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.P' TER I

1TR., ODUCT ION

The Problem

The purpose of this study is to present a philosophi-

cal exec;esis of the five general types of method which have

characterized methods courses from years 1920 to 1940 in the

north Texas State Teachers College.

During the past twenty years significant changes in teach-

ing Methods have occurred. These changes have been, for the

most part, gradual in development. Although there is some over-

lapping in the stages of transition, the progression from one

method to another has been fairlv well-defined and can be traced

with sufficient chronological accuracy to insure a uniform

portrayal. The fundamental assumption underlying the accept-

ance of the years 1920 to 1940 as the ones during which the

changes of method could be traced was that the World 'War affected

education along witi, and quite as much as, every other social

institution. 'ence the two decades following this greatvup-

heaval constitute an interesting period of study of this scien-

tific progression in methodology.

0 hilos ophy Underlying the Procedure

The first task in formulating a definite procedure was to

determine what theories of teaching were generally accepted and

1

2

rather universally followed in this twenty-year period. An

examination of the literature, text and reference books reveals

that the following teaching teories were stressed for the

general periods indicated.

Immediately after the Jorld War, the Herbartian five for-

ral steps, and the closely interwoven problem method, were

still in great vogue. However, with the coming of the great

movement for standardized tests, and the culmination of the

teachings of the modern progressives, these two methods bean

to give way to the more tangible project method. This latter

leth uod seemed to suit the materialistic emphasis of the Ooolidge

era of prosperity, and remained in great popularity until ap-

proximately the entrance of this nation into the Great Depression.

In a time of economic chaos, every method of teaching,

along with every philosophy of life is bound to be questioned.

The task of tying together the broad aims of the project so

that it could function as a unit was attacked with great vigor.

The result was the wide-spread acceptance of the unit method as

an educationally sound procedure.

Then came the great influence of that most significant of

all psychologies of learning, the Gestalt, or configuration

principle. The followers of this movement urged that since

pupils learn by whole patterns, and they develop these patterns

into parts through reasoning and insinht, teachers should follow

a method based. on this system of thought. Hence the principle

of integration came quite suddenly into great vogue, and is

treated in connection with the unit method.

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3

Then came the demands of the scientifically advancing

aje in which e Live for a type of education essentially crea-

tive in its significance. Hence the method of creative learn-

ing and teaching came into contemporary prominence.

Approimate d3ates for the periods in which the methods

as set forth above were used are as follows;

1I. Tihe Herbartian five formal steps and the problem

method, 1920-1923.

. The project method, 1923-1930.

3. The unit method, 1930-1937.

4. The irethod of creative learning nd teaching, 1937-1940.

khile it is recognized that there is some overlapping of

methods used in these periods, it is s>infcant to match these

prevailing theories with the theories as taught in the methods

courses offered by tne orth Teas State Teachers College during

this same period. The problem of the study is to determine how

closely these two types of method correspond or disagree.

Sources of Data

The source of' datr for the exposition of the methods was,

of coure, all the available library material with a definite

1rin o. the subject. The source of data for the type of

methods: taught in the EducLtion repartm nt of the GoIeg1> n-

cluded all the textbooks and syllabi, obtained from the files

of the Department director; a groip of lantern slides used by

the Education Department in its special faculty meetings; wall

charts, which have been used for a nuber of years i:n the

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4

advanced methods courses; and finally, the s mt aents of opinion

of th e thods teachers themselves.

Method of Procedure

Tha rocedure 1ar, acordingly, a two-fold aspect. The

ir st action Cf e ac h chapter 10 .1 uing prpe sntn s an analytical

xpo0ition of the successive theories n vogue for thet

yer period. h second portion ,resents a parallel picture

Cf t h orr ' so nd~ ig w t hod us ec din the J dur t ion Da r ent

or o th Te}as <tatI TateTrs Coile. Voice much of his

tral jq in the nature of a sprat discussion, it s pr-

sented largely in the apendices.

C IHP II

During the nineteenth century the precepts of the great

ermnredrucational philosopher, Herbrt, ca itinto increasing

prominence. always the mater of method, Herbart stressed

four essentials in the learning process: ciear apprehension

by the pupil of each individual fact; association or coumarison

of the facts; systematizing and classification of the facts

into concepts; methodo' or the application of the knowledge

learned."

Although erb rt is usually recognized as the formulator

of the famous five formal steps," it was really the modern

methocizrs of u 1the ninteenth center who brought the familiar

divisions into general prominence. The five steps ay be

defined as follows:

1. ircaration. Preparing the pupils ' mindsfor the reception of the now lesson. Arousinginterest and purpose.

2. ,esontution. oettin6 forth or presentingthe facts of the new lesson. This was done entirelyby the teacher before textbooks were available forstudents, but later was aupplemented by the text.

3. Association orcor a prison. Relatingi newideas to those already in the mind of the pupil.Ths should be directed to well-associated. andsystematized knowledge.

1 Johann Friedi ch Herbart, Outline of Educati.onal Doctrine,pp. -t.~

5

6

4. Generalization or abstraction. >erivin theabstract or;leneral notTn from the concrete particu-lars, stating the general principle in specific terms,and reating it to peviously- acquired knowledge.

5. _LcLton. <1in knuse of this knowledge;paying th general principle to a practical situation.

The great educational ph'iosopher, Herb rt, attested his

interest in education by ystematic lectures, by extensive

rittnhs, and y maintaining or nearly a quarter of a century

a practice school at the University of Konigzber;. This great

educator, called the father of empirical psycholoy, laid

great stress upon the acquired Lund of empirical knowledge as

a means of increasing one's mental stores and of tore rapidly

receiving and assimilating nvewideas. He tauht that mind

grows by hat it feeds upon, and. that this thought material

seemed to possess a kind of vitality hich emanated attractive

or repulsive power. ho believed that ideas become active

agents for le ring, when once they gain real significance in

the mind.

Commenting on Ferbart 's concept of the active character

of experience, Mciurry says:

This accumulated fund of ideas, as it goes oncollecting and arranging itself in the mind, is notonly a favorable condition but an active agency inour future acquisition and progress. Moreover it isthe business of the teacher to guide and, to someextent, to control the inflow of new ideas and ex-pertences into the mind of a child; to superintendthe process of acquiring and of building up thosebodies of thought and feeling which eventually areto influence and Guide the child' s voluntary action.0

Charles de x>armo, Herbart and the Herbartians, pp. 133-14 0.

Charles A. murry, general method, p. 218.

7

w. t.erbartian followers patiently worked out a thorou;hh-

going system of education, based on experimenta. study and

analytical discussion, and proposed the following:

The first proposition is to icake the foundationof education movable by resting it upon rowth inmoral character, as the purpose which serious teachersmust put in first.

The second is permanent, manyided interest.The third is the idea of organized unity, or

concentration, in the mental stores gathered bychildren.

The fourth ius the bird's-eye view which theculture epcs give of the meaning of education.

The fifth is that ganerc tion is the mostpractical key to the solution of the problems ofeducation.

The sixth is that the selection of propermaterials conditions the formation of a suitablecosimon school course. 4

When any method becomes standardized to the point of

well-nigh universal acceptance, there arises the tendency to

follow the form rather than spirit of the method. This ten-

dency became especially pronounced in this country during the

first quarter of the twentieth century, when the German doina-

tion in education was strong. With the general upheaval fol-

lowing the World Oar there was brought into question the wisdom

of following blindly the steps as fixed by the Herbartian fol-

lowers. Miller expressed his criticism thus:

If the word, application, revives pedagogicalmemories of erlart, it is pertinent to remark thatunder formal methods in the old school, both teachersand pupils were thoroughly exhausted and out of breathbefore they reached the fifth step, application inthe last lap of the relay of the five formal steps.b

4 Ibid., pp. 224-223.

arry Lloyd miller, Creative Learnin and Teacin, p. 113.

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The direct forerunner of the subsequent methods discussed

in this thesis is certainly the Herbartia n method. In fact,

during the latter part of the nineteenth century the term, unit,

was qte frequently used. Of course, it was broadly applied to

alt any conception, principle or general idea which involved

general learning and teaching aims. What modern methodologists

recognize everywhere is that the ferbartian nethod stressed a

mutual pupil-teacher undertaking Which was developed and cul-

uinated as any cooperative undertaking or project must be.

The chief factor which prevented the Herbartian system from

aintairnin clear possession of the Methods field was the re-

citation systemd. Because the unit as it was understood by

Herbart and his followers mu;ht range in flexibility f1roa & few

days to many weeks, it was discarded for the formal daily lesson

plan. The idea was to initiate, develop, and culminate activi-

ties in a single class period.

With the growing emphasis on the pupil-centered procedure,

the famous five formal steps of Herort steadily declined in in-

=uece . although most educators admitted that steps approxi-

mated the process of thought, it was generally agreed that they

were of little value in directing thought. However, there were

certain values to be realized in the method which had the fol-

lowing essential features:

I. E xerie clear-cuOt exampes. Give thepupils personal experiences withclear-cut, varied,typical examples of the orm, process, or rule.

2. Attentive scrutiny. Raise questions vhichstimulate the pupIls to scrutinize attentively theseexamples so as to note the general characteristicsof the latter.

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5. Vared arlic"tions. Give varied exercisesthat will train the pupils in recognizing the form,process, or rule, and applying 't in new situations, 6

in order to popularize the erzartian steps of teaching,

the followers of his :ethod applied them to the recIttiron and

called the resulting procedure the method of the recitation.

Tis explains the long delay in arriving at the modern method of

the unit. !ot until the recitation declined in influence did

the original aliI of theherbartTans come into its own.

Although d;erbart did a great service to the cause of edu-

catio hI in hod did not come really into Its own until the

subsequent methods, discussed in the following chapters were

used successively*. Ad ith tIepassilng o2 the fList qutarte

of the xtent. tih century, there cae into sharp relief the need

of a method which would it t thre hild for seetti: life needs.

The herbarti.an, Method in Education ethods Courses

In one of the earl. texts used in the elementary methods

course at North Texas State Teachers College, there is a very

pertinent reference ,ade to essence of the five formal steps.

The entire book is written in conversational style, hence thefollowing quotation is in keeping with the entire treatise;

"Do you know that some years ago most normalschools followed the erbartian Five Formal Stepsin their teaching methods?"

"And do you know that these are giving wayand largely to teaching through problems?"

^7 .C. Park'er, Zpe o elementary Teching stand Learnin-. 145.

.w

10

"I have noticed something like that.""Whny is a problem better than the five formal

steps?.It order to answer suppose we list the s

arate steps in the coxnplete act of thought an' seeiw learning is -ostMred by using ther.

1. A situation arouses an impulse or tendencyto ursue a certain course of action.

2. A dfficult appear: howv to continue the

rien course is now known; there is no approriateaY of responding known or immediately available.

3. An exaination of the situation is m adeto locate end define the difficulty more peci ;l.

gst dsolutions rise: hypotheses areAor ed, beavior patterns are suggested.

SImplications (one or nor , are dcragn fromeach ojugestesolutiton, 0each hpothAs.

. Actual trial is 'lade to see whether the de-duced implications hold.

7. A solution is accepted in the light of thetests made.4!

I awellin on the value of the overview, Miller cautions

against a misuse of the five formal steps in the procedure.

,here they are used with flexibility, there is left sufficient

opportunity for the pupil to develop independence and initiative,

Thecri: is danger of destroyin the "practicinground" for creative thinkin: and vital challenge,

bof t pdrago:,y plays havoc in the business comprisedwithin the steps of separation andT "resentation".An inordinate emphasis is placed on the. The m is-

nee 'is done by teachers t alking these two stepsbefore Pupils expecting them to learn the Ilessons"or contracts. The steps of "ompro ," nera-ZatLon, and "App)Jction are hardly touched at al.Any attempt to dress up a dy's lesson in five formalstops, or any other sacred number, leadsInevitably toundue epiasi 1on form for its own sake. 0

In the examples of problems and projects presented in suc-

ceeding chapters there ial be noted the strong influence of

W.k . Kilpatrick, F'oudations o etlod, pp. 241-243.

Harry L. Miller, Creative Leawing and TACCing, pip. 33-34.

the 1ebartP Iethod. Is truIy tL . xndationai 9ystul

for practiat y evrp maso ofu t.vdolog Tvhioh has succe ded

it. The othu methods wil now be dscussed in turn.

nip*

CHAPTER Iii

Every teacher should have a philosophy of teaching, based

on a carefully planned and. deeply experienced philosophy of

li e. In his celebrated treatise on the processes of thought,

Seweyhas this to say regarding the value of the problem as

the starting-point of thinking 1.

We may recapitulate by saying that the originof thinking is some perplexity, confusion, or doubt,ThInking is not a case of spontaneous combustion;it does not occur just on "general principless.There is something specific which occasions andevokes it. General appeals to a child (or to agrown-up) to think, irrespective of the existencein his experience of somre difficulty that troubleshim and disturbs his equilibrium, are as futile asadvice to l1f t himself by his bootstraps.

A consideration of the nature of problem, as applied to

education, calls for a psychological distinction of end-results.

Thus it is that intellectual activity is considered as an acti-

vity , in its true sense, only when it is accompanied by a sense

of result. Owen considers the psychology of the act as an es-

sential feature in his statement:

The third fundamental moment in the problemmethod is the psychology of action. This psychologyis based on the anatomy of the nervous system. Thisnervous system consists of a series of five elements,sense organ, sensory nerve, brain, motor nerve, muscle.

Joh ewe y, How e Think, p. 13.

12

_ -

13

. complete act involves all five. reflex and in-stinctive acts do not require thinking. Habitualacts may dispense with thinking. New situations,however, cannot be Met by reflex, instinctive, orhabitual reactions. The new problem requires thoughtfor its solution. The brain suspends the activityof the series of the five elements until the rightaction is thought out. Once thought out, the seriesis restored and the act follows. If the right re-sult follows, the problem is solved. But it takes acomplete act to get a complete experience. Only thecomplete experience can test the value of the thought.That is why we: learn by doing. The problem, there-fore, calls for a new form of action, and thinking2 isthe means of establishing thisnew for of action.2

The notable feature of the problem procedure is the degree

of objective attitude which can be aroused from the subjective

attitude w iich Must be its prelimiLnary. The teacher who is

skillful in presentinga problematic situation before the class

finds that it has great motivating power. then pupils are

fully aroused by the intriguing perplexities of a problem, they

=ill show the utmost concern in finding materials which may

be of aid in the solution of the problem.

Wilson, Kyto, and Lull suggest that r, poblea li sot-ed

by a pupil when he complies with the following conditions:

1. He has a clear conception of the problem.2. ie recalls old experiences which may help

inits solution.3.nBe acquires, out of new experiences, the

additional information essential to determining thebest reaction to it.

4. He critically evaluates and manipulates thesedata to make them serve his needs, and, supplementingthem, corrects his tentative conclusions.

b. He arrives at a conclusion.6. He checks the conclusion against the problem

to determine the correctness of the response to be made. 3

5. B. Owen, "The problemm Uethod," 4ic~ap Schools Journal,Vol. 1, p. 5.

3tarry . vtilson, George C. Kyt, and hrber . Lull,ied r Methods of Te achi, p. 7.

NIPPON

14

In considering further the nature of study, and the prin-

ciples of economy in thought, Dewey has set forth five lopi-

cally distinct steps: I1() a felt difficulty; (2) its location

and difficulty; (3) suggestion of possible solution; (5) fur-

ther observation and experiment leading to its acceptance or

rejection; that is, the conclusion of belief or disbelief."4

The problem method of teaching was especially popular im-mediately preceding the era of the project method, when the

movement for standardized tests reached its height. One of

the difficulties confronted by the teachers was that of in-

sufficient teaching materials. The idea of reorganizing know-

ledge into a course c onsistin,: of intriguin problems was a

very difficult matter. yet the value of such a method, from

the psychological standpoint, can hardly be denied, as Douglass

has pointed out:

It seems quite certain that no arrangement couldbe more psychological than the problem arrangement.It is the natural and lifelike method of thinking andof discoring facts. It conforms to normal think.nxprocedures and appeals to effort and to interest muchmore effectively than does the formal and logical orderof mastering content.

ince so few textbooks were organized on the problem plan,

teachers generally relied on manuals and syllabi which were

rather spontaneous and flexible. In fact the informality and

spontaneity characteristic of the problem method made it highly

desirable in the development of originality.

Dewey , 2,~. cit., p. 72.

5darl B. Dug'lss, O(derr A tods of I c school Teachini;,p. 305.

dam e-:..u J-, -i-i. F. d.:. n,4. :, 1.5',

The importance of getting and keeping the problem in mind,

has been well stressed by Douglass, who says:

Before any effort is expended in the attack ofa problem, it is economy to be certain that theproblem is clearly envisaged. It is the nature ofyoung people to rush into the attack of a problemwithout knowing just exactly what their objectivesare. Much time in making assignments--much morethan is comonly taken--may be spent with profitin clearly defining and visualizing the problemor problems. Not only is it necessary to insurethat the problem be clearly understood by the pupils,but also that it be kept in mind throughout theeffort at solution, and that he efforts made atits solution be gauged by it.

In teaching by this method there was continually the neces-

sity for stimulating individual pupils to sore productive think-

ng. The use of reference material, abundant hints and sug-

gest ons, discussion, and use of analysis and hypotheses all

were cons dared legitimate in the teaciinp Irocess. As to how

much sugge stion and help the teacher was supposed to give de-

pended on the pupil's age, ability, familiarity vith the subject

and his amount of time available for study. The mai considera-

tion for the teacher to keep in ind was that the a imum of

returns for the minimum of effort was the desirable oal.

Douglass has listed the following summary of the teacher's func-

tion in the method of problem-soving:

I. Assisting the pupil or class to encounterstable problems .

2. Assisting the Pupil or class to formulateProblems clearly, and in such a way as tobe ofsuitable difficulty and of proper educational value .

3. Assisting pupils to keep problems and condi-tions of problems in mind, and preventing digression.

6Douglass, .. cit., p. 311.

t lv m3 ,Nr>"r

16

4. Assisting the pupils to find or recall datawhich will contribute to the solution of the prob-lem, and offering hints, suggestions, and references,7ut being careful to be of no more assistance thanis necessary, and thereby not depriving the pupilof any educational opportunity.

. Training upits to evaluate carefully I orthemslv s each suggested conclusion, and to main-tain n attitude of suspended final judgment.

6. Training pulpl to be systematic in theconsideration of hypotheses and their evaluation, tofollow some , and to complete the considerationof one before digressing to another.

7. Assisting pupils to formulate their con-c:lus ions f or themselves,

S. Trainigp pupils to make final check and eni-ication.

. Provid4 n an 'or the fixing of solutions inmind by drill, application, memory work, or exercises.

In summarizing the value of the problem - method it should

be noted that it was designed to develop within the pupil the

ability to do critical tbinkin 4. More specifically, this meant

t ability to assure a tentative attitude about questions ; hose

solutionfollows suspended judgment. By this method pupils were

trained to plan, to rssumjresponsibility for class contribu-

tiaons, to follow a purposeful activity, to accept a challenge,

and. to follow all the implications involved in wht is termed

reft " ive tinkn., "in a this, the teacher served as the

good{ {uide rathr than .te uaskmas tr. c The result WS a ethod

f sting importance, whose influence has been felt b all the

met -hods ahich hve bee its successors

The robiem >thod in Education ethods Courses

The notable feature of cla sses tauht by the probl rrmethod

is the objective attitude of the students; motivated by the

Cougls as, .. cit., p. 39.

. @_ ., ,

J'l

problematic situations created by the teacher. When students

are fully aroused by the intriguing perplexities of a problem,

they wil% show the utmost concern in finding materials which

aid in the solution o, the robl e. curry, in is masterly

treatLent of the nature of study, sheds light on the intellec-

tual demands made hen a problem is attacked. flis analysis o

the main factors of study includes the following:

1. The findingg of specific purposesv . T'-he supplementin of thought

3. Tue oranization of facts selected4. The judgment of the worth of statements

6. The using Co ideas7. The tentative attitude

*. rov ision for individualityd

In A flppend L there is presented under the caption, 'When

the I. D. is cored," a scene - ty ica of a problem situation,

typical of the type discussed in the College m ethods courses

when tie problematizing of subject matter was in grest vogue.

It will be observed that the eight factors of study, just pre-

sented from c urrr, are followed very closely in the procedure.

The teachings of all the great progressives, from housseau to

Dewey, are brought into sharp relief. It represents a coopera-

tive and mutually helpful scene from I'ife, properly connected

with interests, instinctive longings, and felt needs. The

teacher is >uide, co-worler, and helper, but the vital thinking

done by the child ®a the basis for judging the success of school

work.

. L. c irry, how to tudy and TeachLnao wto tudy,pp. 1-23.

__ g _

CHAPTE IV

THnE 51'1 JEST TODf

She ost natural and lo g ical outgrowth of the problem

Sethod was the method originall Known as the "problem-projectc,

to denote that the more subjective phases of the problem

had been applied to the objective phases of the Project. The

nee5 for carrying out to its logical conclusion an activity

which remained too often I abstract stage, prompted

teachers to seek a more or less definite objective in the

real of concrete production.

During this period of transition during which roblem and

project were usd as rathr interchangable terms, it 1eae

necessary to draw up some cleavage by w Kich the two could be

d]is stnished. Wilson and Wilson distinguished between them

a s 'foll.1c.W :

But even a thoroughly motivated problem isnot a project. The problem may be solved in thoughtonly, while the project requires the c ompletionof some objective piece of work based upon a prob-

or Series of problems. The difference is thatthe problem solution +ay end in thought, while theproject can end only with the successful completionof an objective unit of work. 1

Chif among the early proble-proaject methodolocists was

KXLpa t rick, who set forth In a succinct bulletin his exposition

and definition of the project. ie conceived the project as a

11-. B. Wilson and . M. Wilson, Motivation of Schoolok (Revised Edition), p. 251. ~ ~

Is

I " i" -- lamwilma ,:,, M-

19

*wholehearted purposeful activity in a s1ocQ situation."

The author elaborated further the idea that the purposeful act

is a typical unit of the worthy life. Moreover it should lead

on to further, more fruitful an more social activity, and,tO,

it should be attended with satisfaction.3

Doubtless the term "project method" was originally one

coined to synthesiz a number of educational ideas, such as

self-activity, the school as life, socialization, concrete-

ness, experience, and the lke. ll of these had seen service

uefore..But the project method was needed to embody in the

activities of the children the most useful principles of

educational psychology on the one hand, and the most signifi-

cant principles of socialized or democratic group activity

on tie other.

then, too, the project th.od was a logical outcome of

the spirit of impatience which many teachers could not help

but manifest at the artificial setting of many school problems.

This is clearly set forth in heeweys pointed comment:

There can be no doubt that a neculiar artjfi-ciality attache, to much of what is learned inschools. It ca 'hardly be said that many studentsconsciously think of the subject matter as unreal;but it assuredly does not possess from them thekind of reality which the subject matter of theirvital experiences possesses....Where schools areequipped with laboratories, shops, and gardens,

2 W. . [ilpatrck, "The Project Mlethod," Teachers QolegeBullet, X (191), p. 4.

oIbid., p. 12.

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where dramatiztions, plays, and times are freelyused, opportunities exist for reproducing situationsof Life, and for acquiring and applying informationand ideas in the carrying forward of progressiveexperiences. 4

:osic has set forth further the necessity for a method

which would enlarge on the limitations of the problem method.

Now the project method professes to favor newunits of study, new roles on the part of both teach-er and pupils, and new standards of judgment as tosuccess or failure. In this lies the hope thatproblew-soivng may become a more li f elie thingwith correspondingly greater benefits. Not theleast of these will be greater ability to perceiveand select those problems whose solution is mostworth while. In a regimen wherein studentsproblems are all selected and presented by teacheror textbook, little or no place is reserved for this.The project t ethod demands t'at the student havelarge opportunity to practice finding and stationproblems for himself.O

t first projects were usually divided into three types,

according to whether they were undertaken by the individual,

the class, or by the entire school. Kilpatrick classified

projects into the four following types, according to whether

the purpose was to (1) embody some idea or plan in extended

form, (2) enjoy some esthetic experience, (3) solve some

intellectual difficulty, or (4) obtain some item or degree

of sk.ll or knowledge.6

The chief credit for introducing and popularizing the

term "project" must be given to the teachers of agriculture,

4John Dewey, Democrac and ducation, p. 190.

5Jtimes FI. hosc, Types ofC rojects and Their Technique,"Journal of Educational Ietbod, II (l arch 123), pp. 291-292.

6:Kilpaatrick:, j cit., P. 16.

21

manual training, and domestic science,. Originally the ter-mr

denoted such activities as constructing r bookcase, raising a

prize calf, or baking a cake. The designation "home project"

was used in 1908 in connection with the teaching of vocational

agriculture. The worth of such "projects was measured by

the degree to which they duplicated projects and activities

foud in life.

tmong the mos t widely quoted of the early definitions

of the project was that by Stevenson, who called it "a problem-

atic act carried to completion in its natural setting. t 7 This

definition contrasts sharply the idea of a complete activity

as opposed to passive absorption of information, reasoning as

opposed to memorizing, a functional problem as opposed to

theoretical principle, and a natural setting as opposed to an

artiafical one.

Horn included in his definition of project practically

the sa3e essentials:

A highly practical, problematic activity takenin its natural setting and involving the use of con-crE materials, usually in a constructive way.

orn o 0s on to distinguish projects from problems and

other types of school activities. The differences are chiefly

centering around the following elements (1) they are organized

.A. Stev on, The project .ethod off Teacring, p. 43

Ere0t Horn, "Criteria for Judging the project etnod,"du &ti al Fevie, LIII (F> rur 922, p.

...

C)ezk.

Aor directly about the activities of iofe outside the school;

(2) they are more concrete; and (3) they afford a better test

of Working knoJlege.9

It Is well to consider the essentials of a 7ood project,

as listed by Wils on

1. A basis in problem thinikin; ter.inatingin definite planning for doing.

2.Areal life undertaking on a scale as.a'ge as the maturity of the pupil and the facili-t*is at hand will .per cit.

3. Planning and executing under srervIon,thus securing and educative process.

4.Arrangements by which the pupil gets (orIakei ) the results of his work.

I the ter project is limited as here sugestdand the effort to make o It a universal paneceaabnan(oned, the pod'Cogria ICituation iw b be not only

simpifie d, but clarified,

SoadruI iflic ato that 1 10 pio je t mre t lOd is n othing rmorethcn t thha of the scientist adapted to children. Of course,

he goes back to Dewey's analysis of a com p l eted. act of thought

to substantiate his vie s regarding what is the method of the

intissto le makes a very pertinent ob s ervation of this when

he says

A project, or prohen, differs fromt and isVueicr to a topic in that () a project oriin7te

.n some question and not in such a logical sequenceof ideas as nmay beo found in codified matter. Intechin from the so-called log.call texts onerongly atte mpts to induce the pupils to accept

topics as their own projects. (2) The proJect in-foles the active and motivated participation of the

pui Qin 1 rynm it out. It does not, therefore,

91)- ftbid.

J. . .Ailson, TfeachIn g L els, Toe chi g 1 c hnique, ndthe x r oeat, The Journali of ducationloa ethod, II (day 1923),

p1 p .u c d- A'- +rItt.nr_ y.rvwnrw.

23

like the topic, lend itself to didactic, formalreAtment in which the teacher does all thethinin ant. the pupil i as ;iveL ry s orbs . (3 } Pr o-

kajects furih a basis for the selection of factsaccording to the value or sinificatnce, topics fur-nish no such basis for selection. (4) The projectseldom ends in a complete, final or absolutely:1in31hed conct-tsion,

horn set u three criteria by which to judge the merits of

oe project me thod, considered in the light of the :re t ob-

cti-), o L) _ul tineation.

1. The project must represent a aod of subject-t !on Vt ilife outside the school.

2. The purpose of the school Ic not to interestthe tcild, merely, but to develop the interests thathe should have.

3. There must be a sharp and systematic attackon social objectives of value. 1 2

Continuing in the same analytical viewpoint regarding

the value of the project educationally, it is pertinent to

quote from Hosic:

Now it is precisely the completeness of thepurposeful experience which makes it so educative,Planning is as necessary as execution and quite asmuch in need of being learned. So is judging andappwreciating. Unthinking obedience to directionsgives small play to these. Projects are good forchildren not so msuch because they like them--areinterested-.but because projects enable childrento learn more, to learn indeed much they can learnin no other way.13

Two general criteria may be set up by which to judge

the value of the project. The first deals with the nature

of thteexperiences which it provides. If it provides an

1 1 John . Woodhull, "The Ais and Iethods of ScienceTeaching " General Science iarterl, II (Novweriba 1917), p. 2.

12Horn, o _. cit . p. .CJ

J rml ld. t oTi d heatod, the ( cob r eth)d ." ,Journal o Eu c;ti.na.lv Meth.odaiI (October 1922), :.y6

. _.. ,} ... . _. . -F i,:a,.:a,. :as:Z:i.w,,.: :aR SFN:.k.#;M ,. it ta -:rt- _ : ,.:u,... .:ti.. . emu:::,: i+. w' _,..a ._

o4

enricent in the lives of those tnguj< in the acti'v.ty, and

f7they ar -fUlly prepared to incorporate the experience into

a life ass't, then the project is worthy.

Thsecond ition deals with the provision for ndi-

vidua. difference.s The extent of pupil participatio> :urnishes

the ohk on this standard . although the oreticllJ no stimulus

car elicit an Identical response from any two pupils, in the

application of the project idea it will elicit some type of

response fromn each participant.

In a scholastic work chich seemed to crystallize the

current opinion of the period in which the project reached

geto clarityy, three authors from different sections of

the naton cormoboratd in sett in forth the successive steps

in the execution of a project. It is still considered .one of

the clearest statements on the theme ever compiled:

(I) Tri iust be a real human interest in itfor the pupl. It should originate with him or beaccepted by hit as his own in answer to a felt need.

(2)'t He must see adequate reasons for puttingfort ah best efforts. The project should be withinthe range of his understanding and its values should

be appreciated by hm

(3)He should experience natural actiuties innatual situations. The experiences should be realand occurring in an environment similar to thatfound in life outsIe of the school.

(4) A good educative project should be broad. in:cope so that enrichment and enlargement of experienceisp)Ossobe throughout.

(5) The child ilst be availing himself of usefulknowledue; that is, the project should be based ponsou nd educational purp*:ose.

() Throughout the activity, the effort and thed e tin it shall be the child's own.

n the execution of a project the pup x ust be theone required to do the thinking, feeling, and acting.

W-M 4W - - , - , I - , I., I :- t f OWN

'I

(7) The project hethod of learning shouldresult in outcomes or successes either judgedor measured largely by objective standards ofachievemei~nt.1

But what should be the significance of the project to the

pupils themselves? This question was asked repeatedly by

those who understood the rising and falling nature of children's

interest. losic comments on this value of the project when he

s Zay s:

The project method means providing opportunityfor chlildren to engage in living, in productiveworthwhile enterprises--orth tile for them--and inguiding and assisting the to participate in theseenterprises so as to reap to the full the possiblebenefits .1

A splencid exposition of the value of the project method

in developing the democratic ideal is set forth by the sare

autior.

Now, the project method seeks to be true tothe democratic ideal. If democracy is good forjrown-ups, it is good, so far as may be, for thosegrowing up. Certainly the way to learn how toparticipate in democracy is by participating, bydoing that and not something else. Freedom andresponsibility educate--:or freedom and respon-sibility. That seems clear. The problem is mainlyone of ways and means.16

Giving a critical appraisal of the merits of the pro-

ject, it is well to compare what its advocates thought of it

when it was first comig into great favor with what they

.tarry H. Wilson, George C. Kyte, and Herbert '. 2,Lull,Modern methods in Teach g, pp. 113-114.

.J aes F. Hosic, "hat is the Project ethod?", T-Journal. of Eduational Method, II (September 1922), p.J6.

lCIbid, (October 1922), p. 67.

_- I,. '.bA1 .y k A' - .. .. .. : ... rv. E'.-.. _,:::w: ii is^:ataa ' -

26

thou ht it had accomplished mhen it reached its greatest popu-

larity. An appraisal of Hosi, made in 1923, is compared to

one ade by Lowengrund, in 1928.

In considering the difficult external appli-cations of the project method, we discover somesuch sequence as this: 1. The improved assignmentaid more effective direction of study. 2. Notiva-tion of all types of learnin, including drill-.3. Project units identified more or less completelywith particular subjects, though often employingother subjects as means. 4. More inclusive under-takings, carried. on without special reard to anyone subject and often designated as extra-curricular.17

Then after five years of widespread usage in practically

every progressive school in the land, there appeared a very

critical analysis of its weaknesses and benefits, by Lowengrund,

as : ollows:

Yet in spite of these weaknesses the projecthas proved beyond a doubt, I believe, that it hasa very great value in modern American education.It is helping to concentrate the attention of edu-cators where it belongs--on the uil, not on thesub ject ma tter. It is helping to bring aboutbetter organization of subject matter into wholesinstead of chopping it into departments, and ofexperience as a unit, breaking down the dual inschool--in Life" conception. It is providing forthe rotor-minded a medium of instruction betteradapted to his type of mind. It provides for indi-vidul differences by having work of any kindssuited to different skills and capacities. It isbelting the child to find out early what he can dowell, and to take pride in doing it well; and itis helping the teacher to find the child's capacitiesand needs....It is giving good training in somephases of democratic living. And, far from least,it requires better teachers than does the formalmethod, and thus stimulates teachers to greatereffort, keeps them out of the rut, and makes forwide knowledge and rocd-mnddness.

7am.es F. Hosi, possiblee Applications of the ProjectIdsa, The J..nal ofnducational ethod, II (May 1923), p. 381.

lbAlice >. Lore'grund, "A Critical Evaluation of the Pro-ject >ethod," The Journal of Educationa e1 thod, VII (MarcI 1928)Dp. 275-276.

27

The Project method if Education Tethods Couraes

During the time that the ;project Lethod was attaining its

peak of popularity, there was formulated by the director of the

Education Department a synopsis of significant pronouncements

regarding this me.ttbod. The synopsis was presented in outline

0rm on lantern slides and these were used to great advantage

in stimulting discussion at professional teachers' meetings

of various types. It is now presented as a splendid example

of a practical survey of this particular method.

T14E P 2BLE -,^OJECT METHOD

I. Why discuss educational method?

School studies tend to become exceedingly formal; their

social orlins and uses are too often lost sight of.

B. Hence they fail to provide pupis with real and fruit-

ful experiences leading to actual control of social

vanues--they cease to be the best possible means of

growth.

C. The effectiveness of any course of study--what it be-

comes In actual practice-depends upon the methods

of the teachers who attempt to carry it out.

D. There is always possibility of improvement In education--

especially now when a new and scientific educational

psychology is beomnin available.

II. hat the problem-project method is?

A. Organization of school life in accordance with life

in the home and in the communit. pro jectt may be

,T)OM - :,-. , , .--- , -,, "I,, -NRMWAVMM 1,

28

defined as a singe complete unit of purposeful ex-

perience.

B. Not to be exactly identified with any other current

conception in education, such as interest, motivation,

self-activity, socialized recitation, correlation,

recapitulation, naturalism, developmental m-ethod,

incidental teaching, informal teaching, self-govern-

ment, logical thought movement, type studies, shop

practice, etc., though indebted more or less to all

of these.

C. Princijl2 , not a rule, formula, fad, or panacea.

D. Not to be thought of as embracing every aspect of

learning or every type of useful experience,

. A natural method of learning, that is of growing, which

teachers may stimulate, guide, and render more effec-

tive. In essence this method is that of full partici-

pation in typical experiences generally involving group

activity or group relations.

III* . rh the nama?

A. Method of experience" is too broad and too vague.

2. "Problem" suggests a purely intellectual process.

C. "Project" is ordinarily associated in educational dis-

cussion with shop practice.

D. "Problem-project" emphasizes both thinking and doing

and points to an objective result.

I I ---- plk -tt - 'I, -, -,. -Il - '. 1141,1111.1 " , . - r ----- ----- - OMOOKOWWAW

90

IV. Nature and value of the project in education.

A i project is a complete "life-unit." Its elements are

as follows:

1. Situation

2. Consciousness of a problem.

3. Purpose to solve the Problem (end in view).

4. Plan conceived.

5. Criticism of the plan.

..Execution of the plan.

7. Organization and use of results.

S. Judgment and appreciation of results.

r.ct enables the learner to make progress in gain'f or

contro1 of experience those parts of the social inheri-

tance (solutions of life problems) which the school is

commissioned to hand on.

C. It gives due emphasis to attitudes (interests and

ideals) both as necessary for the acquiring of skills

and knowledges and as of prime importance among the

results aimed at.

D. In other words, it provides the best conditions for

learning, namely, a definite end, vigorous exercise,

sufficient duration, trying on of solutions use of pre-

vious experience, satisfaction in achievement, and

occasion for thinking and organization of knowledge and

skill.

E. It is economical in that it provides for a wealth of

related and concomitant ideas centering about the core

3

of experience vhich constitutes the 2ven "lesson";

also in that it concentrates attention upon the larer

thiL ngs and tends to eliminate much useless formal

detail.

F. It adds to the units of or anization now available for

class work or individual study--namely, the question,

the topic, the chapter, the assignment, etc.--a new

type of unit with unique possibilities.

G. it is indispensable to education for democracy. It

provrices for initiative.

1. It develops foresight.

2. it cultivates efficiency.

3. It invites serious and sustained thinking.

4. it imposes responsibility.

5. it vesopportunity for cooperation, leadership,

and division of labor.

6. it exercises discriminating Judgment and hence

awakens appreciation of value.

7. It makes for self-direction, self-reliance, and

self-control.

V. The teacher's )art in enabling full participation in a

coLmplete experience.

a. preparation.

1. Study the subject matter generically, that is,

from the standoint of control of actual life-

problems, past, present and prospective.

.. ,,,._ .. ,. :.:.,{.. . .<<..,. i a.. .. >..,.ia..1.L..,t,: .,, ,::-.3rar":w. i.witi :<n+ ncr: _. .,.. ,-,.. ,.,. _ mss,...

2. Plan for Managing and cArrying through the project

about to be launched.

. Classroom procedure--the roles of the teacher.

I. Make a tactful approach; create, if need be, the

ap:prop rate situation.

2. Stimulate the pu4 pls to define th problem and

to set up the end.

3. Help ana gide in the planningp.

4. Supervise, coach, inspire, lead the pupils in the

execution of the project, including all necessary

practice, that is, dri

5. Drect the organization of results in the form of

sys teaIc knowledge and thorouhy coordinate d

habits.

6. Encourage expression by the of judgment

and appre ciation of values.

(<. Ctimns.

I. The probleN-project unit is ne type of unit

calling for a n.ew method of organization.

2. The project is not a mre' f Iormaprocedue.

3.wThe project is not an end in itself.

4. Avoid waste of time through dwelling too long on

some phases of the process.

5. Do not expect th impossible; let pupils do all

they can; the teacher should supply the rest.

6. Avoid an exagger a t ed emphasis on liberty.

(a) Habits of obedience should be in reserve.

32

(b) Silfult stimulation should be 'n resee.

(c) vise selection tmong the responsess of the

children must meade .

7 Pollow through, t:try ,that i ke sure of suffcient

practice and organization--alays with adequate

0. Kep the outcomes in ina nnd be sure that the

Pupils 00 0so.

. Drvise adequate tests of results so that mere

super-vicaialiti is avoided.

1I. Tha problem-project method in relation to present school

pr ac t ic s .

SSerious difficulties lie in the way of an attempt to

introduce in a thorough-going way the problem-project

method into our schools as now organized and conducted.

1. A different tradition prevails.

2. More knowlec ge of learning processes, more techni-

cal skill, and n or &scholarship are required than

for the use of "logical or "formal methods--

the teacher must play various roles.

3. It is difficult to organize r system o projects

so as to provide for the entire body of attitudes,

skill and knowledges which at present wwe wish chil-

dren to gain in school.

4 . Time is easily wasted by over-emnpass' on some

phase o' thi process--even on teaching children

ti ti k.

1'. The ordinTTry.Q~3 3rs 0f study rmust &rlarg r-

or-niz'd an rrewritten.

0. .U 7C{ CP20r'i t

*. o hool. equ>LIm2Inta. &.s t e cAdjpted

'/ * Aew xnutire s ?f r es1.iat$ must Pr appCla9'stI .

*. but LIE mi&thoc:d l27Qd by the na~tIiln i s the metbo to~

be usd Ain the schools.

om the nanyr sample project avrailale which r' i n use

by fh> Edt iLon Dspartwmnt pt thmt timo, nly o.a.e iiresnted

t iustrat totir paCIticsl wtorc. In Acpedi I the is

resenitda pr oj ct for u'e in sem1ly 0It has -popular ppa

I that drnmairation P utilized t such cn exteut.

CHAPTEh

THE UT ME"OD

s modern method1 9o cig became more a m.Q11re soCin-

tic , lere was need to restrict the scope of the project,rco d , 'n tirrlx to( br>d to be adaptable to 4,} chane'he

.-. 0 Z 1 Ci1 needs O .t 2urr i . . th y projects had great y , en-

ri ed the cinvironital aspects to the learning situation,

thrk s nt>reedof delimitng ;the scoOe of activities toa n-cude only one part of one thn y:studied, s o tit an emerging

ut i$. old be secured. As 0Kyas 11 6, for:iVon 1roto:

The teechingp .problem hangs upon the selectionof the units,, upon thae criticI i nsigt vhichdi-tiJguhe0s the teaching unit from' mere topical col-lections of Inciden t s and masses of historicalma teral .which cannot be focused upon any p rticu-

ar understrnding.1

Ea for mulators of th e unit concept outlined there stages

thr ough : > such activities should pass. They were te periods

o o pnii: ng, of eeutling, anv oro culminating the aclitviti :e.

in1 olved.4 LthisA poit the function of each of the three unit

d'visinrs will be d1scusea.

ith che early rtteiipt t utilizeoti the unit method with

practically al school subjects, ii both elementary and sec-

orr> divi sions, there came to be a general. agreement as to

&hat should be included in a unit, Esecially was there

denry C. vorrIson, The Practice of Tieachin> in t,! h c.-o2a1. School, l. 19.

34

,.- .. .,,. .; . -.... r _. ,-_; _.. , .«.,.ri .. : ... :.u; .: «.1. ,..i.: ... .>. ., v.c =v..t<+' .r i.-. ... __t:.:awrr;:.. W.; ,.rYi --- ,...,i .-

00

ons stnt agreement, in t he early stages of unit acceptance,

reg'rdn the form it should take. x ynn as:pointed out that

units, in the truJy. modern sense, we e formulated according to

three m ove-ments: first, the orientation phase, or the setting

ortsh of the nature of the undertaking; second., the workingp-

out 'phase, inwhichindividua pupiA, guided by their teach-

1a, were to follow th laboratory technique; and third , the

cu tinting' phase, in whchA the whole unit emerged with a

student participation characteristic of the socialization

iov 10 t 0.

Units cae as a logical product of the problem-project

etod. strictly speaking, the unit method dPd not replace

these P former methods but built directly upon them, merely en-

Ilargng on their objectives. iFurther characterization of these

three movements ll make the transition plain.

To answer the need:. or developing within ppils a prAblem-

sol vn attitude, it is the purpose of the first, or problem-:ngmovement to F presnt a hIieng. It s Ilargely one

of orientation, in which questions are raised, either y pupils

or tca#her, sufficiently to simulate interest and determine

what tasks individual pupils will select. The second, or d.i-

rectiing-stucy, perio d is the working-out s cti on, where pupilsfollow t he labor a t o ry technique. The teacher acts as a guide

and helper, rather than a task ster. This is characterized

as a period of individualization because the teacher directs

Jorhn. Wynne, The Teacher and the Curriculum, p. 179.

'IMW414 4K , ., , -, -, -, - -, -, , ,,-0.9, -01M, , -, ., I-

36

the study of each pupil. The third phase is one of culmina-

tion, in vhich all the individual projects of the study periods

come t ogether for an emerging unity. Some tangible results

rust accrue if the pupils are to work with proper uotivation

all along in the unit procedure. Since tis culmInating phase

is some iorn of a concerted effort, such as a dramatzatios,

de bat eAibit, or assembly program, he period is character-

ized as one of socialization.

haen units wexAe firs -kng:definite "orm, in respect to

both content and method, there was considerable difficulty as

to ho the activities should be chosen. ITe following criteria

for the selection of unit activities appeared in 1932, and

appear to represent the best in practice up to that time:

T1he activity shIould be interesting to the chil-

It should grow out of their background and 7-prience, thir play-life, and their natural andsocial environment.

It should be within their range of satisfactoryacuoplishmthu and yet complex enough to challengethem.

It should lead into further activities andpresent a variety of real problems.

It should be rich in content, full of meaning,and provide genuine possibilities for change andgrowth.

It should furnish opportunity to the childrenfor real purposing, planning, self-direction, andevaluation.

It should furnish opportunity for creative ex-pression, personal initiation, problem solving, ex-perimentation, manipulation of materials, and coopera-t i on in group endeavor.

It should provide for participation by all ineducative social relationships. 4

tuucy Clouser, wi, 1 aRobinson, and Dena Neely, EducativeEeriencer T1rough Act.yity Units, pp. 4-.

37

Wynne lists the following criteria as essential in planning

unit activities: (1) experienced need, (2) jutfiable o-

jectives, (3) units of experiencing, (4) selective choice, and

(5) contingency.5

Uormulators of the unit method have always insisted t ot

a prime essential in its success is the choosing of activities

and Interests that enter directly into children's experiences.

For ths reason the teacher should be alert to recognize and

capitalize on childrenfs interests.. moreover, she can supply

and create interest by providing a rich environment of pictures,

books, slides, exhibits, aquariums, pets, and various other

concrete material.

Two purposes will become apparent in this procedure,

name ly , the purpose of the child, and. the purpose of the teach-

er. The child must see some significance in the unit activity

if he is to pursue it. The teacher must see the child develop

because of and through the activity. Plans must be flexible

enough to provide for individual preferences and variation.

Seasonal topics are found to be very convenient in the selec-

tion of topics of timely interest. Several units may be in

progress at the same time. There ray be one large unit, around

hih ~are grouped several smaller ones.

Although the origin of the unit of life is in the need of

the child, there must be definite planning on the part of the

teacher. The idea that careful planning will remove the

aJohn P. Jnne, The Learnin-Teacing Unit, p. 71.

element of spontaneity is erroneous. Waiting for pupils to

propose fruitful undertakings is sometimes a ;astefu.l process.

To avold this, Wynne has suggested several devices for what he

calls "tae setting". One form of procedure consists in

pacig the cssroom rmrteriais, such as drawlnpt, pictures,

maps, or posters, in such a way as to stimulate interest.

not her form consists i nthe reading or telling of a story,

or the review of a previous class activity, which may be a

point of new departure for the group.6

perhaps the most advantageous method used, because itis within the reach of all, is the method of raising of aues-

tions for the stimulation of interest. Usually the teacher

will assume t he leading role in this phase, since guidanceand direction are particularly needed. After an activity is

launched, however, the teacher should retreat perceptibly fromr

the picture, so that pupil iiiative and a ssee of responsi-

biuity may be developed. Whatever helps and adaptations are

needed can be selected as a result of the cooperative attitude

maintained throughout the unit.

developing further the ideal of experience integration,

Saith explains how such integrative processes must depend on

the tilizaticn of a ell-formulated earning situat ion. He

contends that the learning situation, to be true to the ideal

of integrated sequence, must meet the following conditions:

1. It must revolve about robleis which aregermane to youth.

6John P. ynne, The Teacher and the Cur ricu._um, p. 205.

. ,. .. :._ : , i .- :. i._:..

39

2. It must be concerned with vital and crucialaspects to the world in which youth is learning to

3. it must cll for dynamic and creative be-havior on the part olf the earner. 7

tinally, the ideal of integration is bringing order out

of the cheos o perplexing opinions ar i s ing from the complex

conditions of life. If learning is essentially the liberation

of the ind ividrai, through progressive growth and adjustment,

thr t mKaoeint for intLration of th4 unit method will have

achieved its full purpose.

Roperr fletxibiity in unit proceducLre provides that t>

unit may be prolonged s ome Iwhat beyond the original timte planned.

There must be a sense of completion to maI. the activity satis-

'yin:g. w.t a unit that is f ound to be incapable of satisfying

tihE experience needs o pupils can be modified or abandoned at

wi ll. Care should be taken to frge, in this case, into

ancthtr unit that promises to fulfill the life needs of pupils.Because of tis merging tendency of units, some teachers tend

to neglect the third or culinting phase. This is a mistake ,

since all activities need to enter a stage of retrospect, where

there can be a realization of the progress achieved. There

mIust be somc type of red-letter procedure which Will formally

exhibit the experiences through which the pupils have passed.

One of the truly great values of the unit method is the oppor-

tunity it affords, in its culminating sense, of the fruitful

illiam A. Smith, "Int egr tion, "Ca liforn u a Journal ofsecond Education, p. 270. ~~

40

sharing of experiences. The Individual efforts of the coLT-

prehensive undertaking ore blended into a unified whole.

SreAjn lies he origin of the final emphasis which has

been. placed on the unit ethod. It is the emphasis on Inte-

ratbon.The idea in nterAYtin c crblend aI the inter-

related parts of an activity into a harmonious whole. iohe

aiflun'e 3f trioastt s ychoogy fo 0 earning 1s, In a large

meaAsure, responsible for the proith of the concept of in te-

gration.

An one of th greatest cr'mpendiaos yet published on the

subj 12, )Hopkins suggessthatintegration must be the short-

and worda to describe the process involved -in intellig ent,

interacting, and ajust.ng behavior,.g Nine laws of integration

r" ke forth in this trets, as follows:

1. .he condition of being integrated is D)riraryand applies to the fhol, f ather than to the parts.

2. antegrteness depends upon energy potentials,which follow the laws of dynamics.

3* The whole conditions or regjul tes the workcone by the parts.

4* Wholes evolve as wholes.5. The identity 'and ainteg:rate dn ess of the whole

is preserved while the p arts change.6. The evolution of the whole is an change

rehoces between horogeneity and hoteoroenety./ T acttvityt of the pait Within a hoe, no

rather what the conditions, obeys the law of least

8. A12 the available energy of the whoi ,willbe expended for the maintenance of its integratedness.

9. The whole responds relationally to a totals hshtatiOn.

SL. Thomas 'Hopkins and others, :tx r atignt, p. 2.

41

T1K.sC laws have been a -- iedi to th cearrning situation

for the purpose of rounding out tro un; ioied 022 EXft ' ;ofaood

act rQt pr.ogramI. he school TnvIomeit Iis taken on the

asp .t of .. 112e situations to the extent that it ismusut.y

tomd I the xperIence curricnlum".ll)In tnii type of set -up,

the teacher becomes a true guide and servant of the pupil.

Into the learning situation the guide brings these factors,

aninte in personality, an intelligent interaction with

the culture, an understanding of c11ildren at various age

level s, nd a capacity, desire, and realization- 1or continued

To bunit ethod in iEucation ethods (ourses

irom the two busr text books still in use for the ad-

vanced. 3 eth 10 cou.,s there c. presented' in the Iollowin" ex-

cerpts the core of the p CrInciple of the unit in practical

Usce. rst, there will be given the principles as ex ounded

by elvin; then the refreshingly modern views of Mfiller will

"ollow.

If living is to be the basis of schooling, itwill be necessary to discover some unit of living,some unit of life, which may serve as a philosophicoasis for the guiance ol teaching.1 1

The unit of living has been variously calledan activity, a complete act, and a unit of work.It seems more logical to use the tern "unit of con-duct". uch a conception makes it possible to find

1oIbid., p. 2b5.

:1. *Gordon elvin, The TechniqyAUe of Icoaressive Teach.-1np. 45.

42

in conduct that least conrion denominator between theschool and the world which t he teacher must find ifthe life of the school is to be the living of thechildren.12

The root and origin of the unit of life is notto bte found in the purpose, but rather in the need.Consequently the Unit of conduct is to e regardedas an act dealing with the need, which may be analyzed

tthe five Jrocss of needing, purposin , plan-4ig, exectin, Cand usInc or ev tluting.13

Thus It Is that the unit of life or the unit ofconduct provides a basc concept for the analysis ofschool living. It ies at the basis of the treatmentof teachIng whioh isdiscussed in this book. Sowemay develop a plan of school living thich ill involvet h ch.irIenI n a s eri;of On:ts of conduct whichinterweave and intermingle in the ver' texture of lifeits-l,.14

s( the diestincti-on betwe en types of unIts of condue t&y 0e i n 7 two wy I9 t 1115y, igurat v5ly sp -

mad2 titudinally and longitudinally. The:ormer consists of t.he t o da vLisions, namely, physicaland mental. Th.e latter consists of the three types,amie, cons t ructive, play, and work.15

There is the greatest necessity for children tolearn the demands of thoroughness and to recognized thecompulsion of the spirIt. The com.un9ity need personswho r oUnw1 lng to allbelow the standard of ex-

I 'noe in whatever the y do, pers on awho not merelypot-tjudge, but pre-judge their own conduct. It isonly whe children are trained in school to carry out

nits o1 work or duty that they will attain all theiher zAl;es oF traini.n;g.

hus elvin sets fortTh the basic concepts of rnitt cn-

truction and Cd;inisitration. ir ideas closely in harmony

itt't the consensus of opinion rega din the essentials Of the

12Ibid. * pS13Id, P. 46

14bid qbd.v 9

16Thd n57

43

u. .. Clrly, there i a shift ian emphasis from content to

met tr n omw the at we are to teach to the how of teaching.

in the companion text if the above source of quotations,

there is set Ifrth more succinctly and compro2hensively some

parallel observations regarding the nature and function of the

,nit s a method. In t 1he1following quotations from Ttillr,

one .eaily observes the distinctly odern trends ilied.

The sIt >""lesson" must SO....A clean sweepwill have to be ade. working roup+I illbesu.bstituted for the conventional class, organiz-

n.Ui o ea ncor 'hensivoin th ra t urr~ , wil_ lc...; 0 s b s tit ut e f or e sxso ne

4e e now cr p&e to ftodiscovr erCt._in gidiinesh ih il serve to illustrate a p.an of

SCurn two aims in ary significant learningit (i) ui:fyig aprinples, (2) differentials

ti. minister to individual differences.,8

11 not a lesson every day and the fa miliarotin onconected therewzwith, hoat is to be done?janit f learraning is to be substituted. It ought

to be, in so far as possible, a comprehensive andcreative unit in which genuine and fruitful re-/ ogijitiLOn 0 ' 1 dQu dife I TO oilsrencesrd.

Three major movements ere set out. They are the. irobI-is01tin movement

2.Directings study movementC ;Jr-l - -i - 120LV i?3. Or.gani z ng, unif ying move ent+

In other words, the two a ms, the demand of thespeciist for ehaustiveness, and the deman. of theadministrator in public education for general educa-tion, must be caught up in an emerging unity and

:9lized> to some extet in overy cla5ss-gt 'Lbeginn1ng5ith th j union highf school ano running up through

the seniorighs school, at least, with an incr' singCuphasi Cn both aimini the c'e class group.

17arr L. iI01er, Creative arnjng and Teaning, p. 10.

I 5id., p. 12. ,. 19bid., pp. Z- -2

20Ibid., p. 32.21J.i., p. 31.

Thes 1 gl 3nings'trom trLi n. d fn illr 1rsummarir vy

-l 2 indeed tie parallel method of the unit as it has boo

avcd in the advanced methods course of the Ed:uc;tion Depart-

m, tThe following ehpter will trk up the Rtbo n phasi

IILCh was o rect outurovt of the unit metheOd d.icu sd in

thi chapt0j

CHPTb. Ii

The purpose of this chapter is to formulate the principles

of creative learning and acching which have exerted a powerful

influence in shaping trends in methods for the past several

ars educators have realize that is not ;noh to pro-

vide adequate educational opportunity. Nto is it sufficient

to iIntegrate units in the modern activity prograI. The demand

ha s grown that utpis be dentiied lth theirnt activities

to tshie extent th creative atttu de shall .result.

Ther realization that a conservative attitude will never

prodce cdreaipe citizens a s prompted educctioonits to for-

mulate a method which faces the future rather than the past.

The world is in diesperaterae of originality, i n every phase

of democratic giving. A conservtive attitude in education is

dominate y ear. Crow pToits tis out in his statement :

The conservative attitude in education fearsthe new in methods, fears the new in pupil control,fears the new in extra-curricular activities, fearslife and te spontcneou, creative impulses of life,an. above all fears tle new of indeendent thinkjinn.

it has been pointed out that, properly speaking, man can

neithe create nor destroy anyting. S .t this moot recent

method seems to strive for a creative typ of education as if

Charles Sumer Crov, Creative Education, p. 5.

45

46

i were entirely possible. No law of creativeness is violated,

Qhat is sought is the development of originality which resides

within every student. '_The integration of al life's experiences

smade every student the possessor of a certain amount Co

orii it y..a. Tbis rma vy Tgreat with Individuals, Yacauso

o thi variety o f e aei nces, but originality doe exist,

never themes a. The gre at problem is t o pupils to o identify

the: m&selves with unit activities of ife so that this certain,

though variable amount of orig.inality can be developed. This

is the esence of the task which creative education seeks to

porf_.orm.

whenever a person becomes identified with a life experi-

ence, that activity takes on a new character. A distinction

ShOud>be made, in this connection, between creative learning

and creative production. Creative learning is a continued

and steady process of growth. Attitudes, purposes, imperfect

projoetons of ideas, aI have a art i.n the continuous pro-

gressin. The end sositighti the creative method is not the

finished product of the pupil but the subject changes wrought

in his li e emBrien ces. Creative product on, on the other

hand, seek to prsent some tangibe evideno- of the 72masteary.

kLCh b ciasobeengro'n, In attitudes , through the years In-

pI ration produces the artist; but it takes i.-pi r['on r

ACeod tide to produce art. And art is always more powerful

than the artist., EducatonaIly, then, the purpose of the crea-

ti ve ethod of learning and teaching is to formulate, through

47

an experience curriculum patterns of creative behavior. These,

in turn, enable the pupil to attain the necessary mechanisms

for creative work which will serve as supreme order of iif.c

uch an attitude will cause the pi iito recognize a challenge

when he sees it; and meet it with confidence.

One of the pioneers in the use of the creative method was

Hugh c-.earns, who contended that pupils vwo are properly sti u-

latdc and guided wil produce a type of creative work rarely

ever observed.as an integral output f r the school curriculum .

A passac from his widely heralded book ephasizes the subtle-

ness of inspiration and its tremendous motivating power.

Everyone is conscious of the curious personalphenoomena, not easily explained, b'y which art comesinto being. iis accompanied by elation, by analmost unnatural feeling of well-being. Young people

kno all about this characteristic of vital energy;their Lives are rich in the experience of itsays....

This espect pulpi do not a:ffer ro adults, ex-cept that children are in the main still artists, whileadults have too often ceased to be,2

Educators are fully aware of the world's desperate need

for creative tinkers. But since education has given so little

attention to building in the lives of pupils generally, they nave

developed talent largely on their o r initiative. The creative

n method sees its great task as that of brid ing the gap between

education as it is and education as it might be in this scen-

tifLic and creative age. Creative learning constitutes an es-

sential pinse of every worth- 'hile school activity, even though

the participants in the process mny not be aware of it.

lughes L earns, reat e 'Youth, p. 4.

I4

preativ or may e successfully undertAen in any school

subjct where unit procedures are applicable.

kWritig a poem, painting, a picture, sketchinga cartoon, propaig a report, designing a pattern,unterstanding a process or operation, learning newthings of all sorts and apple yn them In new rays,constitute a g roup of activities which involve con-sijderale create endeavor o the part of children.Therver ch ilaren are allowed to purpose and pan,a c certain amount of creativeness will always be in-volved.3

Like th s;eteps that were followed in the Berbartian method,

or lie the scceqsiv steps i n unit procedure, t "e creative

method "ollows four f airly well-defined stage s, rnamely;- pre-

par at ion, c ubtion or exitension, iminIat1i1 or inspiration,

and ve rif i c a tin te fairct st'ge, the pumil gathershi

n atea0al on the basis of a common research pattern that every

a attempt to discover a cause or effect follows. In the second

stae, the pupil elaborate-s, under th experienced watchcare.

of tn toache as d the raw ateri -eane inwthe pre-

Vc.o . Bn th thi s , the pupil catches tl:Ami o

Siht witc4 i.:dicate the ultimate direc t ion the creative pro-

to tot. ruite often r considera b le period of maturing

mt e1Laps e to bring this about. In the final sto , th ppl

subjects the eidence of his originality to a systematic rea

sonio process. This is te culmination of his endeavors and

:roves whether or not to-e end crowns his iagn ativo efforts.

Q* A. moakaand t,. . Smtpson, An Introduction to Thcci-in7 <n tL'e11ning, * p. 5.~~

49

Coimnentingo trh igni'icant t ducatl-onl outc'omevs of

the cr ativeymethod, the same authors state

The most sigriicant outcome of creative en-deavor is not to be found alone in the finished Dro-duc of that endeavor, but rather in the many abilitiesacquired in producin that product and in the sati-

act Yczderved from the Activity. In other words,chi"ldr en develop pert sI through successful prac-tice in creating something. They learn to plan, to

u.:a sa, to initiate, to undertake, to ouganhz, Lnfact to develop all those important abilities involvedin creative production. The pue enOyiment whichch i-cdiren obtain from creting soethin , even though

ite a picture of their teacher, is often a greatstimulus to activities of a simIlar character.

he ultimate problem seemIs to be th4t of froeing our eu-

ctionaIs s[ tePcm fromflu the powerful web of tradition and academic

precju. ice, which have dominated our methodology for so 1 ong.

With th further liberation of our tcherc wilI cl0e a desireto ie the extenusi-on c: cr"ewtie pr iilege the diine right

o every pupii. then mo and mL'ore spontaneity will ,o12 4into

4h. le1ning process , al it an active, livinr i. .AJJ ., 9 ( i1 9 }.9 i (. ; It ( . 4LV , ra-ast ,f .4bthia method, mbined wih sympathetic o pe..ti1n,

il 3chireve the desired results in u11 training and welfare,

ue method. of Creative eAdrning and Teachinin EducCaton ethods Courses

Probably th Amost luab single textbook: : u thods used

at north Texas StteTeachers Co.,leg, Irom the starICnpoint of

conciseness and yrev otionary ideas, is illera C-eativeLearn-

in .. daG. It tupp-ned wWn th unit rnvement ins rVrst

su lntn : theqvarious contract schme s and the project method.

ts p Se vas to inject ne ws life into the outwo r n and moribund

2 o ufJL ap. 3 4- iO O

., _.. 3. .. ~ . ,, .... _..... va ..... :a :i3b:4,:K, ,,t . ,. _. ". ~ ,...+.« ,^c, ,...weWVt.._ n

tf l hd w ichhad been i a constant use, y1 mor< e than a (entur y.

> Ci Clevyin > xcrpto Dre: thisrpt rktrki' volume refLeot the

_ _ c i tive methods rhich are in us age todv in the

reedom in work and liberty under the la' mayhe conceived to be third system' of life, and maybecome a basis for a new philosoph of education,and then a modus v(vend which will suggest r bliera-ting technique for the schoolrooms of the land.

Only by a precati 'n the need of a compass andby using it with 12ine courIage wil It evu 1 possibletoItvt sby reaIzation, Te Cihaite , to comea p3tLpn 7>_a11nd not eto :emin sector.

g ths creative w rkcery moves alony }in the pr-ducT on1 0Y2 such an ar1 H, of ptteun^S, epif) i

se 1aination- thtvh' is about 1" to reresantni 1rob 0awng sho1d no I be lost siht of.7 t

0 uppr it 1 I ' 1 nCV pul, 0rini01;, workingt j p 1. t-ebgenerl circle Ce c.i , is a phrase we

4d n V fint.o acti otn and attach th tU , t rhi..r bth VV ha« UInodejquivcalmea4i. o cupiijideni-'ed aflan d r e atlzle ppotuity.s

q ppil3 dbac-kL on account of another OtO lil >is rusdforwardCr 01 pCOs Iof c1 r (ing ti. 'yp ng.EAct ch

Cork' in every 4f4hfjesjma00ne nay up tu his >pest capacity.'.i. s ae nots egre ted; their ork is constantly

' pu'il as we have explained is to learn thel= )!1 m-sn hi o wn .1')C1 prC tiot 2l3in11 thlie it

.n. liru th controlo, of our comon 'i de-Iine pri-c iS. The Qeachter is cnrn d w'ith the o problem

o drecfti'ng ougt in terms (f ( ntr Id as.

Th1 pue1 ose in the sC sion beaslC [1 thet-OSicti on tt one doe1 not find a JouCs and a

productive release ' 1::'creative p r, criticismis conscantI injC ted.iO

.h . lJ .i1ler, rattv Learning and'I7 Ta__n_ y> . 6, p. 1?. Ibd.,p. 21._.,i., p. .

dr). , p. .! . 101f d., ,p., 49.

60

5i

S'Erichindiva 2 Gexpected to ake an in-C rsintge inteige !.nt u 120of hi nironmIent in a

se7.-discovering process. ,

t the learning, situation as a wholei'Lt a critical evi ey;inS1e to see how rerwpa 1 t ofit t.. . ' t2 y Kcom h I

- ' .jr1in t ;p_ " # . . + . _. Cis I o1'pr E h n ding S p Jr inc ipl~te is the7vital. common O e ssentil.12_

The enr''-u. } cp y of th[_nr '11 dan brain hasle to the'.C creation of a new environment of :"'en tal

a, eo:motsns, ideas, forces prejudices, idealshu.r my have little relationto h t phy21sia rland

mteral, but under the iLnf uence of which I itelli-gc cu 1ds i6 up : nand theoind becomes crea-

t 0ve or moribund, progressive or stagnant, Thelf i 20iterIly th integration of organism and

virgonxent,1

he cental dea, the underling hiypothesis 1.softhis Ju. i _Lonceived to be an application and an

':cid-ation of the doctrine tht ever . i nihiVualis 7YhatJ TI m ybe 9ome.1^

ry .v dom is an earned capacity and ceases to bew"'en it Ceases to oe ecSm ing.Many of us havenever consciously engaged in creative work. e havebeen too busi absorbing othr people' s conc lusionsIn the new adventu .Ore w are seeking 0ome way of

roiotinL and securing tine sef-dLsovri the-re zi_ 211() ind ivi dual who o can be tru ste do, l it h

of c tvity In which t pui o7uik the creative order works.

Attitudesta of ra tivnes are attainent of lastlg0 value to

th individual and to the social order in >hich he lives. The

new orderI n education is fully aware of ttls need, and hd re-

o1 ti Lon1z1d th e curriculum to provide for this need. y the

use of crewtI p7- me tihod teachers are enabled to Laoe the order

Cf th new d in education.

'libid",. p. 5l. 12,~4bid.", p. 57. 13I..id., p . 117.

14 l ., pt 190. 15Ibd_,P. 191.

SMMAiT ANDC tNCESj IONS

Tis s t)dy has set forth the prwnt iples rnderying five

T eth Cs of hing, tand has s hown 1ow these methods hv1ei-

. uecRd the toching of methods courses in the 2 orth Texas

Satr teaeac:rs ollege prtsent ol Educatin durin the

years 1920 to 94 .

Th omethods were first decline :tcd by cx llectinugo dt n rp-

resent'ing a consensus of opinion from authorities in the fitLo.

a s e ?it1ion supporting t"hil's exposition of each mi ethrod, the

writer gleaned from t te Ohnin material used in the Educa-

tion OurSO what was tau.ht a:d -practicd in Iforth Texas

tat e OTechers College. Conclusions based on ti Qanalytical

nd c opro tli. treatment be drawn up as follows:

1. Each of the five methods has been used extensively in

the College Ecation courses.

2. iNerbrtin five formal steps, the problem, a nd the

Trojet m mthOd:s were the cif ones sed during the first decade

of ths sd, or from 1920 to 193)0ri.t Sc v '"ng 1 rd n 4- S 7 n Ac 0n -Ai

.The methods ol 3f e unit, and c re ati ve le arning and

touching, wee the ones in popular use during the second decade

of th studn, or from 1930 to 194C.

4. The extent to which practice in the Colleg Educati. on

methods courses agrees with theory Is readily observed to be

quite high, as is demonstrated in th t-parallel citations.

52

i;{ ip

L v 1:

5. though 0no theory of method hs completely monopolized

the filed at any one time, tAhe peods of populaity and decline

r e& of th five theories are fairIy awell worked. Ttis

inoiates theat tha platur o progress in- Adcativa method is

s ImIl' to that in oth. _i ls 01 gradual nrresside devalop-

ment.

hPLEDIPI A

1iH TiE I. )' 60Ce21D

Not once in a blue moon could one find such a class.

therd from the ends of the earth they seme. It was al-

most impossible to find a commonhr; A>al. Tr boy0s were old

roeeaters, who tolerted school because there wasn't anything

else to do. There was Charles, a non-thinker, a non-producer,

Snon-e'rtig Even his disposition was negative. And

eke, he of the flat-boat feet and floating-raft mind-float-

in wi te current and never arizing anywhere. As to the

raft, rl, rafts are wooden, aren't tiiey Then there was

b Jert a full sat of Hun ancestors, 'a"ie and God attitude,

and a realy lkble side which he succeeded in hiding most

of the time. Frank was more nearly normal, except that he was

careful not tot ake hir iagtinatin out of its tissue paper.

One supercilious youngster, son of a n Army captain, in formed

us ear -in the game that he didn't expect to get much. The

Eastern schools which he had just left were so superior to the

id-W'"st "brand. ae :carried about with him an air of aloftness

thwart was mddenin2 . t great, over-grown, long, thi, bashful

0oy aledf rom St. Lois. His vocabulary consisted of t yes"

and "no", seldom vocalized, however, but always decorated with

intense apoplectic blushes, but then, there never was a thir-

t er-rer-old 7oy who could be himself vitIh legs too long and

p ants too short The r eain$.n; boy was the blond better half

WPM 0 4

U

U' a pair of twlns. The girl was pretty and pleasant but not

over-burdened irith intellectuality ,Her chum, ary, was the

most aggressive m eier of the class, having had the supreme

courage once to s u;gest a picnit. Nita ofthe bovine eyes,

two drab "ri-htened iittc st s, a ir Eith movio un

ambitions, and our Erma constituted the list. Ertia was from

an obscure Kentucky town and was overwhelmed and dazed cby the

multitudinous intricacies of a townw" school.

it was to this array that we tried to teach Miles Standish.

or dava and days, we tried to teach iles tandish. Tried--

the word took on new meaning. It involved a display of colon-

is relics, groups of Pictures of the times, a set of crayon

drawings, questions final y answered by the teacher in despera-

tion, and at last, a dramatic monologue in which teacher figured

a s director, orchestra, usher, ad leading Id". No1 dent of

interest appeared on the serene placidity of the class. Not a

flicker of an eyelash , not a solitar sign of Lie, not a

token of response . Stil we l a bored.

Oneda wK e1 Dule 0des.air iwas about to engulf us, the

li t t le o(i who watch-es over teachers who think they have done

th etres t, literally yelled I heard hni!) right out in class,

Quitter I Wy don't you wake these kids up? Why don't you

think u s ome thing: for t hem to do?"

"Do," we screamed, We've done everything ."

"ht 's the trouble," he bawled,, you've done it all your-

selves. Get ousy.r Isn't there anything that T' EY can do"

5e wore on tiptoes in r minute. Idea began to colfe anld

as the 0ycame, we talked. ChI.%dre'n, 'would you like to do

somethi..4ngdiff..erent?" There-was an .. a lmost Impr ebe T achange0C00' 11)11<iii por it + IIcOW p t _1_ CjI'c 2+ 9 f'o' otmol oW

' expre s.Ion. "Wouldnt it be fun for the boys to build some

ittl log housaa fo' eisoilLt d nIL:1 Sandiosh, hand

wouitn?t it be jolly for the girls Lto dress som dolls to rep-

0t the characters of the story?"

I was reminded of a dangerous railroad crossing judging

fro the way they stopped, looked, and listened. ofew seconds

nod cse s tumlinwpuvshing, hurryin' up to the table desk

wrhaere they leaned and hung over the book racs, eager to ques-

1..I.ll bri the nails." "We've got a saw . W can go

out ton Ight and get somc branches for los. Th ese and sundr

ot TI 0 raemrIs 2 r om the bors * l"eIrs ot c ere dol , material

and tim e. A t last e.re was something our little entocY ir

, otd do. he know iot t vs .; "Says, is3, ,she said >shyly,

I i!Rreck n I can tote one of them dolls hom e tonight and make ,it a ittlehils c'tandish solt, if ju all is uilin for me

to."

1nd s0, before thei zeal could 4=waver, committees were a-

o01t c; they fm on the spot; the project was auncecC. Tis

was he first of Innumerabl consultations and hours of hard,

happy work bef re and after school. Theo1 Le were adjustments to

be oade of misfits on commnittees, a few complaints of slakers

to betnvestigated, and ct last asei-daily inspection of t lhe

-,- -= .k.. ... ,;_ .... :'- ... ::,c; ,.,.>,e... x;,ak-, ,... s a..a+. rte.; ,... . ;,._.. .. ,.,+ .... , x. a ..

01

p. 9ss being mIiade. Oura3ssem1 00roo1 6was or the top floor

and th eyu ngs ts w .5Urked in h Tseme nt or econelined

asking 0 the school board to ut in (nanelevator. (on kn you

can K h school Doard for panthin .) There were three

groups of boy)s working in tthre different parts of the basement;

they wr1"e king a hus e for a;r isf illone " r .eMiles M stands

and on roup, w as3uid_i nachuh.Th rsewed.todd

-orensit-itnroomsoi -om3saic cinc Dsep) tm1nt.

at on.c e, I ut the results justified se expenditure :ever

ounce of ener :-. IWhen-t h other d eparrtental teachers began

comm~i' ng on the marvelous change in the y. D-s., we knew

the .) b ecti 1ve vias already 1010n.

c. >7e noon I camed upon St. pu ,,is sitting flat on the base-

~~C)

me.t «. tr, hi_. S attenuated les half covered withn twigs and

c ". s. . Jl wsv ia 1 itriy u{yworking t o c omp let e0the c hurc 2h in

time. When we entered, he looked lip, smiled, and. uttered the

fi rs t full sentence he had had. the courage to de l:ver . Th'is

w s justt the 1inIts anof 7onger bursts of oratory later on.

Zek4 1a tt ouqntar-Ity instituted a continuosroddin Qpro

CosIsIin . d r tP o k p ;e<(everTonce acI1t*ve. ,There was dal.Vly evi-

;e nce of m1ich thought and planni. The irls cae up to the

markto'3 >rfL.11 Our little ntuky sitt' > tid heshe t loti ,tiny patterns and w..hr. infinite Pawit nd nd

lie eaul ine stitches >arJ bthe most cunning little garment

tor To dfultandish. "lad In double and hose and boots of

58

( o Jovn lethu8" 0r ouu:'st tou muco Sar hexr, I ut she had

o r int until tihe results she produced weret irvels of

1n6nit . esUid. ds .resting4 rs 3ia tnd the Indians and other

vari rorac s staiory, the gis had manuftcntur

0ILrdiitive JO .f DcuaInS for th windiovrsf, n.At itti bra ided rugs,

rb l e c o d e , e t. S h e b ,y s a d d e dosi m p l e h aIis , Iaiod

yhelves i ., !,. d for fth } u!s7es,and nChes 3 and pupit cor

he 1cCh. ow the y did read and disclus that text to find

.1t ht t1odo d 0 ica old ke in his zeal found a worn Ie t:i1-

0r? ,. 1or5} um woo. a 101c lumy 1in aLers ,ro'wcn rillful oith

arJ~d o,4,ci , .sutethreesll 0.J.tion s through thUeV/inding ad t

br .;iproudly b igi them t liI three fPain of sand int"=.L o 3_ h& a & h a!' 14 e;Ao1 1 C c C 11 U V "At- ' 1t 4JR 1 81nis

e ha had,}d nnuce t t..hey w...eethe 'books

2promn hnt thir, dIingu7iihed3 alike for bula7"k nd for Oinl1' ding,

II{rifLA's AU.i llry ttide a&nd 0.he '_ omlelt ;rGs of Ckaeser--ande o thaem was sa di ng h i e Th y g just th r ht

CSOtL'7' 0' Ot ~e ,3 iit tJ,'.o S 141?t

aI htCn t'1)'1p.0acedo 0the tiny shelf. Wheon S a U.one s etod

1in t' ab1'10 bvlEs , Fnk, WhO ha aranged_1 ' t si'pI ui5Jtu ,

0e ject d, saJI t7at tut .be te Ceof pitL y th window,"

a qd L iC,!rImaiLned. 1 the church thtey put so1e very1 rerlistc

p mO C hid WOeO puI I T'1Lpit, while 011 tot faS th "lovitzer *. (iiq p'qnte.,

f

bO}"- , r %tclicYAhi OYY>0 D00 t Lt.0006, J"..t 1 C

hiho h of- rahruosneaks to tta pro'se."An

horror I orr ors, on a role i -. front was the head of th'e brave

i4 tt ' Ca, an oid doll hed Bt ioody with Itrsperr'y ju and

Y. ( ?ere d i n k I

chn, 03 J. O<ttims grt4;, cne o day hen our Or Stv/hi.

oil ,e1'1h, stolid Charles tuLd into Css shaking witsilent

59

u Chnt. The ther Koyg h d been quiet r e-righT until this

unrores4en slpQQeC .< arrivd .Th, t 0, suCwuid to someUer humor1 1nd g.glea and snortea in a heplests chorus . en

Cske F Pr the cause o this 'int., th: lond twin came quickly

t1 t e &sk a373ndoU( <"hise reL t..At it. t <as 5 ieret t that they

oul 1. tell later. re thea once that hour we suspended opera-

tions entirely until the nascuLino builders c K control their

r.es2)I.ifL *2 r ecess down we r ew to the bscment . IBing

urged to look, we looked. s -final touch of realism there

on the door of one lo house was carefully stretched and fas-

tened a skin. W looked more closely. Could it be? It could

have been nd was the silvery skin of a too adventurous mouse

sac iiced in the name of Literatuea. We all shouted together.

W oneva ever 'bl.e to tell me the how of the capture. xEvery

time one started the tace, he was overcome by some enbal vision

of the scene itself and was unable to o on.

.. w 'rlend>y they all became i ow freely tihy tked to-

h r a, prt.sin gan. ccriticing eac other in much more extreme

terms thn we felt at liberty to use. And all to such good pose-

pose.

Tde ia. date arrived at which auspi ci os time the ex-

hbit was to be mad3, the sto y re. ied, And all things cornn e cted

herwth finished. Teach'-Er t"a> to T . urp.rise; sd AW s to Ia

led into the clssroo L ith 2yes c iosd dani was then, c t a sig-

n A, to open them upon the finished spectacle adjusted accord-

in to t he best jst punrnt of the cla. It as their on idea

and teacher played the game.1 1hte on th sndaovE'red table

30

tnh hoti, and th huh and 3Q j L0 tothRook

looking ore I the or inaIL than 1i17 w:uth aui iitdeI.E. T he

.. r i a s a na the 1nc02. n 1unn0r were 7.120pe c in & pDi opr :ta e

az 'ng w 1L pr aeL 0 n i tie results t>.1 OO Inl00 I . i e

ot 1 in teacher s throat. ndW :e d

called hI. the I. Ds I Nhen the tchter Lne CGt, passedd,

anC 10s tiond, 9her"attnuion ws attrCed to something under

the tJ . A quiet voice expla .t In ,d tht the two successful

o mmi"tLee ind.In; that committee0Y)31Jit nubi2e e the Qad {Cild to

inis_ risC',l l 's h se C7e on ti m ,A had decided t ht, Vin all j us -Iqc Q 4 . L w(,(. e "tI l0 21 . J--4( k

,Ic2, it WQUI( WxlOT 1n uts incomplete e stt A oardtackd o re "Ufinshe by....Z),th ame ata hP. {sr.

.~G .C) . I . 2 :1 , .1.. h"* _, ,,.. 0..> .1 2 .. kt...

Uast n tur ' - Ign0101n wa 5s iatolg toe. I * t ff0. tS ef,,Ieat

)13 tt a : {_s (10 uial c obi etY_ { t0e3 n. w ng er yct na&ti raC e, Ie' m~ l< 249b0 7~~4p

patien 'nsl 1 famous hadbeen )sumd.We knew and the

ohIIdren knew tet m errrepaid'1 hundred tis T--hey knew

Gnd tuerstoed tj e s. story; th v likd the snCa Lfthe poetry;

t. 0. I 6 01>t) the3Werom; ty lived i a. They h ad

oecr m0 acquinted 1; CiC, the 3 1 0arrers 1Cf0 dOwte, th>y r r0eiectaptlre.

The1 sta nt, 1-,: ut the y . m on Ci ,YOe 1pO nt -y .- .1 (( .,l= 0 rt + 1 1 ,{ t

n. w aI Uran teas. Ande thin> Ahat it did to Ch+ i . I.0h19rls02

hhu&kled. Then, too, there was th at mose.There'se. l s9Cthingi

in thit 1 I.0 l .. , es---->4 0de ieGve that na-,> . u rs3v7 s.

?

A &iY~ci~i WIL IX IY

E &l an Sotemrer ; firul r app sre 2ro iLTh1 oafice of

2 n r prncpw I1 7u ih e e hool requestin each depvrtmwnt to

tpW nc'*ta itirc of Whe 'crk1 o .th dA rt.e -.Th >0'qu st, MIhen 0rougt t0 the clais sr Oom, 19ug's ted &

MOGiL f-or aiitictivA on the par o UD Of pluils Qnd, 17100n

submwit>ted to a Plass tn tenth-gsrude Egish, moetit a atndy

ce se Yi. 4lwig tO a sp Irt.d.S diuSI@n 0f tho puips co

asebyprgas Th ls agreed htwae.rtentr

.. )Q 'i v . J ( *- L . ~ 2 > thi 1 't.,. 0! w)

oft ho programISI dedd uint1) 2i, t shod- (1 noto oni ent0rti

in and interest but als 1 t t-piovoking. t KR' ided

t Idt th2 r t i ceiod nex y to 5 001sideratin o0

tho dffereit Idta <uhitt < d' (elring what 7, a citss,

otohe e dG0.0.l" c et ion of a suiacrbsLe prom'r.4

2 ter' putt ing a nmbr xf the 1u2es t iLons made bry th 0pILs

the ne t da to the ttre< te sts KdeernindK uyon-.-uxro1bilit-<

to int"eest, to Ettbain, cit t pOevoke thuht- dlecsIn

'R at)mod J1J .. I. .tt# t 'I 1 ZJJ . 6 2~ ' I Ill3 ) 27' )U,';.' .. tLI<I. " k n ~s ? zn ch d in fsv R :Jrsetn n9atmnecaatesfo

o bk which most of tih s tudnts in th hdienue shouTd know.

The pupils Lmuedirtey 7 gvan ts thsn a: chra ters so Tividly

b.artr.-d K+n th 1 ite rtur^ theyr n that they were re'a po" rso.n-

11l:ties. n .ow ouldfl ths be presented in r rnovelI and ono rging

r' C C

61

Ty h n rto this questi on we detrmUI~ined to 10av 7 tkunt i.

0r ar0rw flnh'ra.t'rs shrul bei ma12Oi]h rshalled.

2 iyfina 1>' lected, these iioncide exrog vwhen h1 UCas

visIitd f th_ 2pirito N (histma; the shipwrecked pYi&7. 7 in

11sre sl Cnhen; u i,n eLly 1oa etcrG1 d b th Li!liir C .' . o .'< . 1+ .' e,- o s 1 . b y t -e 'H1>i 11(t~.rr) '

(f.1np., fL!Em]n; nowens, gta n h almer w; hen the a Palme.'r

, t.ae1 0 , iJn ra s uo .; k, u0 on2 , and Ti ... ia . ith hI r

La attendants when tbe0I on viasP o2"itin, or Titania to 21e90.E-

v.. " on his quest; obin I,, V d, '.il srlet, and Ail -A-,.

Dal 1he the>y dcfiod 1ho bherit of am 4tingham; 10>m 39\jerra f.1 .y- ; ".s g > '" rB"".. . - } 2

in th owilhltit e--viasGhi.ong s cee; the lEd Nipir ox amlin; fip Van

'3 7 e i tiA his 3d)7 and i gn;; Ihaboh Crane n ing ' rw oscQool;Litthe Nell and her granf wanderingro hamlet

to h!.a t. Topsy, the girl fom the L2imberlost, and ollyanna

formed gop frI C d1 n stories

s novel and engag inn; -y o: !ettIU the characters baas 0 rs upon

th.e: U stag, te de taet wi .th most favor was that of am 2

mag=;iCian who1ights;.,.su.monthemiromthepast wit hs agic viand..e ,22. wa sIue st wt. sh.uld read a p1ssagr}from}e ch

02. t e>'2 v b> 2 2. c O .h eac

s .21or y :J'.pr a t t o th e I n 4 . i e n t w h il c t e h r tr pt2.d .

th art . d0art.n .and the> udoeic rsat dptartmnL. De-

asigns for the costume _e s went !orv rd a s planned by thle pupils in

1..+ 'CsCcsa3s,1.o i ,kA a t i, 1 4. .7, ., . -eIa 01t1

s 7ss'3roo1s177 tor,. Loi n u i thent sei1LQ1- tin >in r«: -'," 3the Stories . TA".e

e'ut tingf and.A.making of th(.e costu..mes became a p roblemA of the do-

m0e "ti4 ; lnr+t'r T2asses.XIA

.Yt y..:3: :....j .... '' :u. .

" ' IC) C..

In the mIP-a ntirae ppils91 vero Ahos 0 .or the different

char c t er, nd problems Ibn s tag: arrangement and management

e *tnassmn .. Each pupil in the class wias responsible for

somet hinessential to the success of the andertakin_!. Soon

inquiries +%gani. to come in about. 'eh&1r&1l2sf'2t1. e h'.d to decide

wt acl -1-1h dpil wouAd o e r eponsiabl for:his own intrp'01-

t-at o the charac'ter he 'presnted cana. dltrii;ng be limited

+o the raar nd._.3 th mag'"tician 4 , o r WhaEthem .thuii mpersonator

shr nduld , tied toais part dals . It w akd e ide0th.t. the

rt.er shoud have much. practice i t h the class acting as cr-

i, 9ut that t h i&personat'0r sho.1 hEre lsonly-sufficient

rc , t icQ to acc ua th0e to ease on entering the stage. T e

intyrttion fta 0 the char actr, it was¬ It, mu.st be Individ-

ual and he l entirely to the impersonator and his stuudy of

the book: itself . The iprOrnatCas wer to remin on the 5r-t=e

a. tes et'; 391J and4 -thehole <Cuas 10o be r.ngod in an Ifective

ensemble. The magician houd be costumed as an Oriental and

.av. at his side e$ j5r o in.c en se , the curling; smoke .:ot- which

r .... ivW an air of m1-;usteryW to the sotn,. ThP tcos tu00e of the

readers 1ud be the ?r0 90te robe of propeacv, with a style of

L .3 "A t t ; )i .7 ' o r r e.s j u n c t u r e t h e p r o p o s a l 'a s 0 1f 1f e r e d , t h a t t h e a u d .-

icnce m11ad12 prti5puntby the class preparing and having

pTrint d 5flWs 01 paper Wi't4hbcnks for th rxiti:ng i of the

name of each character as it appeared, th<e title of the book

fro hi ch it fs tacen, and the name of the author.. hesoe

sheets wuld be passed. 3by the assembly ushers and t heir piupos e

64

xy th stare pagr. T Voui( be sucdred l ter by

the or wh ave the -ro r the names of thbse wit-h hish: t

s012(e3 Qol Ibe p0 stAd)fn the <0 1nel bocrd,

The prormFo wasr iven twic,ronce;fJr th+ senior high

scheel of about sevn: dunrd, and once for th unior high

scho f o r.about thousnd.4 Judging rom the scored Am ts

the .pr0w onatore really interpreted the i parts for more than

twent~y per a:nt of the core -osts ware above ninety.

1o0s

( am r, iucy ., A or ins on, Sma J., and eely, Denna L.,ducotie ExpktIenacos !Throuh Activt Ub iLts 0hica cwoyo, s nd ,Dtarnah0an, S3

De , JinkIBotn, oo t d C. o 91cn

De me , ohn, eno c 3andEdu C tion, do7Stonl, 1D. C. He a th an d

De trto, har0les, Herbart and "61 tei1rb artians ,ew York,{4:arias >Scr:C :bnWer:[ s s , C18 5.

{ {raRt, Johan t 1ir<<rick, utlines of' Educstionac Doctrinto,

7,l(y, hare Elmrer, Ih QQhO(I Tor cheors' A- cthods, Cha oxpgn,Ial., 1%3.

Hopkins, L. Thms and othArs , LnT5grat ion NU wY r, DA ploon-'>ontury Co., /1937.rk 0

K il «triok, K . 1., Founds to'n2 o Tot>had, ew York, The -milln Co., 19'T.

c'ry, Chares A'. , Gera lhethod, B oomin;ton, IIl., Publicchol pblIsh in' 00. 15.

>c0 rt, nks A.I, 1y to -tu-d an To hing lcoa to tudttork, iought0n >22in 0.n, I909.

o { n, ughs0, rtv outh, Garden City, N. Y., Doubloeday,oran at( .. , 19 0.

ST!.elt, .. rd, 10100The Tchniques of :rogrossvo Tolahing,Sork, The Jo>n cay s., 1952.

i , r yd, rti -Learn.igand Torkoarles Scrimtier's n, 17.

Sor ris, y .The1 -'r ctice of' Teachirn i ti SocondurSchoo , ChcagJo, Th Univorsis oTfT hiwco reossT'TG.

or r . e, Types of Llomenty __Teachi;andLearning,

NwYork, C Inn and C 2 .,t 1923. ~ t

65

. tevenson, John. a Sort, The troJect Method of Teachin Tw k

tOktOn, Jms1., roJot 1r0k in E0duloflc tion BOStn 1frhVtconI2 in ., 1920. -

sn, ,and son . ., tivtIon of hoo1 ok,3- viork, oW oughton iin (7TDT9TT.

y , eecer an the uoriouu, Lew ho r

-yn Jh .,annlahno Unit, 2f Famie 47.,

1ne 1avie Ze>11, p.7f7ijshers, 1934,

Articles

horn, Ernest, Cri teia for Jud1in th Poject xthodEduCtional w xvi, r I 1 (Fab . nruary, 122) .

" '7C, .Ja s F .t .Tes ohf projects and their Tchnmque,A Theurn,-aI of Eductona ethod, II (rch, 19291.

-

Co, d 1 9 ., IPI .to ro 0 ethod?" Tfe Journal

O

duTc . .o nal ,jto I (Otoe 192 71i o-a l 'ooo, 5 A 67.

to ol *., Wha isu th Pertj Dth'd?[ Th} _tJournal ofductiona ':acstod, I, (Qeptembe, 1922),~20.

10s04, 1.mJ ner.4 10s1t n 0a thC +roioct hid-."ae Journal o- Eduatain. >thod, TI ( . 1C 3), 381.

1Klpaitrick, W. ., "The Prje ethd," Teahers toTlege Bull 1

r.:..,w Yrk, TeheEs Colioe Col ii-{ UnIVersit, 1918.

Lovwenuncwn, I4 h., K (ritca Evaat,.\Rin of thca F oje cto'-.. i uc ttm I- et> V, V11 (October, 1928),

4"J e * e., "T 0 3r:.r e; thOd " it c h o o 0 Journ l, I,

1mt1 1 0, Ineg lton (1t ent:i'l11y th dM2st Signi1 can

t in, " .Liornia 4 vW , i 11ec 1ondary educatni n, :VIt

j*so,!C.TaCrhing Le-'vfela, Teachixng Techni4q ue, and theCojt "Eo 0he Jorn1 uof Educ>tional Cthod I b, ,O 9

noocou , a 01n 4., "The Ai's and Methods of Science TacinSeerlO cin:)c1u11 art10er zt NOx/veb 1>Q I .17 2

66