,2008).

Self-efficacy

Studentself-efficacyisakeyfactorinhowwellstudentsadapttoastudent-centredlearningenvironment.

InastudybyLee&Branch(2017),itwasestablishedthatstudentswithlowpriorknowledgefoundthe

student-centredlearningenvironmentconfusingandfrustrating,whereastheoppositewastrueforthose

studentswithahighself-efficacy.Similarly,inastudybyHockings(2009)of200BusinessOperations

secondyearstudents,lowstudentself-efficacywasfoundtobeakeyfactorinexplainingwhysome

studentswerenotsuccessfulinastudent-centredlearningenvironment.Incontrast,studentsinastudyby

Aksitetal.(2016)reportedthatactivelearninginastudent-centredlearningenvironmentraisedtheirself-

esteemduetothesupportiveanddemocraticlearningenvironment.

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Growthinstudentconfidenceoftheirowncapabilitiestoeffectivelylearninastudent-centred

environmentrequiresteacherguidanceandregularpeerandteacherfeedback(Lee&Branch,2017;

McCabe&O'Connor,2013).Additionally,itrequirescarefulscaffoldingofstudentlearningandavoidance

ofan“emptycentre”(GleelandascitedinLeaetal.,2003)sostudentsdonotfeelunsupportedor

abandoned.Inasimilarwaytoteachers,perhapsthegradualimplementationofstudent-centred

approachesiswellsuitedtostudents(Baeten,Struyven,&Dochy,2013).

Academicsuccess

Intheassessment-drivenculturewithinuniversities,student-centredlearningcanonlygaintractionandbe

valuedbystudentsifitcanbedemonstratedthatstudentoutcomesareimproved.Connelletal.(2016)

foundthatstudentsinbothsmallandlargestudent-centredclassesshowedsignificantlyimprovedresults

whencomparedtotraditionalclasses.However,severalresearchersindicatethattherearemixedresults

ontheeffectivenessofstudent-centredlearninginimprovingstudentoutcomes(Hockings,2009;Leaetal.,

2003;O’Neill,2005;Severiensetal.,2014).Thiscouldbeattributedtothelackofaclearstudent-centred

learningdefinition(Severiensetal.,2014)oramismatchbetweenthestudent-centeredlearning

environmentandassessmenttasks.

Student-centredlearningenvironmentshavebeenshowntodevelophigherorderthinkingskillsand

deep/permanentlearning,andtoprovidestudentswiththeopportunitytolearnhowtolearn(Guneyli&

Zeki,2014).However,inastudyofAppliedSciencestudents,Dear(2017)foundthatwhensurfacelearning

wasassessed,therewasnosignificantdifferenceinstudentresultsbetweenstudent-centredandteacher-

centredlearningenvironments.Interestingly,thissamestudyshowedthatwhenstudents’deeplearning

wasassessed,theyachievedsignificantlyhigherresultsinateacher-centredenvironment.Thissupports

earlierfindingsofBaetenetal.(2010)whofoundcontradictionsintheevidencesupportingtheviewthat

student-centredlearningenvironmentsfosterthedevelopmentofdeepratherthansurfacelearning.Ithas

beenfoundthatencouragingstudentstoadoptdeepapproachestolearningiscomplexandinfluencedby

thelearningcontext,students’perceptionsofthecontextandstudents’characteristics(Baetenetal.,

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2010).Thissamestudyindicatedthatsoftdisciplinessuchashumanitiesfosterdeeplearning,whereas

harddisciplinessuchasscience,engineeringandeconomicsfostersurfacelearning.Italsohighlightedthe

teacherasbeingimportantininfluencingstudents’approachestolearning(Baetenetal.,2010).

AstudybySeveriensetal.(2014)of475firstyearstudentsinstudent-centredenvironmentsfoundadirect

connectionbetweenstudents“feelingathome”inalearningenvironmentandacademicsuccess.Itfound

thatstudentsbeingcomfortableinthelearningenvironmentandestablishingconnectionswithother

studentsincreasedtheireffortandengagement,whichincreasedthetimespentstudyingandtherefore

increasedstudentresults.

3.Culture

Severalofthereviewedarticles,particularlythosefromnon-westerncountries,highlightedthatstudent-

centredlearningisawesternpracticethatisbeingimplantedintonon-westerneducationsystemswithout

dueconsiderationoflocalcultureandtraditions(Jordanetal.,2014;PhamThiHong,2011;Yusoffetal.,

2013). Frequently,westernapproachesarediametricallyopposedtothecultureofnon-westerncountries.

AresearchstudyundertakenataVietnamuniversitybyPham(2016)foundthatitwasonlywhentheunit

coordinatormodifiedandcontextualisedthestudent-centredapproachtothecultureofaVietnamese

highereducationclassroomdidthestudentacceptanceandimprovedacademicperformanceofstudents

occur.Assuch,thereneedstoberecognitionthatourpersonalculture,thecultureofourstudents,the

cultureofsubjectdisciplinesandthecultureofouruniversitiesisunique.Tomovestudent-centred

learningforward,itmaybethateachuniversityneedstodeterminewhatstudent-centredlearningmeans

intheiruniquecontext.Importantly,theadoptionofinnovationisstronglylinkedtothecultureofan

organisation,andthisrequiresstrongorganisationalleadership(Zhu&Engels,2014).Assuch,asupportive

andinnovativeculture,wheretryingnewapproachesisencouragedandrewarded,isneededtosupport

theadoptionofstudent-centredlearningapproaches.

19

4.AssessmentPractices

Universitystudentstendtotakeanassessmentfocustotheirlearningbyprioritisingassessedtasksover

non-assessedtasks(Hockings,2005,2009;Sweetman,2017).Theyadoptastrategicapproachandonly

devotetimetotasksthatcontributetotheirfinalgrade,duetocompetingdemandsontheirtime(Brown&

Race,2013).Thishasanimpactonhowweassessinstudent-centredlearningenvironments.

Athemethatemergesfromthestudiesisthatassessmentinstudent-centredenvironmentsmustmatch

andsupportstudent-centredlearning.Intheirstudyof316studentteachersataTurkishuniversity,Aksitet

al.(2016)foundthatdespitethepositiveexperienceandimpactontheirlearning,therewasamismatch

betweenactivelearningstrategiesandatraditionalstandardisedexam-basedassessmentculturethat

encouragesrotelearning.Similarly,PhamThiHong(2011)foundthatassessmentpracticesneedtochange

fromtraditionalindividualisticexam-basedapproachestocollaborativestudent-centredapproaches,if

studentsaretoseethevalueinthisformoflearning.

Theencouragementofdeeplearningisakeycomponentofastudent-centredapproach.(Baetenetal.,

2010)foundacausallinkbetweentheassessmentandthelearningapproachadoptedbystudents.If

assessmentsrequireasurfacelevelapproach,studentswouldadoptasurfaceapproachtolearning.In

contrasttothis,studentsareencouragedtodevelopadeeperapproachtotheirlearningiftheassessment

requiredadeepapproach.Thedesignoftheassessmentisacriticalcomponentforfacilitatingstudent-

centredapproaches.

Theuseofauthenticassessmenthasalsobeenfoundtoencouragedeepapproachestolearning,as

studentsareabletoseeastronglinkbetweenassessmentanditsapplicationtotheirfutureprofessional

practice(Baetenetal.,2010).“Assessmentcanbeanimportantdriverthatdetermineshowstudentslearn”

(PhamThiHong,2011,p.524).

20

TheresearchwouldindicatethatthereneedstobewhatBiggs(1999)referstoasconstructivealignment

betweenlearningoutcomes,assessmentandlearningactivities.Thisalignmentwouldallowstudentstosee

thevalueinstudent-centredapproachesandencouragethemtoengageindeeplearning.Theuseof

authenticassessmentmaybeamechanismtomakethishappen.

Thelinkbetweenteachers,studentlearningandassessment

Theliteratureindicatesastronglinkbetweenteachers’conceptionsofteaching,studentlearningand

assessment.Teachers’conceptionsofteachinginfluencesthelearningexperiencesofstudents,italso

influencesthewaystudentsareassessed.Thetypeoflearningexperienceandassessmentrequirements

bothinfluencestudents’approachestolearning(Figure4).

Figure4:Therelationshipbetweenteacherconceptionsofteachingandstudentlearningapproaches.

UseofQualityReviewProcessasacatalystforchange

Forstudent-centredlearningtomovebeyondbeingadoptedinapiecemealwaywithinuniversities,a

programmaticapproachtowardstheimplementationofstudent-centredapproachesisneeded.Program

re-accreditationandqualityreviewcyclesareanopportunetimetomakesignificantprogresstowards

embeddingstudent-centredapproachesataprogrammaticlevel.Thisisbecauseattentionisfocussedon

reviewingthecurriculum,assessmentandlearningandteachingapproaches.Giventhecurrenttop-down

21

approachfrompolicymakersandthebottom-upapproachbyindividualacademics,itwouldappearthat

there-accreditationandqualityreviewcyclescouldbeacatalystforacceleratingsignificantchange.

“Curriculumreformaloneisnotalwayssufficienttoalterormodifytheteachers’significantpractices,and

whatwasneededwerechangesinthebeliefs,habits,rolesandpowerstructuresofteachingaswellas

developmentsinpedagogy.”(KimonenandNevalainen,2005ascitedinAksitetal.,2016).

Teachersarethefrontlinechangeagentswithinuniversities.Theirbeliefsandactionsdirectlyimpact

studentlearning.Agreaterunderstandingoftheprocessofteacherchangeiscriticalforthosechargedwith

encouragingteacherstoadoptstudent-centredapproaches.Teacherchangestotheirclassroompractice

areincrementalandtendtobeminoradjustmentsratherthanwholesalechanges.Overtime,these

incrementalchangesbecomesignificant(Knight2001ascitedinAltena,2007).

TheModelofTeacherChange(Guskey,2002)suggeststhatwhenimplementinganewpractice,itisthe

changeinstudentoutcomesthatchangesteachers’beliefsandattitudesaboutteachingpractice.Tailored

professionaldevelopmentcomplementingtheQualityReviewProcessmayalsogosomewaytowards

buildingteachercapacityandremovingsomeofbarriers(Blackieetal.,2010;Jordanetal.,2014;Kember,

2009;McCabe&O'Connor,2013).

Implicationsforfurtherresearch

Theresearchindicatesthattheadoptionofstudent-centredlearninginhighereducationispiecemealand

happeningwithinsmallpocketsofuniversities.Ifwearetomovebeyondtherhetoricofuniversitiesbeing

student-centred,thensignificantlymoreresearchneedstobeundertakenonhowweimplementstudent-

centredlearningatanational,university,school/departmentandprogramlevel.Moreresearchinvolving

theactualobservationofstudent-centredclassroomswouldalsosignificantlyhelptoinformfuture

practice.

22

Conclusion

Student-centredlearningiscomplexandill-defined.Thereisnoone-size-fits-allsolution.Institutionsneed

todefinestudent-centredlearningtofitwithinthecultureandspecificcontextoftheuniversity.Itmaybe

helpfulataninstitutionallevelforthosechargedwithimplementingcurriculumchangetodesigna

continuumofstudent-centrednesstoassistteacherstounderstandhowtheycantransitiontomore

student-centredapproaches.

Teachersarethekeytothesuccessfulimplementationofstudent-centredlearning.Ithasbeenfoundinthe

researchthattheconceptionsofteacherschangeonlywhenteacherscanseeevidenceofapositiveimpact

onstudentoutcomes.Forbothstudentsandteachers,implementationdoesnotneedtobeatanextreme

endofthecontinuum.Indeed,forsuccessandsustainability,thereshouldbeascaffolded,gradual

transitiontoastudent-centredapproach.

Top-downcurriculumreformsarenotsufficienttobringaboutchangeandcurrentbottom-upinitiatives

arefailingtohavesignificantimpact.Programmatic-levelre-accreditationaspartofthequalityprocessis

anopportunetimetoadvancewhole-of-programstudent-centredlearningapproaches.Thisshouldbe

supportedbytargetedandongoingprofessionaldevelopment.Thereisaneedforfurtherresearchto

investigatehowthiscouldbeachieved.

23

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Appendices

27

Figure1:Analysisofthemesfromstudent-centredlearningdefinitions

(Barr&Tagg,1995;Brandes&Ginnis,1986;Cannon&Newble,2000;Gibbs,1981;Leaetal.,2003;McCombs&Whisler,1997;

Weimer,2013)

28

Teacher-centredlearning§ Lowlevelstudentchoice§ Studentpassive§ Powerisprimarilywithteacher

Student-centredlearning§ Highlevelofstudentchoice§ Studentactive§ Powerisprimarilywiththestudent

Figure2:Teacher-centredandstudent-centredcontinuum(O’Neill,2005)

29

Figure3:Continuumofstudent-centredness

Student-focussed learning

outcomes

Some student choice in

assessment

Personalised Learning

Increasing student activity, responsibility, choice, ownership and power

Active Learning in

Lectures

Balance between active lectures and

active and collaborative learning

and assessment

Active, collaborative learning and assessment

Student initiated

collaborative learning

Degree of student-

centredness

30

Figure4:Therelationshipbetweenteacherconceptionsofteachingandstudentlearningapproaches.

31

BiographicalNotesofAuthor:

Sharon Altena is a passionate, innovative and enthusiastic educator from Queensland

University of Technology. She has vast experience acquired over the past 30 years as a

teacher and learning designer across secondary schools, vocational education and the

university sectors. She holds a Master of Learning Innovation from Queensland University

of Technology along with several other undergraduate and post graduate degrees,

Graduate Certificates and Graduate Diplomas. Next year, she is planning to commence

Doctoral studies.

Sharon has extensive skills and experience in curriculum design, pedagogy, eLearning

and learning technologies. In recent years, she has been involved in two high profile

whole-of-program curriculum development projects at both post-graduate and

undergraduate levels. She has also played a key role in several innovation projects at

QUT, including the Transform and Graduate and Professional Education projects that were

exploring new approaches to university learning and teaching.

Sharon’s key focus is on how we tailor and scaffold learning to best meet the needs of

students and to develop and encourage academic staff to adopt active and student-

centred learning approaches.

Sharon has recently been recognised for her work in education by being admitted as a

Senior Fellow of the UK Higher Education Academy.