petrolium industry

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Introduction

The petroleum industryincludes the global processes ofexploration,extraction,refining,

transporting (often byoil tankers andpipelines), and marketingpetroleumproducts.The largest

volume products of the industry arefuel oil andgasoline (petrol). Petroleum (oil) is also the raw

material for manychemical products,including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides,and plastics. The industry is usually divided into three major components: upstream,mid stream

anddownstream.Midstream operations are usually included in the downstream category.

Petroleum is vital to manyindustries, and is of importance to the maintenance of industrial

civilization in its current configuration, and thus is a critical concern for many nations. Oil

accounts for a large percentage of the worlds energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32%

forEurope and Asia, to a high of 53% for theMiddle East.

Other geographic regions consumption patterns are as follows:South andCentral America

(44%),Africa (41%), andNorth America (40%). The world consumes 30

billionbarrels (4.8 km) of oil per year, with developed nations being the largest consumers.

TheUnited States consumed 25% of the oil produced in 2007. The production, distribution,refining, and retailing of petroleum taken as a whole represents the world's largest industry in

terms of dollar value.

Governments such as the United States government provide a heavy public subsidy to petroleum

companies, with major tax breaks at virtually every stage of oil exploration and extraction,

including the costs of oil field leases and drilling equipment.

History

Natural history

Petroleum is a naturally occurring liquid found in rock formations. It consists of a complex

mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, plus other organic compounds. It isgenerally accepted that oil is formed mostly from the carbon rich remains of ancient plankton

after exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. Over

time, the decayed residue was covered by layers of mud and silt, sinking further down into the

Earths crust and preserved there between hot and pressured layers, gradually transforming into

oil reservoirs.

Early history

Petroleum in an unrefined state has been utilized by humans for over 5000 years. Oil in general

has been used since earlyhuman history to keep fires ablaze, and inwarfare.

Its importance to theworld economy evolved slowly, withwhale oil used for lighting in the 19th

century and wood and coal used for heating and cooking well into the 20th Century.TheIndustrial Revolution generated an increasing need for energy which was met mainly by

coal, and with other sources including whale oil. However, when it was discovered that kerosene

could be extracted fromcrude oil and used as a lighting and heating fuel, Petroleum was in great

demand, and by the early twentieth century had become the most valuable commodity traded on

world markets.
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Modern history

Galician oil wells

Imperial Russiaproduced 3,500 tons of oil in 1825 and doubled its output by mid-century. After

oil drilling began in what is nowAzerbaijan in 1848, two large pipelines were built intheRussian Empire: the 833 km long pipeline to transport oil from the Caspian to theBlack

Seaport ofBatumi(Baku-Batumi pipeline), completed in 1906, and the 162 km long pipeline to

carry oil fromChechnya to the Caspian.

At the turn of the 20th century, Imperial Russia's output of oil, almost entirely from

theApsheron Peninsula, accounted for half of the world's production and dominated

international markets. Nearly 200 small refineries operated in the suburbs of Baku by 1884. As a

side effect of these early developments, the Apsheron Peninsula emerged as the world's "oldest

legacy of oil pollution and environmental negligence." In 1878,Ludvig Nobel and

hisBranobel company "revolutionized oil transport" by commissioning the firstoil tanker and

launching it on theCaspian Sea.The first modern oil refineries were built byIgnacy ukasiewicznearJaso(then in the

dependentKingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria inCentral European Galicia), Poland from 1854

56. These were initially small as demand for refined fuel was limited. The refined products were

used in artificial asphalt, machine oil and lubricants, in addition to ukasiewicz's kerosene lamp.

As kerosene lamps gained popularity, the refining industry grew in the area.

Thefirst commercial oil well in Canada became operational in 1858 atOil Springs,

Ontario (thenCanada West). Businessman James Miller Williams dug several wells between

1855 and 1858 before discovering a rich reserve of oil four metres below ground. Williams

extracted 1.5 million liters of crude oil by 1860, refining much of it into kerosene lamp oil. Some

historians challenge Canadas claim to North Americas firstoil field, arguingthatPennsylvanias famousDrake Well was the continents first. But there is evidence to support

Williams, not least of which is that the Drake well did not come into production until August 28,

1859. The controversial point might be that Williams found oil above bedrock whileEdwin

Drakes well located oil within abedrockreservoir.The discovery at Oil Springs touched off an

oil boom which brought hundreds of speculators and workers to the area. Canada's first gusher

(flowing well) erupted on January 16, 1862, when local oil man John Shaw struck oil at 158 feet

(48 m). For a week the oil gushed unchecked at levels reported as high as 3,000 barrels per day.
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The first modern oil drilling in the United States began in West Virginia and Pennsylvania in the

1850s.Edwin Drake's 1859 well nearTitusville, Pennsylvania, is typically considered the first

true modern oil well, and touched off a major boom. In the first quarter of the 20th century, the

United States overtook Russia as the world's largest oil producer. By the 1920s, oil fields had

been established in many countries including Canada, Poland, Sweden, Ukraine, the United

States, Peru and Venezuela.

The first successfuloil tanker,the Zoroaster, was built in 1878 in Sweden, designed byLudvig

Nobel.It operated fromBakutoAstrakhan.A number of new tanker designs were developed in

the 1880s.

In the early 1930sthe Texas Company developed the first mobile steel barges for drilling in the

brackish coastal areas of thePersian Gulf. In 1937 Pure Oil Company (now part ofChevron

Corporation)and its partnerSuperior Oil Company (now part ofExxonMobil Corporation)used

a fixed platform to develop a field in 14 feet (4.3 m) of water, one mile (1.6 km) offshore

ofCalcasieu Parish, Louisiana. In early 1947 Superior Oil erected a drilling/productionoil

platform in 20 ft (6.1 m) of water some 18 miles off Vermilion Parish, Louisiana. It wasKerr-

McGee Oil Industries (nowAnadarko Petroleum Corporation), as operator for partnersPhillipsPetroleum (ConocoPhillips)andStanolind Oil & Gas (BP), that completed its historic Ship Shoal

Block 32 well in October 1947, months before Superior actually drilled a discovery from their

Vermilion platform farther offshore. In any case, that made Kerr-McGee's well the first oil

discovery drilled out of sight of land.

AfterWorld War II ended, the countries of theMiddle East took the lead in oil production from

the United States. Important developments since World War II include deep-water drilling, the

introduction of theDrillship,and the growth of a global shipping network for petroleum relying

upon oil tankers and pipelines. In the 1960s and 1970s, multi-governmental organizations of oil

producing nationsOPEC andOAPECplayed a major role in setting petroleum prices and

policy.Oil Spills and their cleanup have become an issue of increasing political, environmental,and economic importance.

Definition

Petroleumis a naturally occurring, yellow-to-blackliquid found ingeologic formationsbeneath

theEarth's surface, which is commonly refined into various types of fuels. It consists

ofhydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other liquidorganic compounds. The

name petroleum covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude oils and petroleum products

that are made up of refined crude oil. Afossil fuel,petroleum is formed when large quantities of

dead organisms, usually zooplankton andalgae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock and

subjected to intense heat and pressure.

Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixtureof hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other liquid organic compounds that are foundin geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface. A fossil fuel, it is formed when largequantities of dead organisms, usually zooplankton and algae, are buried underneath sedimentaryrock and undergo intense heat and pressure. Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling.This comes after the studies of structural geology (at the reservoir scale), sedimentary basinanalysis, and reservoir characterization (mainly in terms of porosity and permeable structures). It
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is refined and separated, most easily by boiling point, into a large number of consumer products,from petrol (or gasoline) and kerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents used to make plasticsand pharmaceuticals.

Petroleum, or crude oil is a product that is very much valued, in fact it is also known as the

"Black Gold". History of it 's origin relates back to at least 200 to 400 million years ago whenenormous layers of organic material made up of vegetable and animal remains were carried by

rivers to the bottom of the oceans and began to decay. They became mixed with other dead

remains and slowly this mass of decaying material was transformed into a thick black liquid.

Chemical Composition

In its strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in common usage it includes all

liquid, gaseous, and solid hydrocarbons. Under surface pressure and temperature conditions,

lighter hydrocarbonsmethane,ethane,propane and butane occur as gases, whilepentane and

heavier ones are in the form of liquids or solids. However, in an undergroundoil reservoir theproportions of gas, liquid, and solid depend on subsurface conditions and on thephase

diagram of the petroleum mixture.

Anoil wellproduces predominantly crude oil, with some natural gasdissolved in it. Because the

pressure is lower at the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out ofsolution and

be recovered (or burned) as associated gas or solution gas. Agas wellproduces predominantly

natural gas. However, because the underground temperature and pressure are higher than at the

surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane,hexane, andheptane in

thegaseous state.At surface conditions these willcondense out of the gas to formnatural gas

condensate, often shortened to condensate. Condensate resembles petrol in appearance and is

similar in composition to somevolatilelight crude oils.

The proportion of light hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture varies greatly among differentoil

fields,ranging from as much as 97 percent by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50 percent

in the heavier oils andbitumens.

The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostlyalkanes,cycloalkanes and variousaromatic

hydrocarbons while the other organic compounds containnitrogen,oxygen andsulfur,and trace

amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper andvanadium.The exact molecular composition

varies widely from formation to formation but the proportion ofchemical elements vary over

fairly narrow limits as follows:

Exploration

Understanding the basic concepts of geology will go a long way in wrapping your head aroundcertain parts of the oil and gas industry.

On this site we are going to assume that all hydrocarbons (oil and gas) were created over thehistory of the Earth by tiny organisms that built up over time, were covered up by layers upon
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layers of rocks, and because of certain temperatures and pressuresoil or natural gas wasformed. That was a mouth full.

Because the hydrocarbons are less dense than water, they want to move upward towards thesurface or at least above the water theyre surrounded by. When hydrocarbons become stuck and

many are gathered in the same place you have a reservoir. They become stuck because of theway the crust of the Earth moves forming faults and traps.

Oil and Gas Exploration

Sometimes hydrocarbons are able to flow all the way to the surface because they never ran intoany natural barriers. This made it easy for us to reach the hydrocarbons, but eventually weneeded to find new areas, underground areas where hydrocarbons accumulated.

Nowadays there are many tools and a lot of technology involved in finding oil and gas. Some ofthese include seismic surveys, magnetic surveys, well logs, and others. Its not very easy todetermine exactly what is underground because, well, its underground. These technologies helpscientists come closer to knowing what they cant see.

Leasing

Once the potential hydrocarbons are found companies must acquire leases from land owners.This can be simple or complicated depending on the companies involved as well as the countryinvolved. Leasing laws differ everywhere and there are many jobs in the industry dealing onlywith the leasing side of things. We will get more into depth later in this site.


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Drilling

Drilling is probably the part most people think about when they picture the petroleum industry.They probably see rigs and pumpjacks in their minds when thinking about oil.

Over the years drilling has become more science than art, which is a good thing.

Technology is always on the cutting edge with drilling because at the end of the day companieswant to drill more efficiently to make more money.

A lot of the drilling process isnt known to the public though. Most believe a rig is built or

shipped to a destination. Pipe is drilled down into the big oil pools and it shoots out like in theTV shows that dramatize the industry.

Nobody thinks about all the different people doing all the different jobs that make up theecosystem of a drilling rig. They dont know about setting casing, completing or abandoning awell, that a large number of wells are simply shut in once found theyre not economical, orthat alot of drilling is done horizontallynot vertically.

Production

Once the drilling is finished thats only the beginning. A whole other side of the petroleum

industry deals with the processing, storage, and production of hydrocarbons from underground tothe surface.

Its never quite as easy as it looks. Pumps, explosives, fracturing, chemicals, injections, andothers may be needed to get the hydrocarbons to surface. Even then when they come out of the


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ground they still need to be treated and processed before theyre able to reach the consumers.

Transportation

Once again, another huge part of the industry thats for the most part separate, but still essentialto the final delivery of refined hydrocarbons to the customer.

Trucks, trains, barges, supertankers are a few of the ways oil and gas are transported. Thousandsof miles of pipelines must also be created to transport oil and gas from the well locations todifferent processing stations all around the country.

This is just a brief overview of the petroleum industry. If you can use your imagination you willsee that just from this outline there are thousands of different paths one can take in this industry.Roughnecks, lawyers, land men, drillers, truck drivers, pumpers, laborers, engineers. The listgoes on and on. And we all know when people are looking for information about the oil field,

theyre wanting to know about the oil field jobs.

Refining of petroleum

Refining of petroleum is carried out by fractional distillation of crude oil. Petroleum or crude oilis obtained as complex mixture chiefly of aliphatic hydrocarbon with lesser amounts of aromatichydrocarbons along with small amount of organic compounds of sulfur and nitrogen. Here is thediagram for fractional distillation of petroleum


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As the boiling points of different components are different, hence they are distilled at differenttemperatures. The separated components are then further purified.

Petroleum Products

Oil and Gas, Kerosene, Petrol, Diesel

Nail Polish, Soap, Deodorant, Car Battery Cases

Motor Oil

Here are some of the products of petroleum refining and their uses:

Gasoline - used to power automobiles, planes, boats, and many other forms of transportation

Diesel Fuel - used for powering automobiles

Kerosene - used in lighting and cooking

Heating Oil - used to provide houses with necessary warmth

Lubricating oil - keeps machinery cool

Grease - necessary in automobile repair, train tracks, machinery upkeep, etc.

Tar - used in construction


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Elements Percent range of petroleum

Carbon 83 to 85%

Hydrogen 10 to 14%

Nitrogen 0.1 to 2%

Oxygen 0.05 to 1.5%Sulfur 0.05 to 6.0%

Metals < 0.1%

Advantages:

1. Highly compact portable source of energy used for most forms of mechanical transportation.

2. Excellent source of organic molecules for building plastics,medicines, rubber, fiber, etc.

3. Can withstand high heats without breakdown making it useful as lubricants like motor oil and

grease

4. Residuals make excellent surface for asphalt roads and waterproof roofing materials

5. Certain components make excellent solvents for paint, industrial use etc.6. Other components (propane, butane) make excellent compact source of portable cooking fuel

and heating in areas that do not have infrastructure for natural gas delivery.

7. Natural gas is used to make fertilizers used in agriculture and household detergents

8. Compared to most other fuel sources it is still one of the most economical -in other words the

costs to produce it are relatively cheap compared to other energy sources.

9. Production of oil has much less impact and a smaller footprint on the earth surface than

production of coal from strip mining

10. If not for the discovery of oil, all whales would likely be extinct, because they were the

primary source of lamp oil for lighting before oil, and are still recovering from hunting in the

1800's.

11. The oil industry has been a source of much advanced technology and many new products that

have changed our lives for the better.

12. During WW2 oil produced in Texas was the major source of fuel supply for the Allied

Forces and without that advantage over both the Germans and Japanese, the world might look

very different today. At that time the US was the major supplier of oil in the world.

13. Natural gas wells are the world's supply of helium gas.

14. Oil refining produces the world's supply of elemental sulphur as a byproduct, used for many

industrial applications.

Disadvantages:

1. Oil is a carbon based fuel and the primary way it is used is to burn it, releasing more than its

weight in CO2 because of the added oxygen. CO2 is a greenhouse gas and is expected by most

scientists to be a cause of global warming.


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2. We are running out. Estimates vary from 50 to 150 years before we run out of oil. This is

impossible to predict, but most major oil companies have been failing to discover new reserves

equal to the amount of oil they are producing for the last few years.

3. Much of the remaining oil in the world is in politically unstable areas including Africa, Middle

East, Russia, and parts of Southeast Asia.

4. Wars get fought over oil, and wars are won with oil (WW2) so it can be a very negative

influence on relations between nations.

5. Oil must be transported in ever increasing quantities. Pipelines are one common method but

where no pipeline exists oil can become 'stranded', in other words there is no way to get it to

market. The natural gas in northern Alaska is a good example of this since there is no gas

pipeline the oil companies must pump natural gas back into the wells.

6. The other transport problem with oil is from the inherent dangers of supertankers. Oil spills do

serious environmental damage that takes decades to recover from. While oil spills do occur

naturally, and have over time, the effects are often catastrophic for the area affected. Oil does

break down naturally from biological and chemical decay, but it takes time.7. Our consumption of oil is increasing at the same time our production is falling. The world is

currently consuming 83 million barrels of oil per day. We aren't producing that much.

8. Many oil producing areas are subject to severe weather and this can interupt production. Last

year's hurricanes are an example. Production will not be restored until well into this year.

9. Oil does contain some cancer causing compounds, benzene is one of those.

10. Volatile components of oil and natural gas can contribute to smog.

11. Some additives put into gasoline to improve its smog fighting qualities have leaked out of

underground tanks at gas stations and polluted ground water with hazardous chemicals. This type

of pollution is very hard to remove.

12. Drilling for oil is getting more difficult and expensive because we are now drilling as deepor deeper than 20,000 feet to find new reserves.

13. Because of the price cyclicity in the oil industry the industry is discovering that it may soon

have a serious shortage of trained workers. The average age in the industry is about 50 years old.

New entrants are not coming into the field for several reasons. The oil industry is going to be

challenged to keep producing at the current rate with fewer employees available.

14. Some oil is now being strip mined in the form of tar sands. This will be very hard to restore

these areas.

15. Sulphur in oil ends up in refined fuels and contributes to air pollution.


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Industry Analysis: Petroleum (Integrated)

The Petroleum (Integrated) Industry is a mature, cyclical sector that encompasses severalbusiness lines. The typical company here conducts oil exploration and development programs,

refines and markets oil, and may produce chemicals. The emphasis has long been on the"upstream" end, or exploration, since it generates the highest margins most of the time. Sizablespending is mainly directed overseas, where most oil reserves are found.

Stocks in this industry are most appropriate for investors stressing above-average total returnpotential over a 3- to 5-year period. There is special suitability for conservative investors, giventhe solid financial strength of many of the companies and the comparative stability of their stockprices. Ties to the business cycle usually mean the industry doesn't do as well when the economyis in a downturn. But good dividend yields provide downside support.

Industry Structure

TheAmerican Petroleum Institute divides the petroleum industry into five sectors:

upstream (exploration,development and production of crude oil or natural gas) downstream (oil tankers,refiners,retailers and consumers) pipeline marine service and supply

Upstream

Oil companies used to be classified by sales

as "supermajors" (BP,Chevron,ExxonMobil,ConocoPhillips,Shell,Eni and Total

S.A.), "majors", and "independents" or "jobbers". In recent years however, National Oil

Companies (NOC, as opposed to IOC, International Oil Companies) have come to control the

rights over the largest oil reserves; by this measure the top ten companies all are NOC. The

following table shows the ten largest national oil companies ranked by reserves and by

production.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upstream_(oil_industry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_explorationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downstream_(oil_industry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanker_(ship)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refineryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_companieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermajorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevron_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExxonMobilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ConocoPhillipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_S.A.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_S.A.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_S.A.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_S.A.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ConocoPhillipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExxonMobilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevron_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermajorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_companieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_refineryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanker_(ship)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downstream_(oil_industry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_explorationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upstream_(oil_industry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Petroleum_Institute


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Most upstream work in theoil field or on anoil well iscontracted out to drilling contractors and

oil field service companies.

Aside from the NOCs which dominate the Upstream sector, there are many international

companies that have a market share. For example:

BG Group BHP Billiton Chevron Eni ExxonMobil Hess Ltd Marathon Oil Total Tullow Oil

Midstream

Midstream operations are sometimes classified within the downstream sector, but these

operations compose a separate and discrete sector of the petroleum industry. Midstream

operations and processes include the following:

Gathering:The gathering process employs narrow, low-pressure pipelines to connect oil-and gas-producing wells to larger, long-haul pipelines or processing facilities.

Processing/refining:Processing and refining operations turn crude oil and gas intomarketable products. In the case of crude oil, these products includeheating oil,gasoline for

use in vehicles,jet fuel,anddiesel oil.[24]Oil refining processes include distillation,vacuum

distillation,catalytic reforming,catalytic cracking,alkylation,isomerization and hydro

treating.Natural gas processing includescompression;glycol dehydration;amine treating;

separating the product into pipeline-quality natural gas and a stream of mixed natural gas

liquids; and fractionation, which separates the stream of mixed natural gas liquids into its

components. The fractionation process yieldsethane,propane,butane,isobutane,andnatural

gasoline.

Transportation:Oil and gas are transported to processing facilities, and from there to endusers, bypipeline, tanker/barge,truck, andrail. Pipelines are the most economical

transportation method and are most suited to movement across longer distances, for example,across continents. Tankers and barges are also employed for long-distance, often

international transport. Rail and truck can also be used for longer distances but are most cost-

effective for shorter routes.

Storage:Midstream service providers provide storage facilities atterminals throughout theoil and gas distribution systems. These facilities are most often located near refining and

processing facilities and are connected to pipeline systems to facilitate shipment when
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_fieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_wellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contracthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midstreamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heating_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry#cite_note-petroleumonline.com-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry#cite_note-petroleumonline.com-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_refining_processeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_reforminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_crackinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkylationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomerizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrotreatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrotreatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural-gas_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_compressorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycol_dehydrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amine_gas_treatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isobutanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_depothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_depothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bargehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isobutanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amine_gas_treatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycol_dehydrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas_compressorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural-gas_processinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrotreatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrotreatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomerizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkylationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_crackinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_reforminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum_distillationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_refining_processeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry#cite_note-petroleumonline.com-24http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_fuelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heating_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midstreamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contracthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_wellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_field


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product demand must be met. While petroleum products are held in storage tanks, natural gas

tends to be stored in underground facilities, such as salt dome caverns and depleted

reservoirs.

Technological applications:Midstream service providers apply technological solutions toimprove efficiency during midstream processes. Technology can be used during compressionof fuels to ease flow through pipelines; to better detect leaks in pipelines;and to automate

communications for better pipeline and equipment monitoring.

While some upstream companies carry out certain midstream operations, the midstream sector is

dominated by a number of companies that specialize in these services. Midstream companies

include:

Aux Sable Bridger Group Enbridge Energy Partners Enterprise Products Partners Genesis Energy Gibson Energy Energy Midstream Sunoco Logistics Williams Companies

Environment impact on future Industry

Some petroleum industry operations have been responsible forwater pollution through by-

products of refining andoil spills.

The combustion of fossil fuels producesgreenhouse gases and other air pollutants as by-

products. Pollutants include nitrogen oxides,sulphur dioxide,volatile organic

compounds andheavy metals.

As petroleum is a non-renewablenatural resource the industry is faced with an inevitable

eventual depletion of the world's oil supply. The BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2007

listed thereserve/production ratio for proven resources worldwide. The study placed the

prospective life span of proven reserves in the Middle East at 79.5 years, Latin America at 41.2

years and North America at only 12 years.

TheHubbert peak theory,which introduced the concept ofpeak oil,questions the sustainabilityof oil production. It suggests that after a peak in oil production rates, a period ofoil

depletion will ensue. Since virtually all economic sectors rely heavily on petroleum, peak oil

could lead to a partial or complete failure of markets.

According to research by IBIS World, biofuels (primarily ethanol, but also biodiesel) will

continue to supplement petroleum. However output levels are low, and these fuels will not
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leak_detectionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enbridge_Energy_Partnershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_Products_Partnershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inergyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_Companieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_spillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulphur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metal_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserves-to-production_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubbert_peak_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_depletionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_depletionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_depletionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_depletionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubbert_peak_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reserves-to-production_ratiohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resourcehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_metal_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volatile_organic_compoundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulphur_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gaseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_spillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_pollutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williams_Companieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inergyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_Products_Partnershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enbridge_Energy_Partnershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leak_detection


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displace local oil production. More than 90% of the ethanol used in the US is blended with

gasoline to produce a 10% ethanol mix, lifting the oxygen content of the fuel.]

Challenges and Issues

A number of factors, such as changing geopolitical relationships, the emergence of new

competitors, changes in supply and demand dynamics, social and environmental pressures aretransforming and reshaping our industry. Among which there is one indisputable fact i.e. Global

Demand for energy will continue to increase dramatically, driven in large part by population

growth and the strong desire of developing countries to achieve economic prosperity.

Here I have tried to incorporate some of the challenges which are not only critical to our

industry, but also to our world.

Health, Safety, Social Responsibility, Environment & Security

Human, environment safety and health protection remains the number one priority for the oil and

gas industry. The technique for extracting gas from unconventional reservoirs hydraulic

fracturinghas raised environmental concerns about the water table. So these companies should

pay greater attention to HSE issues within broader operations concerns i.e. across the entire span

of their activity, from exploration and production, to pipeline management, down to refinery and

marketing.

Management and InformationWe need collaborative partnerships, alliances, or joint ventures involving oil companies, service

companies, governments, and academia, all pooling their knowledge to achieve breakthroughs in

the targeted areas in far less time and at lower cost than if everyone goes about it alone. Such

collaboration should involve:

Integration across upstream, midstream, and downstream Joint investments outside the host country Different commercial terms and risk sharing Greater shared control More technology transfer and development of the local workforce

List of largest oil and gas companies by revenue

The following is a list of the world's largest Oil and gas companies, ordered byrevenue in

millions ofU.S. dollars according to the Fortune Global 500. Currently all companies with

revenue greater than $25 billion are included.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_and_gas_industryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._dollarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_Global_500http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_Global_500http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._dollarshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revenuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_and_gas_industryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_industry#cite_note-27


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SL

NoCompany Revenue Headquarters

1 Royal Dutch Shell 484,489 Netherlands / United Kingdom

2 Exxon Mobil 452,926 United States

3 BP 386,463 United Kingdom

4 Sinopec 375,214 China

5 China National Petroleum 352,338 China

6 Chevron 245,621 United States

7 Conoco Phillips 237,272 United States

8 Total 231,580 France

9 Gazprom 157,830 Russia

10 Eni 153,676 Italy

11 Petrobras 145,915 Brazil

12 GDF Suez 126,076 France

13 Pemex 125,344 Mexico
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exxon_Mobilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopechttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevron_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevron_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conoco_Phillipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_S.A.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_S.A.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazpromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazpromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrobrashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrobrashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDF_Suezhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDF_Suezhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GDF_Suezhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrobrashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gazpromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_S.A.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conoco_Phillipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevron_Corporationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_National_Petroleumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinopechttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exxon_Mobilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Dutch_Shell


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SL

NoCompany Revenue Headquarters

14 Valero Energy 125,095 United States

15 PDVSA 124,754 Venezuela

16 Statoil 119,561 Norway

17 JX Holdings 119,258 Japan

18 Lukoil 111,433 Russia

19 Petronas 97,355 Malaysia

20 Indian Oil 86,016 India

21 Repsol 81,122 Spain
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valero_Energyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDVSAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statoilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JX_Holdingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JX_Holdingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukoilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukoilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repsolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repsolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repsolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Oilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petronashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lukoilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JX_Holdingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statoilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuelahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDVSAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valero_Energy


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Consumption statistics

Environmental Effects

Because petroleum is a naturally occurring substance, its presence in the environment need not

be the result of human causes such as accidents and routine activities

(seismic exploration,drilling, extraction, refining and combustion). Phenomena such

asseeps[68]andtar pits are examples of areas that petroleum affects without man's involvement.

Regardless of source, petroleum's effects when released into the environment are similar.

1. Global warming

When burned, petroleum releases carbon dioxide; agreenhouse gas.Along with the burning of

coal, petroleum combustion is the largest contributor to the increase in atmospheric CO2.

Atmospheric CO2has risen steadily since the industrial revolution to current levels of over
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boring_(earth)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_seephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_seephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_seephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar_pithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Global_Carbon_Emissions.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Global_Carbon_Emissions.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Global_Carbon_Emissions.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tar_pithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_seephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petroleum_seephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boring_(earth)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seismology


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390 ppmv, from the180 300 ppmv of the prior 800 thousand years,drivingglobal warming.

The unbridled use of petroleum could potentially cause arunaway greenhouse effect on

Earth. Use of oil as an energy source has caused Earth's temperature to increase by nearly one

degree Celsius. This raise in temperature has reduced the Arctic ice cap to 1,100,000 sq mi

(2,800,000 km2), smaller than ever recorded. Because of this melt, more oil reserves have been

revealed. It is estimated by the International Energy Agency that about 13 percent of the world'sundiscovered oil resides in the Arctic.

2. Extraction

Oil extraction is simply the removal of oil from the reservoir (oil pool). Oil is often recovered as

a water-in-oil emulsion, andspecialty chemicals calleddemulsifiers are used to separate the oil

from water. Oil extraction is costly and sometimes environmentally damaging, althoughDr. John

Hunt of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institutionpointed out in a 1981 paper that over 70

percent of the reserves in the world are associated with visiblemacro seepages, and many oil

fields are found due to naturalseeps. Offshore exploration and extraction of oil disturbs the

surrounding marine environment.

3. Oil spills

Crude oil and refined fuelspills fromtanker ship accidents have damaged

naturalecosystems inAlaska,theGulf of Mexico,theGalapagos Islands,France and manyother

places.

The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several

hundred thousand tons (e.g., Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill,Atlantic Empress,Amoco Cadiz).Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as theExxon

Valdez oil spill

Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for

hundreds of nautical miles in a thinoil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil.

This can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on land are

more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidlybulldozed around the spill site

before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere#Past_variationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere#Past_variationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere#Past_variationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runaway_greenhouse_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialty_chemicalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demulsifiershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hunt_(oceanographer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hunt_(oceanographer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_spillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanker_(ship)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaskahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galapagos_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil_spillshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil_spillshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bp_oil_spillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Empresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoco_Cadizhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exxon_Valdez_oil_spillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exxon_Valdez_oil_spillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_slickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulldozedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulldozedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_slickhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exxon_Valdez_oil_spillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exxon_Valdez_oil_spillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amoco_Cadizhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Empresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bp_oil_spillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil_spillshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_oil_spillshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galapagos_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaskahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanker_(ship)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_spillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seephttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woods_Hole_Oceanographic_Institutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hunt_(oceanographer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hunt_(oceanographer)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demulsifiershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specialty_chemicalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runaway_greenhouse_effecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_warminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere#Past_variation


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Control of oil spills is difficult, requires ad hoc methods, and often a large amount of manpower.

The dropping of bombs and incendiary devices from aircraft onSS Torrey Canyon wreck

produced poor results; modern techniques would include pumping the oil from the wreck, like in

thePrestige oil spill or theErika oil spill.

Though crude oil is predominantly composed of various hydrocarbons, certain nitrogen hetero

cylic compounds, such aspyridine,picoline, andquinoline are reported as contaminants

associated with crude oil, as well as facilities processing oil shale or coal, and have also been

found at legacy wood treatment sites. These compounds have a very high water solubility, and

thus tend to dissolve and move with water. Certain naturally occurring bacteria, such

asMicrococcus,Arthrobacter, andRhodococcus have been shown to degrade thesecontaminants.

4. Tarballs

A tarball is a blob of crude oil (not to be confused withtar,which is typically derived from pine

trees rather than petroleum) which has been weathered after floating in the ocean. Tarballs are an

aquaticpollutant in most environments, although they can occur naturally, for example, in the

Santa Barbara Channel of California. Their concentration and features have been used to assess

the extent ofoil spills. Their composition can be used to identify their sources of origin, and

tarballs themselves may be dispersed over long distances by deep sea currents. They are slowly

decomposed by bacteria, includingChromo bacterium violaceum,Cladosporium

resinae,Bacillus submarinus,Micrococcus varians,Pseudomonas aeruginosa,Candidamarina andSaccharomyces estuari.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Torrey_Canyonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestige_oil_spillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erika_(tanker)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrococcushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthrobacterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodococcushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_spillshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromobacterium_violaceumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladosporium_resinaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladosporium_resinaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bacillus_submarinus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Micrococcus_varians&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas_aeruginosahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Candida_marina&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Candida_marina&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saccharomyces_estuari&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saccharomyces_estuari&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Candida_marina&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Candida_marina&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudomonas_aeruginosahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Micrococcus_varians&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bacillus_submarinus&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladosporium_resinaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladosporium_resinaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromobacterium_violaceumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil_spillshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodococcushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthrobacterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micrococcushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quinolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picolinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyridinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erika_(tanker)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prestige_oil_spillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Torrey_Canyon


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Future petroleum production Peak oil

Peak oil is the projection that future petroleum production (whether for individual oil wells,

entire oil fields, whole countries, or worldwide production) will eventually peak and then decline

at a similar rate to the rate of increase before the peak as these reserves are exhausted. The peakof oil discoveries was in 1965, and oil production per year has surpassed oil discoveries every

year since 1980.

Hubbert applied his theory to accurately predict the peak of U.S. oil production at a date between

1966 and 1970. This prediction was based on data available at the time of his publication in

1956. In the same paper, Hubbert predicts world peak oil in "half a century" after his publication,

which would be 2006.

It is difficult to predict the oil peak in any given region, due to the lack of knowledge and/or

transparency in accounting of global oil reserves. Scientists and researchers from OxfordUniversity argue that official figures are inflated because OPEC members over-reported reserves

in the 1980s when competing for global market share. Based on available production data,

proponents have previously predicted the peak for the world to be in years 1989, 1995, or 1995

2000. Some of these predictions date from before the recession of the early 1980s, and the

consequent reduction in global consumption, the effect of which was to delay the date of any

peak by several years. Just as the 1971 U.S. peak in oil production was only clearly recognized

after the fact, a peak in world production will be difficult to discern until production clearly
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drops off.[93]The peak is also a moving target as it is now measured as "liquids", which includes

synthetic fuels, instead of just conventional oil.

TheInternational Energy Agency (IEA) said in 2010 that production of conventional crude oil

had peaked in 2006 at 70 MBBL/d, then flattened at 68 or 69 thereafter. Since virtually all

economic sectors rely heavily on petroleum,peak oil,if it were to occur, could lead to a "partial

or complete failure of markets".

Top 10 Biggest Petroleum Companies in the World

1. Saudi Aramco

Quoted as the most valuable company in the world by Financial Times, Saudi Aramco is a SaudiArabian company. Headquartered at Dhahran, its operates across the globe including inchemicals and refining. Officially it is known as the Saudi Arabian Oil Company. Ghawar field,the largest oil field in the world is owned by Saudi Aramco. It has recently taken a keen interestin R&D and was granted its 100th patent in 2010. It has also ventured into a variety of

community services from Healthcare to Education. The biggest energy company in the worldgenerates more than a billion dollars in revenues. It produces a whopping 12.5 million barrels perday.

Although the Hubbert Peak Theory suggests the unending dependence on petroleum reservesmay lead to cataclysmic failure, real life scenario seems to starkly diverge from theory. Theinfluence of these organizations seems constantly uphill. Although notable activities have beenseen in alternative energy, the extent to which these Petroleum organizations control our livesand serve us seems to be waxi

2. Gazprom

One of the largest companies in the world, Gazprom is also the largest producer of natural gas. itproduces 9.7 million barrels per day. It has been known to support variety of communityprojects. It has had significant investments in protection of water, land and atmosphere. Gazpromtrades as a public company, most of its assets are held by the government of Russia. Ministry ofGas Industry of Soviet Union converted itself into a corporation, thus forming Gazprom, whichwas later partly privatized. Being the largest exporter of natural gas, it puts the PresidentVladimir Putin at a vantage point in Europe. It has $ 328 billion in assets.

3. National Iranian Oil Co.

NIOC a state owned oil and gas company is run under the Ministry of Petroleum of Iran. It ranksas the 3rd largest oil company in the world. Its reserves account for 15% of gas and 10% in oil.Its daily production account for 6.5 million barrels per day. Due to sanctions imposed by US andEuropean governments, NIOC had to curtail its oil production. To elude the problems due todepreciation in its production, Turkey and India have been paying NIOC in gold. The strait ofHormuz, which falls under the national boundaries of Iran, is a strategic location as 20% ofpetroleum passes through it. Iran threatened to cut off the strait in case of any attack thuscollapsing the international trade.
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4. ExxonMobil

The US based multinational company became the largest company in the world as per revenues.Its daily production amount to 5.3 million barrels per day. ExxonMobil was formed frommerging Exxon and Mobil, two branches of Standard Oil in US. It is known as the largest refinerin the world. Its environment record has attracted much criticism due to the its spills and leaks in various waters. Interestingly it dedicates less than 1% of its profits for alternative energy, theonly hope for energy crisis. Surprisingly, ExxonMobils chairman Lee Raymond was skepticabout global warming, and tried notoriously to thwart any federal interference at all levels. It isnot so famous on LGBT front, owing to its meddling with LGBT rights. The Daily Telegraphquoted ExxonMobil asplanets most hated corporations . It has $ 341 billion in assets.

5. PetroChina

Officially known as PetroChina Company Limited, it is the largest producer of oil and gas inChina. China National Petroleum Corporation is the sole shareholder of PetroChina. Itsoperations include all aspects of Petroleum and Petrochemical industry. This most profitablecompany in Asia spends its large chunk of profits on R&D, mainly focusing on energyconservation through green development and technological innovation. It is also known for itssustainable practices with Green and low carbon development strategy. With its goodenvironment record and increasing assets it ranked 6th in the Forbes list of public companies. Itcurrently produces more oil than ExxonMobil. It is predicted to vie as a leading gas producerowing to the large shale reserves under China. It produces 4.4 million barrels per day.

6. BP

The fifth largest company in the world by its revenues, British Petroleum is more than a centuryold. It has its major operations in UK, US and Ireland. It has seen a series of affiliations since itsinception before finally becoming British Petroleum. Its daily production adds to 4.4 millionbarrels per day. Although it has been marching with a series of acquisitions, BP may not be ableto maintain its current level of production. Currently it is in its process to sell its 50% stake toRosneft a state controlled company of Russia, through the joint venture of TNK-BP.

7. Petroleos de Venezuela

The state owned oil and natural gas company is the fifth largest exporter. It has a vantage pointof the few largest oil reserves in the world, and is run by supporters of the president. It is one ofthe top exporters to the US. Found in 1975, it is based at Caracas, Venezuela. Its majorcustomers are Caribbean, UK, USA, Belgium and Sweden. Also known as PVDSA (Petroleos deVenezuela S.A), it acts as a financial buffer for the Venezuelan economy. Its total reservesamount to more than 120,000 million barrels.


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8. Kuwait Petroleum Corporation

Kuwaits national oil company, headquartered at Kuwait city, is a conglomerate under itsgovernment control. It was established in 1960 as a shareholder company, and was fully ownedby the state in 1975.Although its operations in UK have been nullified since 2004 after beingbought by another organization, it still has been able to maintain its stature. Kuwait PetroleumCorporation accounts for 10% world reserves and 87 % of export reserves of Kuwait. KUFPEC(Kuwait Foreign Petroleum Exploration Company), a subsidiary of KPC is well known for itshumanitarian projects in Pakistan, Tunisia and Indonesia. KOC (Kuwait Oil Company), also asubsidiary company of KPC is the worlds fourth largest oil exporter

9. Royal Dutch Shell

Headquartered at The Hague, it has its companies in over 100 countries. It is commonly knownas Shell and has its logo derived after the same. It was the largest company on the London Stockexchange in 2012 and is active in every area of Oil and Gas industry. Shell has often beeninvolved in non -oil operations, including nuclear power which was short lived and electricitygeneration, none of those were so successful and were eventually rescinded. Interestingly it hassetup a worldwide platform for whistleblowers for reporting violation of its general businessprinciples. It will be starting its operations in Alaskas Chuckchi sea. Itsdaily production standsat 3.9 million barrels, and has $ 345 billion in assets.

10. Chevron

With ever increasing prices of fuel, the petroleum industry holds a tenacious hold on our dailylives. It is necessary for the sustenance for many other industries. A murky and incorrigiblefuture of this industry has its clutches on the world economy, which further worsens the currentscenario. Such is the influence of this industry, that every other tycoon and multi-billionorganization are constantly lobbying to get hold of this precious resource. Its effects go as far asHollywood, bringing two movies based on petrol politicsSyriana in 2005 and There will beblood in 2007 based on Southern Californias oil bloom. Talk about oil and petroleum, Shelland ExxonMobil are the names that pop in our head first. While these names are prominent butmight not be the biggest, more than 70% of the reserves are owned by state owned companies. Itis worthwhile to know the megacorps, the strongest directors of the course of our economy.

In petroleum industry parlance, production refers to the quantity of crude extracted from

reserves, not the literal creation of the product.-add 2010/11/12 statistics, if you cannot get,

dont add


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# Producing Nation103bbl/d

(2006)

103bbl/d

(2007)

103bbl/d

(2008)

103bbl/d

(2009)

Present

Share

1 Saudi Arabia(OPEC) 10,665 10,234 10,782 9,760 11.8%

2 Russia1 9,677 9,876 9,789 9,934 12.0%

3 United States1 8,331 8,481 8,514 9,141 11.1%

4 Iran(OPEC) 4,148 4,043 4,174 4,177 5.1%

5 China 3,846 3,901 3,973 3,996 4.8%

6 Canada2 3,288 3,358 3,350 3,294 4.0%

7 Mexico1

3,707 3,501 3,185 3,001 3.6%

8United Arab Emirates

(OPEC)2,945 2,948 3,046 2,795 3.4%

9 Kuwait(OPEC) 2,675 2,613 2,742 2,496 3.0%

10 Venezuela(OPEC) 1 2,803 2,667 2,643 2,471 3.0%

11 Norway1 2,786 2,565 2,466 2,350 2.8%

12 Brazil 2,166 2,279 2,401 2,577 3.1%

13 Iraq(OPEC) 3 2,008 2,094 2,385 2,400 2.9%

14 Algeria(OPEC) 2,122 2,173 2,179 2,126 2.6%

15 Nigeria(OPEC) 2,443 2,352 2,169 2,211 2.7%

16 Angola(OPEC) 1,435 1,769 2,014 1,948 2.4%

17 Libya(OPEC) 1,809 1,845 1,875 1,789 2.2%

18 United Kingdom 1,689 1,690 1,584 1,422 1.7%

19 Kazakhstan 1,388 1,445 1,429 1,540 1.9%
http://www.ask.com/wiki/Saudi_Arabia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Saudi_Arabia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Saudi_Arabia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Russia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Russia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Russia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/United_States?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/United_States?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/United_States?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Iran?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Iran?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Iran?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Canada?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Canada?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Canada?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Mexico?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Mexico?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Mexico?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Kuwait?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Kuwait?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Kuwait?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Venezuela?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Venezuela?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Venezuela?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Norway?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Norway?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Norway?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Brazil?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Brazil?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Iraq?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Iraq?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Iraq?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Algeria?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Algeria?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Algeria?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Nigeria?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Nigeria?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Nigeria?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Angola?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Angola?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Angola?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Libya?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Libya?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Libya?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/United_Kingdom?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/United_Kingdom?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Kazakhstan?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Kazakhstan?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Kazakhstan?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/United_Kingdom?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Libya?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Angola?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Nigeria?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Algeria?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Iraq?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Brazil?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Norway?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Venezuela?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Kuwait?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Mexico?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Canada?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Iran?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/United_States?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Russia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Saudi_Arabia?qsrc=3044


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20 Qatar(OPEC) 1,141 1,136 1,207 1,213 1.5%

21 Indonesia 1,102 1,044 1,051 1,023 1.2%

22 India 854 881 884 877 1.1%

23 Azerbaijan 648 850 875 1,012 1.2%

24 Argentina 802 791 792 794 1.0%

25 Oman 743 714 761 816 1.0%

26 Malaysia 729 703 727 693 0.8%

27 Egypt 667 664 631 678 0.8%

28 Colombia 544 543 601 686 0.8%

29 Australia 552 595 586 588 0.7%

30 Ecuador(OPEC) 536 512 505 485 0.6%

31 Sudan 380 466 480 486 0.6%

32 Syria 449 446 426 400 0.5%

33 Equatorial Guinea 386 400 359 346 0.4%

34 Thailand 334 349 361 339 0.4%

35 Vietnam 362 352 314 346 0.4%

36 Yemen 377 361 300 287 0.3%

37 Denmark 344 314 289 262 0.3%

38 Gabon 237 244 248 242 0.3%

39 South Africa 204 199 195 192 0.2%

40 Turkmenistan No data 180 189 198 0.2%
http://www.ask.com/wiki/Qatar?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Qatar?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Qatar?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Indonesia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Indonesia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/India?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/India?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Azerbaijan?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Azerbaijan?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Argentina?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Argentina?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Oman?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Oman?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Malaysia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Malaysia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Egypt?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Egypt?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Colombia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Colombia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Australia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Australia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Ecuador?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Ecuador?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Ecuador?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Sudan?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Sudan?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Sudan?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Syria?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Syria?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Thailand?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Thailand?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Vietnam?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Vietnam?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Yemen?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Yemen?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Denmark?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Denmark?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Gabon?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Gabon?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/South_Africa?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/South_Africa?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Turkmenistan?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Turkmenistan?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Turkmenistan?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/South_Africa?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Gabon?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Denmark?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Yemen?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Vietnam?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Thailand?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Equatorial_Guinea?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Syria?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Sudan?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Ecuador?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Australia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Colombia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Egypt?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Malaysia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Oman?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Argentina?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Azerbaijan?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/India?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Indonesia?qsrc=3044http://www.ask.com/wiki/Qatar?qsrc=3044


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41 Trinidad and Tobago 181 179 176 174 0.1%

Petroleum Refinery Locations In India

.

Oil Contribution to GDP Dropped by 6.65% in 2013

According to the data released by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) recently the year on year GDPcontribution of the oil and gas industry may have dropped by 6.65 per cent as the contribution fell from 15.8 per centin first quarter of 2012 to 14.75 per cent in Q1 of 2013.

The decline in the contribution by the oil sector in the first quarter of 2013 relative to thecorresponding quarter of 2012, NBS says, may not be unconnected with the increasing
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vandalism, bunkering and ultimately oil theft, which is said to be costing the Nigerian economyabout $7bn annually.

During the period under review, the Nigerian oil sector witnessed some levels of disruption as aresult of pipeline vandalism and bunkering incidents with some oil companies such as Eni

(Agip), Shell and others declaring force majeure during the quarter, the NBS said.

According to the NBS, the sector recorded an average daily production of 2.29 million barrelsper day in the first quarter of 2013 based on data obtained from the Nigerian National PetroleumCorporation as against 2.35 million barrels per day in the corresponding quarter in 2012.

These figures, with their associated gascomponents, resulted in a growth rate, in real terms of -0.54 per cent in oil GDP in the first quarter of 2013 compared with the 2.32 per cent for thecorresponding period in 2012, the NBS said.

However, the NBS said the oil sector benefited immensely from the relative stability in

international crude oil market price and the exchange rate of naira against the dollar.

On an aggregate basis, NBS said the economy when measured by the Real Gross DomesticProduct, grew by 6.56 per cent in the first quarter of 2013 as against 6.34 per cent in thecorresponding quarter of 2012, and 6.99 per cent in the fourth quarter of 2012.

Bibliography

Cassidy, Edward S.. Prospects for Sustainable Energy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UniversityPress, 2000.

Deffeyes, Kenneth S. Hubbert's Peak. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 2001.

Energy Information Administration. U.S. Petroleum Information at a Glance.(http://www.eia.doe.gov/oil_gas/petroleum/info_glance/petroleum.html). Washington D.C.:2002.

Gerding, Mildred. Fundamentals of Petroleum. Austin, Texas: Petroleum Extension Service,1981.

Ristinen, Robert A.; Kraushaar, Jack J. Energy and the Environment. New York, New York:John Wiley & Sons, 1999.

Yen, T.F.; Kawahara, F.K.; Hertzberg, R Fossil Energy Extraction. Ann Arbor, Michigan: Ann

Arbor Science Publishers, 1983.
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petrolium industry

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