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Department of Culture and Communication Institutionen för kultur och kommunikation (IKK) ENGLISH for Student Teachers 61-90hp
Pedagogical Grammar
Lecture Notes
Nigel Musk
Pedagogical GrammarPedagogical Grammar
English for Teachers 61English for Teachers 61--90hp90hpDepartment of Culture & CommunicationDepartment of Culture & CommunicationDepartment of Culture & CommunicationDepartment of Culture & Communication
Linköping UniversityLinköping University
Nigel MuskNigel Musk
Presentation Practice & ProductionPresentation Practice & ProductionPresentation, Practice & Production Presentation, Practice & Production (PPP)(PPP)
PresentationPresentation – explicit focus on single point of
f ti d t digrammar or function understanding
Controlled PracticeControlled Practice – use and ‘automatise’ the Controlled PracticeControlled Practice – use and automatise the
newly grasped rule or pattern
Production (‘free stage’)Production (‘free stage’) – reproduce the target
language more freely in communication
(Sh h d h 2005 14)(Shehadeh 2005:14)
‘F ’ P d i S‘F ’ P d i S‘Free’ Production Stage‘Free’ Production StageThe irony is that the goal of the final P – free production – is often not achieved. How can pproduction be free if students are required to produce forms that have been specified in advance?forms that have been specified in advance?(J. Willis 1996: 135)
2 common outcomes:2 common outcomes: focus on form (=practice stage) focus on form ( practice stage)
focus on meaning (often without using item to be d d)reproduced)
Traditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar Teaching Traditional Grammar Teaching vs Taskvs Task--based Learning 1based Learning 1
Traditional approachTraditional approach
“form based” form-based
sequencing language structures to be presented and practised
focus on form before practice stage
teacher control initially strict and then gradually relaxed in practice
stages
success in terms of target forms (with acceptable level of accuracy) success in terms of target forms (with acceptable level of accuracy)
assumes a direct correlation between “input” and “intake”
Traditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar Teaching Traditional Grammar Teaching vs Taskvs Task--based Learning 2based Learning 2
DilemmasDilemmas
It’s difficult to focus on both form and meaning in practice stages It s difficult to focus on both form and meaning in practice stages
It’s rare for learners to incorporate newly ‘learnt’ structures into their
spontaneous language production (Willis & Willis 2007a: 18)
SLA research shows that learners do not acquire structures in an
orderly progression
Effective learning is constrained by natural developmental processes Effective learning is constrained by natural developmental processes.
(Willis & Willis 2007b: 173)
Traditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar Teaching Traditional Grammar Teaching vs Taskvs Task--based Learning 3based Learning 3
TaskTask--based approachbased approach “task-based”
sequencing communicative tasks to be carried out in target language
focus on meaning, interaction & communication (rather than form)
learner control - freedom to use any available language resources
(language structures are not prescribed beforehand)
success in terms of completing the task (but learners may disregard
any target norms in the process)
assumes language acquisition is driven by purposeful communication,
whereby learners create a meaning system in which they can operate
efficiently
Traditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar Teaching Traditional Grammar Teaching vs Taskvs Task--based Learning 4based Learning 4
DilemmasDilemmas
without encouraging any focus on form, the learners’ language system may not
develop towards the target norm (fossilisation)
how to provide focus on both meaning and formp g
Challenge for taskChallenge for task--based approaches:based approaches:
to devise a methodology which affords learners the freedom to engage
natural learning processes in the creation of a meaning system, but
which also provides them with incentives to ‘restructure’ their system in
the light of language input. (Willis & Willis 2007b: 174)
Traditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar TeachingTraditional Grammar Teaching Traditional Grammar Teaching vs Taskvs Task--based Learning 5based Learning 5
TaskTask--based approaches to accuracybased approaches to accuracy
acknowledge the need to focus on language form and accuracy within acknowledge the need to focus on language form and accuracy within
the task-based cycle (Skehan 1996)
dd ft l h i d t th t k address accuracy after learners have carried out the task
Why after?Why after?
helps learners make sense of the language they have experienced
within a relevant communicative contextwithin a relevant communicative context
highlighting salient language for future use; i.e. noticing learning
i ti ti ti t fi d t i increases motivation – more receptive to find ways to express meaning
Wh I T kWh I T k??What Is a TaskWhat Is a Task??
Definition 3Definition 3
A language learning task is:
rehearsalrationaleA language learning task is:
an activityactivationrationale
that has a non-linguistic purpose or goal
with a clear outcome
(Nunan 2004: 20)
and that uses any or all of the four language skills in its
accomplishmentaccomplishment
by conveying meaning in a way that reflects real-world language use
(Shehadeh 2005: 18-19)
S l i T iS l i T iSelecting TopicsSelecting TopicsCriteria for selectionCriteria for selection
feature in textbooks feature in textbooks
typical in exams/oral tests
feature elsewhere in the school curriculum, e.g. geography, history
of topical or seasonal interest
figure in casual conversation, e.g. breaks, mealtimes, on holiday
what learners might want to talk/write about outside class, e.g. with
foreigners, on web-based chat sites(Willis & Willis 2007a: 64)
T f T k 1T f T k 1Types of Task 1Types of Task 1 listinglisting
ordering & sortingordering & sortingg gg g
matchingmatching
d li ith comparingcomparing
problem solvingproblem solving
dealing with your chosen topic
sharing personal experiencessharing personal experiences
j t & ti t kj t & ti t k projects & creative tasksprojects & creative tasks
(Willis & Willis 2007a: 108)(Willis & Willis 2007a: 108)
T f T k 2T f T k 2Types of Task 2Types of Task 2ListingListing
brainstormingbrainstorming e g how to reduce your ecological footprint brainstormingbrainstorming e.g. how to reduce your ecological footprint,
strategies for improving your English
factfact--findingfinding e.g. about things / people / nature
gamesgames
–– quizzesquizzes e.g. creating quizzes (full response or true/false)
guessing gamesguessing games e g 20 questions (animal vegetable or mineral)–– guessing gamesguessing games e.g. 20 questions (animal, vegetable or mineral)
(Willis & Willis 2007a: 66 8)(Willis & Willis 2007a: 66-8)
T f T k 3T f T k 3Types of Task 3Types of Task 3Ordering & SortingOrdering & Sorting
sequencingsequencing e g jumbled story order of a process sequencingsequencing e.g. jumbled story, order of a process
rankingranking e.g. holiday destinations (according to criteria)
classifyingclassifying e.g. the stuff we carry around with us, food
gamesgames e.g. “odd one out”, what do these things have in gamesgames e.g. odd one out , what do these things have in
common?
(Willis & Willis 2007a: 72-8)
T f T k 4T f T k 4Types of Task 4Types of Task 4MatchingMatching
listening & matchinglistening & matching listening & matchinglistening & matching
e.g. identity parade, personal photos, buildings, house plans, maps
reading & matchingreading & matching
e.g. short texts (paragraphs) to pictures or headings, best summary of
longer text, directions to routes on a map
(Willis & Willis 2007a: 85-9)
T f T kT f T kTypes of Task 5Types of Task 5
ComparingComparing
comparison taskscomparison tasks
e.g. morning/bedtime routines (quickest/earliest/latest?), g g (q ),
household chores, favourite holiday experiences
games (similarities & differences)games (similarities & differences)
e.g. find things in common (time limit), “spot the difference” g g ( ), p(Willis & Willis 2007a: 90-3)
T f T k 6T f T k 6Types of Task 6Types of Task 6Problem SolvingProblem Solving
advice & recommendationsadvice & recommendations
e.g. global issues (people smuggling), environmental issues (nuclear power),
teenage issues (smoking), social issues (STDs), school issues (bullying)g ( g), ( ), ( y g)
predictionprediction
e g guessing content (e g ending) of a reading passage/recording using cuese.g. guessing content (e.g. ending) of a reading passage/recording using cues
games & puzzlesgames & puzzles
l i l l ji t k ( i t th diff t i f ti )e.g. logical puzzles, jigsaw tasks (piece together different information)
(Willi & Willi 2007 93 9)(Willis & Willis 2007a: 93-9)
T f T kT f T kTypes of Task 7Types of Task 7
Sharing Personal ExperiencesSharing Personal Experiences
story telling, anecdotes & reminiscences story telling, anecdotes & reminiscences
e.g. interesting experience/story about a pet, most memorable g g p y p ,
childhood experience, most frightening experience, most
embarassing moment funniest things that has happened to youembarassing moment, funniest things that has happened to you,
memorable holiday
(Willis & Willis 2007a: 105-7)
T f T k 8T f T k 8Types of Task 8Types of Task 8Projects & Creative TasksProjects & Creative Tasks
Possible outcomesPossible outcomes (Willis & Willis 2007a: 100)
TaskTask--Based LearningBased Learning
(J. Willis 1996: 155)
L A l i 1L A l i 1Language Analysis 1Language Analysis 1
1. Focus on meaning
2. Focus on form
L A l i 2L A l i 2Language Analysis 2Language Analysis 2
1. Focus on Meaning1. Focus on Meaning
through contextualised examples from the task through contextualised examples from the task
through new but closely related examples/contexts
Importance of the recognisable context/examples as regards the Importance of the recognisable context/examples as regards the
meaningfulness of the language focusmeaningfulness of the language focus
Guided examinationGuided examination – pupils ‘find out’ ways of expressing specific
meanings for themselves (relationship between form & meaning)meanings for themselves (relationship between form & meaning)
– functions, e.g. asking/granting permission, agreeing/disagreeing
notions e g tense (f t re past) probabilit abilit obligation– notions, e.g. tense (future, past), probability, ability, obligation
L A l i 3L A l i 3Language Analysis 3Language Analysis 32. Focus on Form2. Focus on Form Guided examinationGuided examination – pupils ‘find out’ important aspects of Guided examinationGuided examination pupils find out important aspects of
form for themselves, e.g. how questions are formed, do
something/have something done simple/progressive formssomething/have something done, simple/progressive forms
Compare/contrast Compare/contrast – with Swedish or other structures in English
(esp where only one equivalent in Swedish)(esp. where only one equivalent in Swedish)
Clear modelClear model – in a textually & visually accessible format which
b d f t blcan be used as reference, e.g. tables
L P i 1L P i 1Language Practice 1Language Practice 1 Recycle examples/text from the task
Recall exercises:– gap-filling exercises
grammaticisation – remove grammatical markers for pupils– grammaticisation remove grammatical markers for pupils to restore
jumbled sentences – words in the wrong order to be put– jumbled sentences words in the wrong order to be put back in the right order
progressive deletion – delete words step by step from a– progressive deletion delete words step by step from a (model) sentence for pupils to restore from memory
dictogloss – recreating a previously unfamiliar text– dictogloss recreating a previously unfamiliar text
L P i 2L P i 2Language Practice 2Language Practice 2
DictoglossDictoglossS 1S 1 d l d ( i f 10 li ) Step 1Step 1 – read aloud a text (maximum of 10 lines) at
conversational pace; pupils just listen
Step 2 Step 2 – read it aloud again; pupils can now jot down
words & phraseswords & phrases
Step 3Step 3 – read it aloud again; pupils just listen
Step 4Step 4 – students now work in pairs to try & recreate
the text in writingthe text in writing
D i i T k 1D i i T k 1Designing Tasks 1Designing Tasks 1Task parametersTask parametersTask parametersTask parameters
1.1. OutcomeOutcome: open or closed?vague or precise? Interim goals: linguistic clues?Format specified: written?tabular? spoken? Audience for end-product?C l ti i t l ? 22 St ti i t f t kSt ti i t f t kCompletion point clear? 2.2. Starting points for taskStarting points for task:
a text? a visual? a casestudy? a teacher story?learner experience?learner experience?web research? Input andtiming of priming stage
(Willis & Willis(Willis & Willis 2007a: 157)
D i i T k 2D i i T k 2Designing Tasks 2Designing Tasks 2Task parametersTask parameters 44 Control of agenda and taskControl of agenda and taskTask parametersTask parameters 4.4. Control of agenda and taskControl of agenda and task
structurestructure: explicit steps,formats supplied?Time limits / deadlines /
3.3. PrePre--task preparationtask preparation: with or without planning
Time limits / deadlines /word limits? Mid-taskinterventions? Degree of reference or written support?time? Priming stage:
timing, input; free orguided planning? Teacher-l d l l d? W itt
reference or written support?
5.5. Interaction patterns andInteraction patterns andled or learner-led? Writtenpreparation: in note formor in full?
ppparticipant rolesparticipant roles: individuals, pairs, groups,teacher with whole class?Roles of chair-person / writer / spokesperson / languageconsultant / editor? One-way
i f i fl ?(Willis & Willis or two-way information flow?Long or short turns?
(Willis & Willis 2007a: 157)
D i i T k 3D i i T k 3Designing Tasks 3Designing Tasks 3Task parametersTask parametersTask parametersTask parameters
6.6. Pressure on language productionPressure on language production: ‘pushing output’ to achieve accuracy – prestige language (planned– prestige language (planned,rehearsed, public) versus informallanguage (spontaneous, exploratory,private) Recording and transcribing
7.7. PostPost--task activitiestask activities: follow up tasks to recycleprivate). Recording and transcribing
learner interactions; scaffoldingteacher feedback – negative andpositive to encourage
follow-up tasks to recycle texts. Plus / minus report?Audiences for report?Repetition of tasks?pos e o e cou age
experimentation and complexity.Repetition of tasks? (time-lag?) Form-focusedlanguage work?Evaluation?Evaluation?
(Willis & Willis 2007a: 157)
Bibli h 1Bibli h 1Bibliography 1Bibliography 1Edwards, Corony & Willis, Jane (eds.) (2005) Teachers Exploring Tasks inEdwards, Corony & Willis, Jane (eds.) (2005) Teachers Exploring Tasks in
English Language Teaching. Basingstoke, Hants.: Palgrave Macmillan
Ltd
Nunan, David (1989) Designing Tasks for the Communicative Classroom.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Ca b dge Ca b dge U e s y ess
Shehadeh, Ali (2005) “Task-based Language Learning and Teaching:
Theories and Applications.” In Teachers Exploring Tasks in EnglishTheories and Applications. In Teachers Exploring Tasks in English
Language Teaching. ed. by Edwards, C. & Willis, J. Basingstoke, U.K.:
Palgrave Macmillan Ltd, 13-30g ,
Skehan, Peter (1996) “A framework for the implementation of task based
instruction.” Applied Linguistics 17, (1) 38–62instruction. Applied Linguistics 17, (1) 38 62
Bibli h 2Bibli h 2Bibliography 2Bibliography 2Willis, Jane (1996) A Framework for Task-based Learning. Harlow, U.K.:Willis, Jane (1996) A Framework for Task based Learning. Harlow, U.K.:
Addison Wesley Longman (Pearson Education) Ltd.
Willis Dave & Willis Jane (2007a) Doing Task-based Teaching Oxford:Willis, Dave & Willis, Jane (2007a) Doing Task based Teaching. Oxford:
Oxford University Press
Willis Dave & Willis Jane (2007b) “Task-based language learning ” InWillis, Dave & Willis, Jane (2007b) Task-based language learning. In
The Cambridge Guide to Teaching English to Speakers of Other
Languages. ed. by Carter, R. & Nunan, D. Cambridge: CambridgeLanguages. ed. by Carter, R. & Nunan, D. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 173-9
D & J Willis’s website about taskD & J Willis’s website about task--based learning:based learning:D. & J. Willis s website about taskD. & J. Willis s website about task based learning:based learning:
http://www.daveandjane.demon.co.uk/ELT/