Part 3The Road Towards Independence

First Cracks in the Empire• 1920-1930 after WWI– Colonized peoples participate

in war effort, expect recognition for their sacrifices

• Nationalist movements gain groundPopulation becomes pro-independentPolitically more structuredMost active in India, Indochina, North Africa, Syria and Lebanon

Favorable Context• WWII– 1941 – Atlantic Charter written by Roosevelt and Churchill

– affirming all nations the right to self determination– By the end of WWII, colonialism seemed to contradict the

spirit of the Allies fight against Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy

– Over 200,000 Africans had fought in Europe and Asia for the Allies’ freedom and democracy – most noticed the contradiction

– Japanese anti-European propaganda during the war• Surge of anti-colonial nationalism after 1945. Leaders

used lessons in mass politicization and mass mobilization of 1920’s and 1930’s.

• New International Context– Superpowers (US & USSR) denounced colonialism– The U.N. supported decolonization• In 1960 the UN General Assembly passed Resolution

1514 that supported the end of colonization• 1961 Decolonization committee created

– 1955 Bandung Conference – attended by Third World nations collectively denounce colonization

29 independent countries were

present, representing over half the world's

population

British Decolonization• Progressive and negotiated independence– Only few isolated cases of violence (e.g. Mau Mau

Uprising in Kenya)

• 1931, Britain: Statute of Westminster – converted the British Empire into the British

Commonwealth– allowed varying degrees of autonomy

Decolonization à la française• Brazzaville Conference (1944) de Gaulle supports

reform policy but rejects idea of independence and autonomy– France seeks to maintain her Empire, way to regain lost

glory after WWII– Though limited, the French colonies were given

representation in French parliament in the 4th French Republic in 1947

– Despite advantages, most nationalists still sought independence

– Violent reaction to Algerian riots in May 1945 and Madagascar in 1947

– 1958 French position evolves - de Gaulle recognizes necessity of decolonization

Colonial Wars• Indochina

– 1946 France enters a war against the nationalists

– Becomes part of the Cold War struggle • U.S. gives financial

support to France• USSR and China give

military aid to the Vietminh

French Defeat & Withdrawal– May 7, 1954, Battle of Dien Bien Phu• French defeated and pull out• In July 1954 Geneva Accords recognize independence

of Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam

IndiaColonization occurs long before Africa, therefore

decolonization begins earlier

¾ Hindu¼ Muslim

Colonial Background of India• British East India Company had

trading rights during Mughal Empire• Mughal Empire collapsed in 1757,

BEIC took control with Sepoy force• Sepoy Mutiny (Great Rebellion) in

1857 - warning to British government

• Queen Victoria’s government took direct control of the Raj in 1857

Sepoy Mutiny1857

British India• Upper class Indian bureaucracy given some local power

– indirect rule (but British made decisions and passed laws, not Indians)

• Began to become a louder voice for self-rule• Indian National Congress Party– Formed in 1885 with British blessing– Forum through which views of educated Indians could be

made aware to the British government– Members become alarmed at growing racism of Brits to

Indians, realization of shared grievances, and growth of common Indian identity.

• New identity in some ways created by British presence

1st Indian National Congress 1885

Mohandas Gandhi• Indian middle class background• Appealed to Western-educated and the masses• Sollicitor trained in London• Head of National Indian Party from 1920• Non-violent protest based on civil disobedience

– Boycotts elections– Boycotts British products, schools, courts– Refuses to pay taxes– Organizes strikes– Organizes mass demonstrations– Supports Satyagraha or

truth force/soul force

Video: Gandhi’s Non-Violent Speech

Gandhi and Salt March 1930Video extract: Gandhi & Civil Disobedience

Steps to India’s Independence pre WWII

• London signs the India Act 1935– Gives form of political autonomy

• 1942 Congress Party launches “Quit India” campaign– Leaders arrested– Massive violence erupts

Steps to India’s Independence post WWII

• Postwar period, negotiations resume– UK accepts principle of independence– Wants guarantees that country will remain unified and

minority (Muslims) rights protected• Bloodbath between Hindus and Muslims– 1946 Great Killing of Calcutta

Steps to India’s Independence post WWII

• British grant full independence 1947 with partition– Territory divided into 2 nations: India

and Pakistan– Extreme violence between

communities (300 – 500 thousand deaths, 10-15 million people migrate

• Gandhi assasinated by Hindu extremist in 1948

Great partition of India and

Pakistan 1947

Video: India Pakistan Partition BBC Special 0 – 1’50

Jawharlal Nehru• 1929 becomes president of Congress Party• Fights for total Indian independence• Becomes Prime Minister of India until his

death in 1964

Nation-Building in Africa

• Most of African Independence would be achieved well after WWII, but the movements themselves began during the inter-war period

• In response to war-time promises made to Africans in exchange for their military service which never materialized

• to support the cause of African unity against foreign presence– Marcus Garvey– W.E.B. Dubois– Negritude Literary Movement

• In 1945, the 5th Pan African Congress met and discussed the prospect of independence – attending were a number of leaders who would eventually lead their nations to independence

Pan-Africanism

Decolonization in AfricaFirst wave of 1950-1960• French protectorates– in North Africa Negotiated Independence• 1956 Morocco and Tunisia independent in• Algeria, completely different story

– Sub-Saharan Africa• 1956 France concedes beginning of autonomy• 1958 Referendum (independence or community? )• 1959-1960 Colonies gain independence

UK • in West Africa UK accepts decolonization– West Africans had adopted many elements of

western civilization– Early ties allowed more opportunities for

education and modernization– Nationalists in West Africa drew from their own

history and western influences– Gold Coast (Ghana) independent in 1957

• In Eastern Africa where large white minority, Great Britain reluctant to withdraw– Kenya, Mau Mau rebellion put down 1952

Former British colonies in Southern Africa– European minorities impose domination by

Whites– 1980 black majority rises to power in South

Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)

South Africa• Gained independence from Britain in

1910– White minority dominated political and

economic institutions– Educated Africans began organizing

movement to gain power– The African National Congress (ANC) tried

to reason with government– In 1960, after an African riot, the

government instituted strict measures to formally separate the races in South Africa through a system known as apartheid

– 1991 apartheid disappears in South Africa– Nelson Mandela elected leader in 1992

Algeria – A national liberation war

A. Beginnings of the War in Algeria• 1950 considered as integral part of

French territory– 1 million Europeans– 9 million Muslim Algerians– Major inequalities between populations

• 1954 wave of terrorist attacks– creation of National Liberation Front (FLN),

struggle for independence begun– French gov’t immediately sends in

military forces

FLN unit troops

B. Progressive deepening of the Algerian War (1954-

1958)• Repression more and more

violent• French refusal to acknowledge

state of war– “Maintaining the peace”

operations– Military action against small

number of “fellaghas” and not against Algerians

• 1956, military numbers double

Harkis Soldiers

Fellaghas – Road Bandits

• 1957 FLN brings war to the city Battle of Algiers– FLN uses blind terrorism; random bombings– French military resorts to frisking, torture,

arrests– French Authorities and FLN partisans denounce

violence of FLN (against French and Muslim alike)

C. De Gaulle puts an end to the war (1958-1962)

“Long Live French Algeria!”, June 6th, 1958

D. De Gaulle’s Policies towards Algeria• Progressively leads to negotiation• September 1959, recognizes Algerians have a right to

self-determination– Partisans of French Algeria and members of Army feel

betrayed– Sparks week of rioting in Algiers - January 1960

“the week of the barricades”

E. OAS bombings• April 1961, 4 generals attempt a coup d’état to

take over the country• OAS (Organization of the Secret Army )

created 1961– Organizes series of terrorist attacks in France &

Algeria

F. Independence• March 18, 1962

negotiations with FLN result in the Evian accords

• Independence proclaimed July 5, 1962

• 800,000 Europeans flee the country

• 25,000 Harkis, treated as traitors, exiled in France

Repatriation of French Algerians

G. Legacy of Algerian War• Heavy human casualties• National Liberation War

but also a Civil War• Public Opinion in France

very divided• Long since taboo subject

in French education -similar to Vietnam experience for Americans

Video: Aljazeerah - Veterans: The French in Algeria 15’30”

Reading Assignment - Homework• The Unfinished Nation by Alan Brinkley

“Chapter 20 The Imperial Republic”, pp 534-554• Mastering Modern World History by Norman Lowe

“Chapter 24 The End of the European Empires”, pp. 509-541

• The World Since 1914 by Joe Scott, “Part 8: The End of Empire” (6 pages) (link to be found on blog)