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Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1163e1174

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Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/locate/ tate

Patterns of development in second-career teachers’ conceptions of learningand teaching

Anke Tigchelaar a,*, Jan D. Vermunt a, Niels Brouwer b

aUtrecht University, Centre for Education and Learning, PO Box 80127, 3508 TC Utrecht, The NetherlandsbRadboud University Nijmegen, The Netherlands

h i g h l i g h t s

< Second-career teachers’ conceptions of learning and teaching are multi-faceted.< Four significant relationships were found between backgrounds and conceptions.< Three patterns of development in conceptions were identified.< A possible connection between these patterns and employment after ACP was found.

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 9 July 2011Received in revised form22 June 2012Accepted 12 July 2012

Keywords:Conceptions of learning and teachingBeliefsAlternative teacher certificationSecond-career teachersPhenomenography

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ31 302533702.E-mail address: A.E.Tigchelaar@uu.nl (A. Tigchelaa

0742-051X/$ e see front matter � 2012 Elsevier Ltd.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2012.07.006

a b s t r a c t

This study was aimed at deepening our understanding of second-career teachers’ conceptions of teachingand learning. Initial conceptions held by 207 candidates entering an alternative teacher education pro-gramme were explored using a semi-structured questionnaire covering background characteristics andfour themes concerning teaching and learning. A limited number of distinct conceptions could beidentified and related to respondents’ background characteristics. After the first semester of the pro-gramme, three patterns of development were found in a subset of 70 participants: growth, consolidationand regression. Pedagogical implications for fostering growth in second-career teachers are discussed.

� 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Empirical research on alternative teacher certification is grad-ually growing, especially in the U.S.A, where a tradition of two anda half decades of alternative certification programmes (ACPs) exists.In the discourse, the following topics can be distinguished:recruitment and retention of participants, effectiveness of pro-grammes, and teacher performance (cf. Birkeland & Peske, 2004;Dill, 1996; Zeichner & Schulte, 2001; Zumwalt, 1996). ACPs are seenas a solution to teacher shortages, because they offer a way toexpand the pool of qualified teachers by attracting individuals whomight otherwise not have become teachers. Available evidencesuggests that the efficiency of ACPs is modest. Shen and Palmer(2005) showed that dropout rates among participants of ACPstend to be high. A substantial number of second-career teachers

r).

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leaves the profession within the first years of their new careers.Second-career teachers bring extensive and diverse experienceswith them (e.g. Eifler & Potthoff, 1998; Feistritzer & Chester, 2000;Miller, McKenna, & McKenna, 1998; Zeichner & Schulte, 2001) aswell as strongly developed beliefs about teaching and how theywillbecome competent in it (e.g. Bullough & Knowles, 1991; Gomez,Walker, & Page, 2000; Powell, 1992).

Teachers’ beliefs, i.e. their ideas or convictions about teachingand learning are shaped by previous experiences. These experi-ences therefore function as filters in interpreting new experiencesand may also influence behaviour (cf. Kagan, 1992; Pajares, 1992).So far, research on second-career teachers’ beliefs has shed littlelight on the beliefs they hold before entering an ACP programme,the influence of earlier experiences on these beliefs and on howthese beliefs develop during the first months of the transition toteaching. However, beliefs may have important influences oncandidates’ learning and teaching, whether beneficial, counter-productive or both. Exploring the beliefs with which second-careerteachers’ enter ACPs may help us discover how these candidates

A. Tigchelaar et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1163e11741164

can be better supported in learning to teach and staying in theprofession. Therefore, this study aimed at gaining a deeper insightinto second-career teachers’ beliefs during their transition toteaching.

1.1. Second-career teachers’ beliefs

In their review of the literature on alternative certification,Tigchelaar, Brouwer, and Vermunt (2010) found that the beliefsheld by second-career teachers’ on entry into ACPs vary alonga dimension typifying their conceptions about the teacher role. Onthe one hand, second-career teachers hold student-centred beliefscharacterised by an intention to support knowledge constructionby learners (e.g. Tigchelaar, Brouwer & Korthagen, 2008; Chambers,2002; Parker & Brindley, 2008). On the other hand, more teacher-centred beliefs occur, characterised by an intention to transmitknowledge directly to learners (e.g.; Greenwood, 2003; Jenne,1997). One may characterise these conceptions as ranging from“advanced” to “traditional”. For instance, the respondents in thestudies by Koballa, Glynn, Upson, and Coleman (2005), Powell(1994) and Bullough and Knowles (1990, 1991) firmly held tradi-tional beliefs during their first years of teaching. The three partic-ipants in the study by Brindley and Parker (2010) had problemsenacting their beliefs in classroom teaching. Some studies exam-ining the influence of teacher education programmes on thedevelopment of beliefs indicate that traditional beliefs weretransformed into more advanced beliefs (Bennet, 1991; Hart, 2002;Proweller & Mitchener, 2004). In other studies, consolidation(Jenne, 1997) or transformation of beliefs (cf. Williams, 2010) werereported. All of these studies focussed on second-career teachers’beliefs about teaching once they were involved in an ACP. Less isknown about their initial beliefs, i.e. the beliefs they held beforeentering an ACP.

The available research about second-career teachers’ beliefsreveals no insights in their ideas about learning to teach (cf.Tigchelaar et al., 2010). From a large-scale study of the learningopportunities offered to second-career teachers by seven ACPs,Humphrey and Wechsler (2007) could only conclude that theparticipants brought a great variety of previous experiences thatinfluenced their perceptions of learning opportunities.

1.2. Conceptions about learning and teaching

Beliefs about learning and teaching have been studied moreextensively among secondary school teachers and universityprofessors. In these domains, the terms “belief” and “conception”are used interchangeably to describe ideas about teaching andlearning (c.f. Kagan, 1992; Kane, Sandretto, & Heath, 2002; Kember,1997). Following Kember (1997), we used the term “conceptions” inthe definition by Pratt (1992) as “specific meanings attached tophenomena which mediate our response to situations involvingthese phenomena” (Pratt, 1992, p. 204). In pertinent meta-analyses,Moore (2002) and Van Rossum and Hamer (2010) argue the rele-vance of studying learning conceptions by pointing out thatlearning conceptions may influence approaches to and outcomes oflearning. Similarly, teaching conceptions may influence approachesto teaching and students’ learning approaches and outcomes(Kember, 1997; Richardson, 1996; Van Rossum & Hamer, 2010).

In studies examining conceptions of learning and teaching (cf.Gow & Kember, 1993; Kember, 1997; Murray & MacDonald, 1997;Prosser & Trigwell, 1999; and Wood, 2000), a fundamentaldichotomy is theorised, which can be traced to an influential studyconducted by Säljö (1979). This author identifies a fundamentaldifference between conceptions implying that knowledge isexternal (learning is transferring knowledge from an external

source into the head of the learner) or constructed (the learnerabstracts meaning from a discourse and relates this meaning to anoutside reality). This dichotomy is now widely accepted in theliterature on learning conceptions (Van Rossum & Hamer, 2010).Regarding teaching conceptions, Kember (1997), reviewing theliterature on the teaching conceptions of university professors,similarly theorises a continuum ranging from traditional, content-oriented and teacher-centred conceptions (presenting subjectmatter as content to be memorised) to advanced, learning-orientedand student-centred conceptions (encouraging students to reflectabout subject matter).

Phenomenographic studies form a primary contributor to theresearch domains referenced above. Within the phenomeno-graphic approach, ways of experiencing phenomena such aslearning and teaching are categorised into a limited number ofconceptions “logically structured in a nested hierarchy of inclu-siveness” (Åkerlind, 2008, p. 636). Second-career teachers areexperts in professional domains other than teaching, who bringprevious experiences in work and life with them. Studying second-career teachers’ conceptions during their transition to teachingfrom this perspective can contribute to understanding theirdevelopment in the profession.

1.3. Research purpose and questions

The purpose of the present study was to deepen our under-standing of second-career teachers’ conceptions of teaching andlearning during their transition to teaching. A “second-careerteacher” was defined as a career changer with at least five years ofwork experience aiming at postgraduate alternative teacher certi-fication. Entwistle, Skinner, Entwistle, and Orr (2000) have con-nected the domain of teachers’ beliefs and the domains ofuniversity teachers’ and students’ conceptions. Remarkably, thestudent sample in their study (N ¼ 100) consisted of a “substantialproportion of mature students” (Entwistle et al., 2000, p. 13). Mostof these mature students suggested that earlier experiences e asa pupil, as a parent or in teaching practice e influenced theirconceptions. Given the small number of studies on second-careerteachers’ beliefs, the mixed findings about relations with earlierexperiences and the lack of knowledge about second-careerteachers’ beliefs about learning to teach, our first research ques-tion addresses the initial conceptions held by this specific group ofteacher candidates:

1) What are second-career teacher candidates’ initial conceptionsabout teaching and learning?

Our second research question addresses possible relationshipsbetween second-career teachers’ initial conceptions of teachingand learning with background characteristics such as gender, ageand career experiences:

2) What are the relationships between second-career teachercandidates’ background characteristics and their initialconceptions about teaching and learning?

Because little is known about the development of second-careerteachers’ conceptions, notably during their transition to teaching,we focussed our third research question on the development ofsecond-career teachers’ conceptions during the first semester ofan ACP:

3) How do second-career teachers’ conceptions about teachingand learning develop during the first semester of an alternativecertification programme?

A. Tigchelaar et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1163e1174 1165

Following the phenomenographic approach development ofconceptions in this study was interpreted as “an expansion ofawareness on a continuum ranging from traditional to progressiveconceptions” (cf. Åkerlind, 2008). The term “traditional” is used inthe sense of “content-oriented/teacher-centred” and “advanced” inthe sense of “learning-oriented/student-centred” (cf. Van Rossum&Hamer, 2010).

2. Method

In the following sections, we describe the participants and thecontext of this study and the procedures used for data collectionand analysis.

2.1. Participants

To answer the first and second research questions, data werecollected among 207 candidates considering a career change intosecondary school teaching, who were attending an informationmeeting about the ACP in which they were interested. To answerthe third research question, 70 participants in three cohorts of thesame ACP were selected on the basis of two criteria: (1) “havingmore than five years of experience in another career (includingbeing a parent)” (cf. Tigchelaar et al., 2008); and (2) “havingprovided data for answering the first research question”. Allparticipants had a master degree in a discipline related to a schoolsubject, but without a license to teach. They differed considerablyin age (from 28 to 58), previous work experiences (e.g. consultancy,research, engineering, technology, management or civil service),and teaching subjects (languages, natural sciences, arts andhumanities or social sciences).

2.2. Context

The context for this study was the Dutch ACP of UtrechtUniversity. Before admission to the programme, all participantswere involved in an information meeting. Once admitted to theprogramme, most participants spent 2½ days per week (as uncer-tified teachers or trainees in schools), 1½ days in a cohort group atthe teacher education institute and 1 day on study activities, indi-vidually or in subgroups. The programme offered tailor-madecurricula, in which participants could strengthen specific defi-ciencies identified in intake assessments (cf. Tigchelaar, 2003). Tothis end, candidates formulated personal development plans, wrotediaries and produced portfolios, used these to reflect on theirlearning experiences during mentored meetings (6e8 persons),

Table 1Measurement time line illustrated with three examples.

Year 2009

Month 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

IM Start ACP1 IM IM IM IM End 1stsemester ACP1

S

T1 x x x x xT2 xExamplePart. 1 T1 ADM T2Part. 32 T1 APart. 107 T1

IM: Information meeting before participants are admitted to an ACP.ACP: Alternative Certification Programme, the ACP at Utrecht University starts two timeADM: Admission.T1: Time 1 before the start of the ACP.T2: Time 2 after the first semester of the ACP.Part: Participant nr.

peer group meetings (3e4 persons) and attended lectures (25e35persons). This ACP and its implementation were based on theprinciples of realistic pedagogy aiming at integrating theory andpractice (cf. Tigchelaar et al., 2008; Korthagen, 2001). Key pro-gramme components were: learning and teaching today; creatinglearning environments; classroom management; learning andmotivation; curriculum and assessment; and differences betweenlearners. All participants concluded their participation in the pro-gramme by carrying out a school-based research assignment.

This ACP can be characterised as flexible in the sense thatdepending on their intake assessments and personal circum-stances, participants were enrolled in a ‘standard’ programmelasting one year (70%), an accelerated programme lasting half a year(10%) or a “delayed” programme lasting two years (20%).

2.3. Data collection

Data were collected by means of a semi-structured question-naire which the respondents completed at two moments between2008 and 2010: (1) during an information meeting precedingparticipants’ admission to the ACP and (2) after the first semester ofthe ACP. The latter moment was chosen because all participantsfollowed a programme lasting at least half a year. Table 1 shows thetime line for the measurements. It contains examples for threeparticipants.

In the first part of the questionnaire, the participants were askedabout their background characteristics, i.e. gender, age, teachingsubject, main previous work experience and recent secondaryschool teaching experience in the past two years (in the Nether-lands, career changers are allowed to teach without certification fora maximum of two years before entering an ACP). The second partof the questionnaire contained open questions focussing onconceptions of teaching and learning. Four themes were addressedtapping into the role of second-career teachers’ earlier experiencesduring their transition to teaching. The first theme was “goodteaching”, in which we sought to make explicit participants’ viewsof the teacher role. The second theme was “learning to teach” andwas directed at how second-career teachers conceptualised theirown learning processes in becoming a teacher. The third themewas“learning from experiences”. By emphasising “from experiences”we intended to open their minds to earlier, predominantly informallearning experiences. The fourth theme was “mentoring second-career teachers’ learning”. This theme was chosen because men-toring by university teacher educators and experienced teachers insecondary schools is an essential component of teacher educationprogrammes.

2010

9 10 11 12 1 2 3

tart ACP2 IM IM IM IM End 1stsemester ACP2

Start ACP3 IM

x x x x xx

DM T2ADM

s a year: in February and in August.

A. Tigchelaar et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1163e11741166

The open questions addressing the four themes were phrased asfollows: (1) What does “good teaching” mean to you? (2) Whatdoes “learning to teach”mean to you? (3)What does “learning fromexperiences” mean to you? (4) What does “mentoring a second-career teacher” mean to you? After piloting the questionnaireamong 15 participants not included in our sample we added anexplicit invitation to write a text, a story, examples or associationsin order to prevent them from thinking that answers in the form ofstrict definitions were expected.

All participants provided the background characteristicsrequested. For the open questions about the four themes, theresponse rates of the first measurement (N ¼ 207) were as follows:“good teaching” 88%, “learning to teach” 92%, “learning fromexperiences” 88%, and “mentoring” 86%. The response rates of thesecond measurement (N ¼ 70) were as follows: “good teaching”94%, “learning to teach” 92%, “learning from experiences” 88%, and“mentoring” 88%.

2.4. Data analysis

In the present study, we wanted to capture the variations insecond-career teachers’ initial conceptions of teaching and learningand relate them quantitatively to background characteristics. Toachieve this, we based our data analysis on the methodologicalsteps of phenomenographic research described by Ǻkerlind (2005)and on those described by Chi (2009). The first procedure aims atsegmenting quotes, the second at quantifying qualitative codings ofverbal responses. After creating a data base through these proce-dures, we grouped respondents’ responses into categories on thebasis of similarities and differences.

Specifically, data analysis was conducted in five stages (seethe overview in Table 2). Below, the procedures for datasegmentation, identifying conceptions and determining inter-rater reliability are first described. Next, we describe how therespondents’ background characteristics were related to theirinitial conceptions. Finally, we describe how patterns of devel-opment were analysed.

Table 2Stages of data analysis.

Stages Respondents (N ¼ 237) Researchers (Asupervisors (D

First measurement (T1)Data segmentation Preliminary sample

n ¼ 30 (nr. 1 to nr. 30)A

Identifying conceptions Preliminary samplen ¼ 30 (nr. 1 to nr. 30)

A

A

A

A,C

Determining inter-raterreliability

Subset n ¼ 35 (nr. 31 to nr. 66) A,B

Relating backgroundsand initial conceptions

All respondents without preliminarysample n ¼ 207 (nr. 31 to nr. 237)

A,BAAA

Second measurement (T2)Identifying patterns of

developmentn ¼ 70 (a subset of nr. 31 to nr. 237) A

AA

A,B,C,D,E

T1: Time 1 before the start of the ACP.T2: Time 2 after the first semester the ACP.

Because the second part of the questionnaire consisted of fouropen questions, the pertinent data base consisted of four writtenstatements or scripts for each respondent. To develop the analysisprocedure, thedata from30 respondentsnot included inour sample,i.e. 120 scripts were used. Once developed, this procedure was usedfor analysing the answers of the 207 respondents in our sample.

Three researchers were involved in the analyses aimed atidentifying initial conceptions. The same three researchers and twosupervisors of the ACP participants were involved in determiningpatterns of development.

2.4.1. Data segmentationWithin each script, the first researcher removed redundant

segments, i.e. detailed clarifying statements and repetitions. Then,the script was divided into segments consisting of one to threesentences. In the following example, written in reply to the ques-tion about “learning from experiences”, three segments weredistinguished:

Segment 1:

This means to me being aware of the fact that I can’t do every-thing right.

Segment 2:

In addition, having a mature attitude entails being open toschool practice and all the new situations you will be confrontedwith.

Segment 3:

It also means to me learning from experienced teachers, toobserve them in their lessons and taking their advice to heart.

For the preliminary set of scripts, this analysis step resulted ina total of 391 segments. The highest number of segments per themewas 105, the lowest was 90.

,B,C),,E)

Method

� Removing non-relevant segments per script� Dividing each script into segments from one to three sentences� Bringing together segments into coherent categories of conceptions

per theme� Ordering conceptions on a continuum ranging from traditional to

advanced conceptions per theme� Brief description of each conception and coding, resulting in three

to four conceptions and codes per theme� Dialogical reliability check: reviewing and coding each script in

dialogical collaboration, discussing adjustments and coherence� Scoring the scripts per theme by two independent raters� Determining inter-rater reliability separately for each theme� Coding the scripts of the remaining participants per theme� Entering results (backgrounds and conceptions) in SPSS� Determining frequencies� Computing relationships between backgrounds and conceptions

by cross tabulations

� Coding the scripts per theme� Summing increase and decrease in conceptions per participant� Dividing participants into three groups: increase, consolidation,

and decrease in conceptions� Discussing results

Table 3Second-career teachers’ conceptions at two moments in time.

Participant nr. Theme Conceptiontime 1

Conceptiontime 2

Difference

24 Teaching 3 2 �1Learning to teach 2 3 þ1Learning fromexperiences

1 1 0

Mentoring 4 1 �3Sum of differences �356 Teaching 1 3 þ2

Learning to teach 2 3 þ1Learning fromexperiences

1 2 þ1

Mentoring 3 4 þ1Sum of differences þ570 Teaching 2 2 0

Learning to teach 2 2 0Learning fromexperiences

2 3 þ1

Mentoring 2 1 �1Sum of

differences0

A. Tigchelaar et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1163e1174 1167

2.4.2. Identifying conceptionsFor each theme, the segments were grouped into coherent

categories on the basis of similarities and differences. Three or fourconceptions could be identified for each theme. Every conceptionwas characterised, briefly described, and assigned a code. Forexample, within the theme “good teaching” (TE), the first concep-tion was characterised as ‘subject-centredness’ (1) and was codedas TE1, and this conception was briefly described in terms of thefollowing relevant topics.

“The starting point of the respondent’s pedagogical thought ishis/her teaching subject. He/she sees the teacher as aninstructor sending a message. As a classroom manager, theteacher is the authority. Motivating students means teachingthem that lessons and learning are useful later in life.”

In order to achieve distinctions such as the above, the first andsecond researchers reviewed the scripts from the preliminarysample in dialogical collaboration, discussing adjustments in thecharacterisation of conceptions and their conceptual coherence.Finally, the conceptions were ordered on a continuum ranging fromcontent-oriented/teacher-centred to learning-oriented/student-centred.

2.4.3. Determining inter-rater reliabilitiesNext, inter-rater reliability checks were conducted. The first and

third researchers independently coded a subset of the scripts in thepreliminary sample. Each rater scored the scripts for each themeand the inter-rater reliabilities were determined separately for eachtheme. To determine the number of segments needed, the ruleformulated by Cicchetti (1976) was used. The n in this rule refers tothe number of observational categories. The themes “goodteaching”, “learning from experiences” and “mentoring” eachcontained four categories of conceptions. The theme “learning toteach” contained three categories. Cichetti’s rule states that thenumber of observations needed for a reliable interpretation ofa computed kappa should be 2n2 or more. Thus, with n ¼ 3 or n ¼ 4observational categories, the number of observations should be 18or 32, respectively, or more. Consequently, 35 scripts were used forthe themes in this reliability analysis. We chose 35 scripts, becausesome respondents did not complete all themes.

For “good teaching”, in 33 of the 35 cases, there was 94%agreement between the raters (Cohen’s kappa ¼ 0.96). For“learning to teach”, in 30 of the 32 cases there was 83% agreement(Cohen’s kappa ¼ 0.82). For “learning of experiences”, in 31 of the35 cases, there was 89% agreement (Cohen’s kappa ¼ 0.88). Finally,for “mentoring second-career teachers”, in 32 of the 34 cases, therewas 94% agreement (Cohen’s kappa ¼ 0.95).

Subsequently, the first researcher coded the scripts of the 207participants in the study sample. In cases of doubt, i.e. the scripts of27 participants, these were discussed with the third researcher. Thecodes resulting for each of the conceptions were entered into SPSSand their determined.

2.4.4. Relating background characteristics and initial conceptionsAfter creating the data base as described above we examined

possible relationships between the respondents’ five backgroundcharacteristics gender, age, subject, work experience and recentteaching experience and their initial conceptions. This was done bycross tabulating the background characteristics with the concep-tions distinguished within the themes. For all of the resulting 5 � 4cross tabulations, chi-square tests of significance were computed.

2.4.5. Identifying patterns of developmentFinally, the scripts resulting from the secondmeasurement were

coded in the same way as those from the first. The results of both

measurements were compared for each participant. Each themeconsisted of three or four conceptions ordered on the continuumfrom content-oriented/teacher-centred to learning-oriented/student-centred. These conceptions were coded in ascendingorder. For example, when a participant’s conception was assigneda score of 1 at the first measurement and a score of 3 at the secondmeasurement, an increase of þ2 was recorded for the theme“teaching”. For each participant, the resulting difference scoreswere summed over the four themes, so that a composite score wasproduced. Table 3 illustrates this procedure for participants 24, 56and 70.

Based on their composite scores, the participants were dividedinto three groups characterised by three different patternsaccording to which their conceptions had developed: growth,consolidation and regression. “Growth” refers to an increase in thecomposite score of �þ2 (e.g. participant 56). “Consolidation”means a stabilisation of this score between ��1 and �þ1 (e.g.participant 70). “Regression”was defined as a decrease of ��2 (e.g.participant 24). To arrive at an interpretation of these patterns ofdevelopment, the first author discussed the results of this proce-durewith the two other researchers and two supervisors of the ACPparticipants.

3. Findings

This section contains the findings for the three research ques-tions guiding study. First, the second-career teachers’ initialconceptions are presented (research question 1). Then, we reportthe relations found between the respondents’ background charac-teristics and conceptions (research question 2). Finally, we describeand illustrate three patterns of development (research question 3).

3.1. Initial conceptions

In this section, the conceptions distinguishedwithin each themeare described and illustrated with examples. Preceding eachdescription, the frequencies found for the conceptions are pre-sented in a table.Within each theme, the conceptions are presentedordered on the continuum from content-oriented/teacher-centredto learning-oriented/student-centred (Tables 4e7).

3.1.1. Good teachingWithin the theme “good teaching”, the first conception can be

called “subject-centredness”. The respondent’s pedagogical

Table 4Conceptions and their frequencies within the theme “good teaching”.

Conceptions and frequencies

1. Subject-centeredness

2. Learningenvironment-centeredness

3. Learning-centeredness

4. Student-centeredness

31% 35% 27% 7%

A. Tigchelaar et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1163e11741168

starting point is the subject taught. The teacher is seen as aninstructor who is sending a message. As a classroom manager, theteacher is the authority. Motivating students means teaching themthat the lessons are useful later in life. As an illustration, a nursewrote:

Good teaching is to pass on knowledge in the right way. Whatelse? [...] Students become motivated, when they understandthe information you bring and accept your authority. Studentsbecome also motivated if they realise that nowadays you needa qualification for everything, [.] what they are learning hereand now is important in the future.

The second conception can be characterised as “learning envi-ronment-centredness”. As the pedagogical starting point, differentmethods of teaching are emphasised as a central issue. The teacheris seen as an instructor. As a classroom manager, the teacher aimsfor structure, safety and involvement. Consequently, motivatingstudents means teaching the subject in such a way that studentslearn and enjoy it. An antique dealer described this as follows:

[.] Don’t give up when students loose interest. Just look forother teaching methods to arouse or awaken their interest. [.]A teacher also has an eye for adolescents’ problems and has toshow some patience with the group. Vice versa, they have toaccept your authority. [...]

The third conception can be called “learning-centredness”. Thepedagogical starting point is again the subject being taught, but themain issue is how to teach the subject to different students. Theteacher is seen as an empathising instructor, tailoring her teachingto the different learning levels of her students. As a classroommanager, she has an open attitude towards them. She wants tomotivate students by passing on her own passion for the subjectarea. A researcher expressed this as follows:

My first responsibility as a teacher is to ensure that everystudent comprehends the subject being taught. So, I musthandle the subject matter in such a way that it fits to the priorknowledge and the specific learning capacities of all students inthe classroom. Students who make slow progress [.] deserveextra attention from me. At the same time, my responsibility isto avoid that students who keep up very easily, become bored.[...] I hope wholeheartedly that I can show the students thatmaths is amazing and wonderful!

The fourth conception can be interpreted as “student-centred-ness”. Knowledge construction is seen as the pedagogical startingpoint in teaching. The teacher is mainly facilitating students’learning. As a classroommanager, she aims at student-centredness.In addition, motivating students means supporting and challengingthem to become critical and social adults. An anti-pollution officerwrote (Table 5):

Table 5Conceptions and their frequencies within the theme “learning to teach”.

Conceptions and frequencies

1. Knowledge-centeredness

2. Competency-centeredness

3. Growth-centeredness

23% 45% 32%

TabCon

C

1

2

[.] Students must be autonomous in their thinking. [.]Students have to develop their own thinking skills. This meansthat students’ own contribution is valuable and thus has to beorganised and facilitated. [.] I would like my students tobecome autonomous citizens, who are critical and who canjudge for themselves, and who have an eye for the people andthe world around them.

3.1.2. Learning to teachWith respect to the theme “learning to teach”, the first

conception can be characterised as “knowledge-centredness”. Therespondents formulated learning goals in terms of acquiring newknowledge. Their main concern in learning to teach was knowledgeintake. The relationship between earlier and new experiences wasconceived in terms of deficiencies in knowledge, which should beremediated. A member of an autopsy team stated:

[.] I need the latest information about the subject I am going toteach. What is the body of knowledge the student has to learnnowadays? You can learn to teach by giving many lessons, justby doing it a lot and by delving in a stack of books. If necessary, itcan be useful to give me recent insights within the field of mysubject.

“Competency-centredness” characterises the second concep-tion. The respondents formulated learning goals in terms ofacquiring competencies. Their main concerns were classroommanagement and activating students by varying their teachingmethods. In terms of the relation between earlier and new expe-riences, this process was seen as a new challenge. A communicationconsultant wrote:

[...] My job always has been advising people, both adults andchildren. Now, I want to build up a new expertise; to managea class full of adolescents at a difficult age. To me, it is exciting,this possibility to learn how to pass on knowledge in variousways and to show my enthusiasm. [.] It will feel like beingthrown into the deep and learning to swim!

“Growth-centredness” characterises the third conception aboutlearning to teach. The respondents’ learning goals are personal andbased on self-insight. Their main concern is becoming acquaintedwith students as adolescents. In the relationship between earlierand new experiences, the emphasis is on enriching earlier experi-ences. A veterinarian wrote (Table 6):

[.] Learning to teach is a next step in my lifelong learningprocess. I bring what I have and improve the quality of it in everynew situation. I think a lot will be new to me. I am not familiarwith adolescents [...] Of course, I have qualities and competen-cies that can be very helpful. The question is how I can alterthese within new circumstances. [.] A veterinarian whobecomes a teacher has her own learning questions. I thinkadjusting my behaviour is my learning goal.

3.1.3. Learning from experiencesRegarding “learning from experiences”, the first conception can

be called “intuitive reflection”. This conception means that therespondents’ learning intention is spontaneous: learning by doing.

le 6ceptions and frequencies within the theme “learning from experiences”.

onceptions and frequencies

. Intuitivereflection

2. Instrumentalreflection

3. Systematicreflection

4. Dialogicalreflection

7% 34% 31% 8%

A. Tigchelaar et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1163e1174 1169

In these respondents’ views, spontaneous learning implies intuitivereflection: thinking about what you are doing or have done.Learning from others is described as “instructive, generallyspoken”. Concerning earlier experiences, the respondents felt theneed to pass on previous practical knowledge by applying it in theirlessons to real-life examples. An actress and trainer wrote:

Learning from experiences means to illustrate to the studentsthe subject you teach with your own experiences and imagesfrom practice. [.] And, someone always can learn from others.Next, I act, that is the way I learn. In my job as an actress andtrainer, I always let the participants perform. [...] They have to dosomething to learn from it by doing and thinking it overafterwards.

The second conception can be interpreted as “instrumentalreflection”. The respondents’ learning intention was to improvetheir practice. Learning from others implies an active attitude,meaning actively observing other teachers or asking foradvice. Concerning the role of earlier experiences, therespondents noted that these can be useful. A pattern designerwrote:

In a certain way, my experiences will play a role in teachinga class. [.] Learning from experiences means to me improve-ment by making mistakes. Practice makes perfect. Afterwards,you are able to face new experiences in a better way because youhave seen, heard, or experienced it before [...] It also means tolearn from others’, to ask for advice, [.] to progress and to getthe best from others.

The third conception about learning from experiences can becalled “systematic reflection”. This is characterised by inten-tional learning, meaning learning from planning, setting goals,doing and evaluating. This type of learning is combined with anopen attitude towards others’ experiences. Earlier experiencesare seen as resources to be adjusted or enriched in new situa-tions. A project manager and homework coach described this asfollows:

[...] I learn from my experiences when I plan, act, and lookback on what I have done, formulating new goals andtransforming these into challenges to function in a morefluent style. It also means being receptive to ideas, thoughtsor opinions of other people, but always in touch with your-self. [...] Once being a teacher, I can use my experiences asa homework coach, even though I have to alter these in thenew situation.

“Dialogical reflection” characterises the fourth conception aboutlearning from experiences. Learning intentions are formulated interms of relations with others. In this conception, learning isconceived as emanating from two main sources: persons or theory.Earlier experiences, respondents felt, should be shared with othersand vice versa. A senior trends adviser wrote (Table 7):

[.] sharing experiences to grow, personally and socially.Experiences enrich life, give insights and depth in life. Theyenable people to make choices and to develop their own opin-ions. Learning from experiences means to grow as a person andprofessionally; to fulfil theory by sharing acquired experiences

Table 7Conceptions and frequencies within the theme “mentoring second-career teachers”.

Conceptions and frequencies

1. Directingteaching

2. Guidingteaching

3. Counsellinglearning

4. Facilitatinglearning

32% 32% 30% 6%

with each other and adding knowledge; to develop together anintuition for what is taking place in the world or a certaincommunity, [...] we all are living theory.

3.1.4. Mentoring second-career teachersWithin the theme “mentoring second-career teachers”, the first

conception is “directing teaching”. The supposed role of the mentoris that of a practical helper, giving general information and passingon knowledge. In the mentor’s approach, the emphasis should beplaced on giving information and problem solving. Utilising earlierexperiences means exploring these and signalling gaps in knowl-edge. A policy adviser wrote:

I want to get a clear picture of the job. [.] The reason is that Iwant to spend a minimum of time and money to get my teacherdegree. I want to be alert to possible well-known pitfalls of theteaching profession. My mentor should examine the basicknowledge I bring and take the responsibility to complete gapsin my knowledge. Just dot my i’s and cross my t’s.

The second conception can be characterised as “guidingteaching”. Respondents viewed the mentors role as guide andadvisor. In their view, the mentor is an experienced teacher whoknows second-career teachers’ backgrounds. In this approach, thementor monitors their teaching by observing lessons, discussingthem afterwards and giving advice. The mentor is supposed to useearlier experiences by recognising these in terms of knowledge andcompetencies. A laboratory technician said:

[.] A good coach takes into account the earlier experiencesa second-career teacher brings to teaching [.]. He shouldrealise that I am a professional bringing practical knowledge andskills. [.] A coach can act as a sounding board for second-careerteachers’ experiences in the classroom.

The third conception is “counselling learning”. Consequently,the mentor role is seen as being a counsellor. In this approach, thementor aims to provide security and support reflection during thesecond-career teacher’s growth. The mentor also supports thetransformation of earlier experiences into the new context. A chieffinancial officer wrote:

Good mentoring means to coach someone without any historyin secondary education, to help him to acquire and strengthenthe competencies he brings in accordance with the competen-cies required in the teaching profession. [...] A next step isattuning to specific experiences and qualities and to support thesecond-career teacher in reflecting on his behaviour in partic-ular situations in school practice. [...] I develop myself byreflection. I hope my mentor will stimulate me in my process ofgrowth from old to new.

The fourth conception about mentoring is “facilitatinglearning”. The mentor’s role is seen as being a facilitator of peerlearning. In the mentor’s approach, second-career teachers’learning is embedded in peer learning. The emphasis in thementoring relationship is on reciprocity. The mentor facilitatesenriching earlier experiences in a context of mutual growth. Avolunteer in nature and environmental education expressed thisas follows:

[...] Next, I would like to work together with my mentor, ona reciprocal basis. [.] Being supported in taking the nextsteps in lifelong development now as a teacher, growing byfeedback. I would like to share my experiences with others[.] sharing a late vocation. I think it is important that wesupport each other [.] in drawing up road maps for furtherdevelopment.

Table 8Prospective second-career teachers’ background characteristics.a

Background characteristics Category N %

Gender Female 113 55Male 93 45Missing 1 <0.5

Age 28e40 87 4240e58 120 58Missing 0 0

Subject to teach Languages 49 24Natural sciences 75 36Arts and humanities 29 14Social sciences 49 24Missing 5 2

Main previous workexperience

Consultancy and research 70 34Engineering and technology 52 25Management and policy 58 28Other 25 12Missing 2 1

Secondary schoolteaching experience

Not recent 148 72Recent 58 28Missing 1 <0.5

a N ¼ 207.

Table 10Cross tabulation of age and conceptions of “good teaching”: frequencies (androw %).a

Age group Conceptions of ‘good teaching’

Subject-centeredness

Learningenvironment-centeredness

Learning-centeredness

Student-centeredness

Total

28e40 20 (27) 35 (47) 18 (24) 1 (1) 74 (100)40e58 38 (35) 25 (23) 32 (30) 12 (11) 107 (100)Total 58 (32) 60 (33) 50 (28) 13 (7) 181 (100)

a c2 ¼ 14.961, df ¼ 3, p < 0.05.

A. Tigchelaar et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1163e11741170

3.2. Relationships between background characteristics and initialconceptions

In this section, the participants’ background characteristics arepresented first. Then, the relations found between these charac-teristics and the participants’ conceptions are presented.

3.2.1. Background characteristicsTable 8 shows an overview of the participants’ gender, age,

teaching subject, main previous work experience and recentteaching experience in secondary school, “recent”meaning “havingworked during the past year as an uncertified secondary teacher”.In our sample, 55% of the participants were female and 45% weremale. Participants aged between 40 and 58 years formed a slightmajority (58%). The remaining participants were between 28 and40 years old (42%). The majority of the participants aimed to teachnatural sciences. Participants who aimed to teach arts andhumanities formed a minority. A majority of the participants hadprevious work experience in research and consultancy. Most of theparticipants had no recent secondary school teaching experience.28% were uncertified second-career teachers aiming to achievecertification.

3.2.2. Relationships between background characteristics andconceptions

Of the 20 cross tabulations relating background characteristicsand conceptions, six yielded significant results. These relationshipsare shown in Table 9.

As can be seen in Table 9, no significant relations were foundbetween gender and teaching subject on the one hand and initial

Table 9Significant relationships between background characteristics and initial conceptions.

Initial conceptions Backgrounds

Gender Age

Good teaching c2 ¼ 0.390, p ¼ 0.9 c2 ¼ 14.961, p < 0.05Learning to teach c2 ¼ 2.666, p ¼ 0.4 c2 ¼ 5.343, p ¼ 0.8Learning from

experiencesc2 ¼ 0.390, p ¼ 0.9 c2 ¼ 10.698, p ¼ 0.3

Mentoring a second-career teacher

c2 ¼ 3.120, p ¼ 0.4 c2 ¼ 15.957, p < 0.05

conceptions on the other. Below, we detail the findings concerningthe significant relationships with frequency tables. A significantrelationship was found between age and initial conceptions of“good teaching” as well as “mentoring second-career teachers”. Asshown in Tables 10 and 11, a majority of the participants agedbetween 28 and 40 saw teaching as learning environment-centredand mentoring second-career teachers as guiding their teaching.Older participants tended to give more extreme responses. On theone hand, over a third of them held conceptions of teaching assubject-centred and mentoring as directing second-careerteachers’ teaching. On the other hand, about a third of them sawteaching as learning-centred andmentoring as counselling second-career teachers’ learning.

Previous work experiences were significantly related toconceptions of “learning from experiences” and “mentoring”. Asshown in Tables 12 and 13, the majority of the participants who hadexperiences in engineering, technology or business held traditionalconceptions about learning from experiences which we charac-terised as intuitive reflection. Their conception of mentoringsecond-career teachers can be characterised as directing theirteaching. The majority of the participants who had experiences inmanagement and policy saw learning from experiences asimproving practice through “instrumental reflection” and men-toring second-career teachers as guiding their teaching. Themajority of the participants with previous work experience inconsultancy and research held more advanced conceptions. In theirview, learning from experiences meant systematically reflectingupon experiences and they saw mentoring second-career teachersseen mostly as counselling their learning.

Finally, significant relationships were found between havingrecent secondary school teaching experience and conceptions of“learning from experiences” and “mentoring” as shown in Tables 14and 15. The majority of the participants with recent secondaryschool teaching experience, who were uncertified teachers, tendedto hold traditional conceptions. They saw learning from experi-ences as instrumental reflection that improves practice and men-toring second-career teachers as guiding their teaching. Bycontrast, the majority of the career changers without any recentteaching experiences in secondary schools tended to have more

Subject to teach Work experience Recent secondaryschool experience

c2 ¼ 13.270, p ¼ 0.2 c2 ¼ 13.220, p ¼ 0.2 c2 ¼ 6.519, p ¼ 0.9c2 ¼ 8.098, p ¼ 0.5 c2 ¼ 3.025, p ¼ 0.9 c2 ¼ 5985, p ¼ 0.7c2 ¼ 11.497, p ¼ 0.2 c2 ¼ 19.979, p < 0.05 c2 ¼ 10.883, p < 0.05

c2 ¼ 14.300, p ¼ 0.2 c2 ¼ 17.608, p < 0.05 c2 ¼ 14.339, p < 0.05

Table 13Cross tabulation previous work experience and conceptions of “mentoring a second-career teacher”: frequencies (and row%).a

Previous workexperience

Conceptions of ‘mentoring a second-career teacher’

Directingteaching

Guidingteaching

Counsellinglearning

Facilitatinglearning

Total

Consultancy & research 19 (33) 10 (18) 24 (42) 4 (7) 57 (100)Engineering, technology

& business20 (40) 15 (30) 11 (22) 4 (8) 50 (100)

Management & policy 12 (25) 24 (50) 10 (21) 2 (4) 48 (100)Remaining 6 (27) 6 (27) 9 (41) 1 (5) 22 (100)Total 57 (32) 55 (31) 54 (31) 11 (6) 177 (100)

a c2 ¼ 17.608, df ¼ 9, p < 0.05.

Table 11Cross tabulation of age and conceptions of “mentoring a second-career teacher”:frequencies (and row %).a

Age group Conceptions of ‘mentoring a second-career teacher’

Directingteaching

Guidingteaching

Counsellinglearning

Facilitatinglearning

Total

28e40 19 (26) 33 (45) 20 (27) 2 (1) 74 (100)40e58 39 (37) 22 (20) 36 (34) 10 (9) 107 (100)Total 58 (32) 55 (30) 56 (31) 12 (6) 181 (100)

a c2 ¼ 15.957, df ¼ 3, p < 0.05.

A. Tigchelaar et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1163e1174 1171

advanced conceptions. They saw learning from experiences asmoresystematically reflecting upon experiences and mentoring second-career teachers as counselling their learning.

3.3. Patterns of development

In this section, findings are presented about the development ofsecond-career teachers’ conceptions from their start in the ACPstudied until after the first semester. Using the procedure describedin Section 2.4.5 we divided the participants into three groupsrepresenting three patterns of development: “growth”, “consoli-dation” and “regression”. We first illustrate these patterns withshort portraits. Then, we explore possible relationships betweenthese patterns and employment after the ACP.

3.3.1. PortraitsIn this section, the patterns of development are illustrated with

quotations from the respondents’ written statements. In eachportrait, attention is paid to initial conceptions and conceptionsafter one semester.

3.3.1.1. Growth. The first portrait is representative of the majorityof the participants, showing a pattern of growth. The participantportrayed is a researcher, aged 43, and having no recent workexperience in a secondary school. Initially he tended towardscontent-oriented/teacher-centred conceptions of teaching. Aboutlearning from experiences, he expressed a more advancedconception. In this sense, he represented the majority of thoseparticipants coming from a research background. After the firstsemester of the ACP, his conceptions were characterised aslearning-oriented/student-centred. He then found employment ina secondary school.

3.3.1.1.1. Initial conceptions. You can say “this lesson is good”,when the teacher has prepared his lesson well, when he paysattention to everybody to whom he is telling his story, when hisauthority is accepted by every pupil, and when his story is relatedto actuality.

Table 12Cross tabulation previous work experience and conceptions of “learning fromexperience”: frequencies (and row%).a

Previous workexperience

Conceptions of ‘learning from experiences’

Intuitivereflection

Instrumentalreflection

Systematicreflection

Dialogicalreflection

Total

Consultancy &research

15 (26) 12 (22) 24 (41) 6 (11) 57 (100)

Engineering,technology& business

20 (39) 15 (30) 12 (23) 4 (8) 51 (100)

Management &policy

11 (22) 24 (49) 10 (21) 4 (8) 49 (100

Remaining 3 (14) 9 (41) 10 (45) 0 (0) 22 (100)Total 49 (27) 60 (34) 56 (31) 14 (8) 179 (100)

a c2 ¼ 19.979, df ¼ 9, p < 0.05.

Learning from experiencesmeans tome sharing expertise. Then,you all grow and become wiser.

3.3.1.1.2. Conceptions after a semester. A good teacher must beable to pass on the important concepts of his subject. He bringsvariety in his lessons, structures his lessons in such a way that eachindividual is enabled to learn at his or her level. Every studentdeserves a good teacher who supports him in becoming anautonomous thinker. I work hard on becoming such a teacher.

Learning from experiences means to me looking for a newbalance between my earlier experiences and my growing into thenew teaching experience. I learn a lot from others. Sharing expe-riences and expertise is like looking into the mirror.

3.3.1.2. Consolidation. The second portrait is representative of thegroup of participants who showed a pattern of consolidation. Theparticipant is a former journalist, aged 38, teaching history withouta license. Representing his age group (28e40), he brought content-oriented/teacher-centred conceptions about teaching. Like themajority of unlicensed teachers in our sample, he brought initialconceptions about learning from experiences placed on the lowerend of the continuum from content-oriented/teacher-centred tolearning-oriented/student-centred conceptions. His conceptionsdid not really change during the first semester of the ACP.

3.3.1.2.1. Initial conceptions. Good teaching is passing on yourknowledge in various ways and making the students enthusiasticfor your subject. And, as I learned in practice: you also need to bea good disciplinarian!

In fact, learning from experiences is a very broad concept. Mostpeople run into a new experience every day. And, if they realise thatit is a new experience, they can take advantage of it.

3.3.1.2.2. Conceptions after a semester. As a whole, goodteaching is to keep your students captivated by varying teachingmethods and being a good disciplinarian by passing on knowledgein peace and quietness, creating a good atmosphere.

Learning from experiences is how children learn. When a childsteps in dog dirt, he learns that in the future he has to do a stepaside. As a teacher, I can experience this every day: trial, error, andnew behaviour.

3.3.1.3. Regression. The third portrait is representative of theminority of the participants who showed a pattern of regression.

Table 14Cross tabulation work experience in secondary school and conceptions of “learningfrom experiences”: frequencies (and row%).a

Work experiencesecondary school

Conceptions of ‘learning from experiences’

Intuitivereflection

Instrumentalreflection

Systematicreflection

Dialogicalreflection

Total

Not recent 32 (25) 35 (28) 47 (38) 11 (9) 125 (100)Recent 18 (32) 26 (47) 9 (16) 3 (5) 56 (100)Total 50 (27) 61 (34) 56 (31) 14 (8) 181 (100)

a c2 ¼ 10.883, df ¼ 3, p < 0.05.

Table 17Patterns of development and employment after the ACP.a

Status of employment Patterns of development

Growth Consolidation Regression

N % N % N % Total %

Employed in secondary school 29 (42) 17 (24) 0 (0) 46 (66)Employed in higher education 5 (7) 1 (2) 1 (2) 7 (11)Searching for job in

secondary school0 (0) 4 (5) 0 (0) 4 (5)

Other career aspirations 0 (0) 3 (4) 7 (10) 10 (14)Missing 3 (4)

Total 34 (49) 25 (35) 8 (12) 70 (100)

a N ¼ 70.

Table 15Cross tabulation work experience in secondary school and conceptions of “men-toring a second-career teacher”: frequencies (and row%).a

Work experiencesecondary school

Conceptions of ‘mentoring a second-career teacher’

Directingteaching

Guidingteaching

Counsellinglearning

Facilitatinglearning

Total

Not recent 41 (33) 28 (22) 47 (38) 9 (7) 125 (100)Recent 17 (32) 26 (48) 9 (16) 2 (4) 54 (100)Total 58 (33) 54 (30) 56 (31) 11 (6) 179 (100)

a c2 ¼ 14.339, df ¼ 3, p < 0.05.

A. Tigchelaar et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1163e11741172

The participant is a minister, aged 35, with no recent teachingexperience. She brought learning-oriented/student-centred initialconceptions of teaching. Regarding initial conceptions aboutlearning from experiences, she is representative of the participantswith no recent secondary school experiences expressing learning-oriented/student-centred conceptions.

After the first semester of the ACP, all of her conceptions werecharacterised as content-oriented/teacher-centred. She eventuallypursued another career.

3.3.1.3.1. Initial conceptions. Good teaching is being in contactwith each student, inspiring confidence, creating an atmosphere inwhich each student is challenged in his curiosity. Good teaching ishelping each student to become a critical citizen with an openattitude to every religion in our multicultural society.

I bring several experiences from my previous work, fromstudying, and my volunteer work. These have brought me where Iam now and shaped my identity. Learning is transforming these[experiences] into teaching, consciously or unconsciously.

3.3.1.3.2. Conceptions after a semester. Good teaching means tome attracting students’ attention, being a good disciplinarian,creating a quiet atmosphere, Honestly, I don’t think I am able to dothis in my own classroom now.

Learning from experiences to me is: focussing on your ownpitfalls and improving your teaching where possible.

3.3.2. Possible relationships with employmentTable 16 shows an overview of frequencies and percentages

found in our sample for each pattern of development.In our research team, the findings in Table 16 raised the question

if a relationship exists between the three patterns of developmentand respondents’ employment after the ACP. Table 17 shows howmany of the respondents found employment as teachers and inwhich settings.

Within the “growth” group, all 34 participants were employedafter ACP. 29 were employed in secondary schools and five wereteaching in higher education. In the “consolidation” group,17 of the25 participants were employed in secondary schools. Of theremaining eight participants, one was employed in higher educa-tion, four were looking for a job in a secondary school and threedecided to pursue other ambitions. From the “regression” group,one participant found employment in higher education. Theremaining seven participants had new career aspirations.

Table 16Patterns of development after the first semester of the teacher educationprogramme.a

Pattern of development N %

Growth 34 49Consolidation 25 36Regression 8 11Missing 3 4Total 70 100

a N ¼ 70.

4. Discussion

The purpose of this study was to deepen our understanding ofsecond-career teachers’ conceptions of learning and teachingduring their transition to teaching. We brought together tworesearch domains that were largely separated until now: researchon second-career teachers’ beliefs and research on conceptions oflearning and teaching. This approach enabled us to identify andspecify second-career teachers’ beliefs about themes central totheir future profession. The findings illustrate that second-careerteachers’ conceptions can offer teacher educators and teachereducation researchers an important perspective from which tostudy and foster second-career teachers’ development.

As an answer to the first research question, this study has shownthat second-career teachers’ initial conceptions about teaching andlearning are multifaceted. These conceptions may be placed ona continuum ranging from content-oriented/teacher-centredconceptions implying a view of teaching as the transmission ofknowledge to learning-oriented/student-centred conceptionsimplying a view of teaching as stimulating the construction ofknowledge by learners. Learning conceptions, within the themes“learning to teach” and “learning from experiences”, ranged from“knowledge-centredness” (focussed on the acquisition of newknowledge) and “intuitive reflection” (characterised by learning bydoing) to “growth-centredness” (characterised by learning frompersonal concerns) and “dialogical reflection” (focussed on learningfrom different sources). Participants conceived of mentoringsecond-career teachers as “directing teaching” (through informingand problem solving) to facilitating learning (through counsellingand facilitating peer learning). A large part of the respondentsexpressed initial conceptions consistent with content-oriented/teacher-centred views on learning and teaching. This finding is inline with earlier research on conceptions of learning and teachingfound among secondary school teachers and university professorsand students (cf. Kember, 1997; Säljö, 1979; Van Rossum & Hamer,2010).

Second-career teachers’ earlier experiences turned out to haveinfluenced their conceptions of learning. On the one hand, earlierexperiences were conceived as a source of knowledge andcompetencies acquired in previous work and learning was definedin terms of deficiencies that should be taken into account oradjusted in alternative certification programmes. On the otherhand, earlier experiences were seen as personal qualities andstrengths developed in work and life, which could be enriched bytheory and by mutually sharing expertise. This is in contrast tofindings about first-career teachers’ conceptions of learning (e.g.Kagan, 1992; Oosterheert & Vermunt, 2001) showing that theirlearning conceptions were shaped mainly by learning experiencesas pupils in classrooms. Another contrast is with previous researchon second-career teachers’ beliefs about teaching (Chambers, 2002;

A. Tigchelaar et al. / Teaching and Teacher Education 28 (2012) 1163e1174 1173

Chambers, Hobson, & Tracey, 2010; Jenne, 1997; Parker & Brindley,2008). What stands out in our sample is that second-careerteachers operate, at least during the beginning phase of their ACP,with their earlier experiences in work and life as their main frameof reference.

The relationship between initial conceptions and backgroundcharacteristics addressed in the second research question requiresa differentiated answer. The majority of the younger second-careerteachers, aged between 28 and 40, predominantly held content-oriented/teacher-centred conceptions of teaching. Older partici-pants, aged from 40 to 58, tended to position themselves towardsthe extremes: either content-oriented/teacher-centred or learning-oriented/student-centred. According to research comparing first-career and second-career teachers’ beliefs, the latter were moreoutspoken in their beliefs about teaching (cf. Chambers, 2002;Greenwood, 2003; Powell, 1992). Our study indicates that agemight be an indicator for such outspokenness. Furthermore, wefound that the majority of those participants teaching withouta license before entering the ACP, initially held content-oriented/teacher-centred views of learning. This finding can be interpretedas an instance of the “apprenticeship of observation” pointed out byLortie (1975, p. 61e65), meaning that early experiences as a pupil inschool foster the expectation later in life that teaching and learningshould be as one was taught and learned oneself.

With regard to the third research question about the develop-ment of conceptions, it should be noted that half of the participantsshowed the pattern of “growth” in conceptions. The other halfshowed patterns of “consolidation” or “regression”. This may beinterpreted against the background of what is known from theresearch on teacher socialisation, namely, that the immersion inpractice brings teachers to revert to more traditional views of goodteaching (cf. Brouwer & Korthagen, 2005, p. 154e157 and Wideen,Mayer-Smith, & Moon, 1998). This problem may be aggravated insecond-career teachers, because ACPs tend to create even feweropportunities for reflection on practical experiences than regularprogrammes. The workload in these programmes easily overridestheir learning (cf. Brouwer, 2007).

Awell-known issue in the research on alternative certification isthat second-career teachers may in the long run leave the profes-sion (Darling-Hammond, Chung, & Frelow, 2002; Ingersoll, 2001;Shen & Palmer, 2005). The findings of our study indicate that thoseparticipants who after the ACP no longer aspired to teachinginitially held predominantly learning-oriented/student-centredconceptions. Compared to Dickar (2005), who showed that strongmotivation and previous professional success could be indicators ofa successful transition to teaching, this finding from our studysuggests a possible relationship between initial learning-oriented/student-centred conceptions and an unsuccessful transition tothe teaching profession.

The above answers to our research questions have implicationsfor the pedagogy of teacher education. What stands out is thatduring their transition to teaching, second-career teachers engagein a deeply personal process of transformation. We thereforebelieve that ACPs should provide second-career teachers withexplicit opportunities to reflect on their conceptions of learning andteaching (cf. Brownlee, 2001). This could entail a more biographicalapproach towards earlier experiences with learning (cf. Tigchelaaret al., 2010; Costigan, 2005).

In this study, almost a third of the respondents were teachingwithout a license before entering an ACP. This background char-acteristic was related to content-oriented/teacher-centred initialconceptions of teaching. In times of teacher shortages and theaccompanying relatively high numbers of unlicensed teachers,these findings are justification enough to rethink the design ofACPs. A more targeted preparation for the practice of teaching is

warranted than is possible in the current design of many ACPs (cf.Tigchelaar et al., 2010; McCabe, 2004). Brouwer (2007) cites indi-cations in the literature that one of the features of high-qualityACPs is substantial preparatory training before entry into thefield. This implication is supported also by the findings from thestudy by Bennet (1991), in which second-career teachers man-ifested major cognitive restructuring during preparatory practicalexercises prior to teaching in real school settings. ACPs coulddevelop specific preparatory training opportunities, in whichsecond-career teachers’ concerns with tasks such as explainingsubject matter, classroom management, varying teaching methodsand becoming acquainted with adolescents, are taken into account.

In conclusion, we would like to point out two issues to attend toin further research.

In this study, data collection was restricted to the first semesterof an ACP. Development was seen as a change in position ona continuum ranging from content-oriented/teacher-centred tolearning-oriented/student-centred conceptions. An interestingissue for further research would be to find out which factors both inACPs and in schools impede or promote development in second-career teachers’ conceptions over longer time spans.

In the discourse on alternative certification, high dropout ratesare an important issue. In this study, we found indications thatsecond-career teachers who may eventually leave teaching, tendedto hold learning-oriented/student-centred initial conceptions. Aworthwhile question for future research is therefore which kinds oflearning opportunities in particular can encourage these candidatesto stay in the teaching profession.

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