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Planning for Rural Residential

Development in Palmerston North City: A Review of Relevant Literature and Studies and

a Preliminary Assessment of Rural Residential

Development, 1999-2009

Background Technical Report

201

Planning for Rural Residential

Development in Palmerston North

City: A Review of Relevant Literature and Studies and a

Preliminary Assessment of Rural Residential

Development, 1999 – 2009

Background Technical Report

Prepared By Opus International Consultants Limited

Tabitha Manderson Palmerston North Office Senior Resource Management Planner Level 4, The Square Centre 478 Main Street, PO Box 1472, Palmerston North 4440, New

Zealand

Reviewed By Telephone: (06) 350 2500

Ann-Marie Mori Facsimile: (06) 350 2525 Senior Planner

Date: November 2011 Reference: 5-P0195.00 Status: Final

© Opus International Consultants Limited 2011

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Contents

1 Setting the Scene – What is Rural Residential Subdivision? ........................................... 3

1.1 Palmerston North Sectional District Plan Review – An overview of the process and the

Rural Zone Review ................................................................................................................ 3

1.2 Literature Review .......................................................................................................... 4

1.3 Characteristics of Rural Residential properties – what do people want? ....................... 4

1.4 Defining Rural Residential properties ............................................................................ 5

1.5 National trends and number of rural residential subdivisions ........................................ 5 1.6 Summary ...................................................................................................................... 6

2 Rural Residential Development in Palmerston North ........................................................ 6

2.1 Palmerston North District Plan –Rural Residential Subdivision Provisions .................... 6

2.2 Rural Residential Trends in Palmerston North, 1999-2008 ........................................... 7

2.3 Palmerston North – Physical Resource Description .................................................... 10

3 Issues and Effects ............................................................................................................. 14

3.1 Policy Issues identified in research papers ................................................................. 14

3.2 Horizons Regional Council Concerns with rural residential development .................... 19

3.3 District Plan Review Discussion Document – Summary of Submissions relating to rural

residential matters ............................................................................................................... 24

3.4 Results of Consultation on Residential Growth Options for Palmerston North (2010) . 26

4 Techniques to Control Effects relating to Rural Residential Development ................... 28

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 28

4.2 Monitoring Rural Land Use Change ............................................................................ 38

4.3 Managing Demand/Growth ......................................................................................... 40

5 APPENDIX A - Rural Residential Development within the Palmerston North Boundary

1999-2008..................................................................................................................................... 41

6 APPENDIX B – Review of Territorial Authority Policies .................................................. 45

6.1 Manawatu District Council .......................................................................................... 45

6.2 Rangitikei District Plan ................................................................................................ 48 6.3 Tararua District Plan ................................................................................................... 50

6.4 Hutt City District Plan .................................................................................................. 50

6.5 Hastings District Plan .................................................................................................. 52

6.6 New Plymouth District Council .................................................................................... 55

6.7 Lot size – other councils ............................................................................................. 57

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Figures

Figure 1: Snapshot of subdivision around the Pahiatua Track ......................................................... 8 Figure 2: Snapshot of subdivision around Pineland Drive ............................................................... 8

Figure 3: Range of Parcel Sizes (Lots) Created, PNCC Rural Zone (1999-2009)............................ 9

Figure 4: Range of Parcel Sizes (Lots) Created Under 1ha, PNCC Rural Zone (1999-2009) ........ 10

Figure 5: Palmerston North Land Resource: (Source Turitea Reserve Management Plan) ........... 11

Figure 6: Subdivision trends in the Manawatu District (from Manawatu District Council's 2007 State

of the Environment report) ............................................................................................................ 47

Figure 7: Subdivision and Dwelling on Class I and II land; Rural Subdivision trends 1993-2003

(Rangitikei District State of the Environment) ................................................................................ 49

Tables

Table 1: A Continuum of Types of Rural Smallholders (from adapted Paterson 2005) ................ 5

Table 2: Estimate of Rural Residential Properties in NZ 1997-1999,2004 (from Paterson 2005). 5

Table 3: Rural Residential Development in Palmerston North .................................................... 7

Table 4: The New Zealand Land Resource Inventory Classifications for Palmerston North City12

Table 5: Comparative analysis of the three main rural land use activities in the Palmerston

North, Manawatu and Horowhenua Districts (2007 Agricultural Production Census) ..................... 12

Table 6: Smallholders’ past, present and future land use and value of production (from

Fairweather and Robertson (2000)). ............................................................................................. 18

Table 7: Survey results of smallholders to gain an understanding of the disadvantages

encountered with rural residential dwellings (from Cook and Fairweather (2005)) ......................... 19

Table 8: Part of Table F1 in Schedule F, showing Regionally Significant landscapes within the

Palmerston North City Council area .............................................................................................. 22

Table 9: Potential critical components that are subject to impact by rural subdivision and

potential indicators for monitoring effect of rural Land Use Change (from Hunter et al, 1998) ....... 39

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Rural Residential Development –Background Technical Report

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1 Setting the Scene – What is Rural Residential Subdivision?

1.1 Palmerston North Sectional District Plan Review – An overview of the process and

the Rural Zone Review

The Council resolved to commence a review of its District Plan in September 2007. A

Discussion Document on the significant resource management issues within the City was

prepared and made available for public comment in the early part of 2009.

Recent changes to the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA 1991) have provided

Council with greater flexibility to the way in which the District Plan Review is managed. The

RMA 1991 now enables the District Plan to be reviewed in sections, as opposed to one full

review every 10 years.

A report on the Sectional District Plan Review was presented to Council in November 2009.

The Council supported the concept of a Sectional District Plan Review and passed a series

of resolutions regarding the priorities, staging and timing of this Review. As part of this

deliberation, priorities were identified with the Rural Zone Review, including rural-residential

subdivision and wind farms; being one of the first matters to be reviewed in Stage One.

The rural-residential rules in the operative District Plan have remained unchanged for 10

years however reflected the resource management priorities and community aspirations at

that time. Council monitoring systems and reports1 indicates that the type of subdivision

applications (for rural-residential sections) being received has changed and the decisions

that Council is making on them.

A report on the Rural Review was prepared and submitted for consideration by the Planning

and Policy Committee on the 6th of October 2008. This report recommended the

commencement of the Rural-Residential Land Use Strategy, which formed one part of the

Rural Review.

Future options for accommodating Residential Growth are currently being explored by

Council2 and it is accepted that in planning for growth, rural residential development within

the rural zone, including lifestyle blocks, generally of around 1-4 hectares, is one way the

City can accommodate growth.

This background technical report was undertaken to assist Council’s approach to planning

for this type of lifestyle, to assist the Rural Review. It has involved a review of recent

literature and studies on rural residential subdivision. An important component of the

methodology for the literature review was the need to work towards a clear definition of

Rural Residential subdivision. Aligned to the demand preferences for rural residential

property and the sustainable management of the City’s rural land resource.

1 Palmerston North City Council Urban and Citywide Residential Dwelling Growth Monitoring Reports

(Various) 2 Palmerston North City Council (2008) Residential Growth Review Issues and Options Information

Update. Palmerston North City Council (2010) Residential Growth Strategy.

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1.2 Literature Review

To help characterise and define what constitutes rural-residential development in a broad

sense, a range of literature was reviewed. A full list of references are included in Appendix

C.

1.3 Characteristics of Rural Residential properties – what do people want?

Paterson (2005) summarised the key characteristics emphasised by real estate

advertisements for rural lifestyle blocks:

Places of residence

Lifestyle blocks are places of residence first and foremost, and their cost is largely

determined by the kind of house to be found there. If a $200,000 block has a house on it, it

will be a reasonably ordinary one, but the same block can sell for a million dollars if it has a

new architecturally-designed luxurious residence.

Location, Location, Location

Key aspects of location relate to: nearness to urban areas – sources of employment,

services and entertainment; nearness to the coast or large lakes – sources of amenity and

leisure activities; and nearness to small town communities, especially those with schooling

for children.

Financial Investment

Lifestyle blocks are have generally increased their value at a greater rate than urban

residential property, and a block that can be further subdivided is much more valuable.

Environmental Qualities

According to the real estate advertisments, the price of a lifestyle block is enhanced by the

extent to which it offers peace and quiet, and views of the surrounding countryside.

A Great Place to Bring Up Kids

A school bus at the gate, going to a small, friendly rural school, and room for children to

roam and to have pets, are qualities provided by a good lifestyle block.

Natural Features

Native bush, mature trees, ponds and streams are all emphasised as valued parts of

lifestyle blocks.

Animals and Facilities

Having well-fenced pasture to be able to graze a horse, or sheep or cattle, is seen to be

important, along with stock water provision, stock handling facilities, stables and

outbuildings.

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1.4 Defining Rural Residential properties

Quotable Value NZ defines a “lifestyle block” as a piece of land of more than one hectare

zoned rural or semi-rural and which has a rural, residential or semi-productive use, but is

still too small to run stock on productively (N.Z. Herald, 1999).

The definition of a lifestyle block that comes through in other literature from mid-Canterbury,

is that it is a rural smallholding that allows people to enjoy living in a rural setting while still

working in an urban area. The prime aim of people who live on lifestyle blocks is for a “rural

lifestyle” rather than any form of “agricultural production” (e.g., Fairweather (1993 and

1996), Fairweather and Robertson (2000), Grant (2000), and Sanson, Cook and

Fairweather (2004)).

As Statistics NZ puts it in New Zealand: An Urban/Rural Profile, a lifestyle block “allows

people to enjoy a rural setting while still working in an urban area”.

Paterson (2005) provided a useful summary of the preferences of rural smallholders, as a

group, that allows consideration of a number of different factors in determining what

constitutes a rural smallholding.

Rural Residents Lifestylers Small farmers Fulltime Farmers and

Others

Smaller <- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Property Size - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -> Larger

Less <- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Farming Activity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -> More

None <- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - Income from Land - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - > Significant

Significant <- - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - Links to Urban - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - > Less Significant

Table 1: A Continuum of Types of Rural Smallholders (from adapted Paterson 2005)

1.5 National trends and number of rural residential subdivisions

The number of Rural Residential or Lifestyle properties has increased as a proportion of all

properties across New Zealand since the 1970s. A number of authors have estimated the

number of these types of properties; Paterson (2005) provided a summary as follows:

Table 2: Estimate of Rural Residential Properties in NZ 1997-1999,2004 (from Paterson

2005).

1977 1988 1997 1999 2004

27,000 34,000 70,000 100,000 170,000

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A number of these estimates were derived from the Quotable Value NZ (QV NZ) database

that included a wide range of property sizes and lifestyle blocks. The authors3 of the MAF

Information Paper No. 53, further defined the figures from the QV NZ database to estimate

that there were some 140,000 lifestyle properties in NZ at the time that report was prepared

(2005).

1.6 Summary

From the key literature reviewed above it is clear that those seeking to purchase and reside

in rural residential or lifestyle development areas seek a range of lifestyle options. There is

also another trend that, the smaller the section, the closer the links to urban centres as

people living on these sections are often still working in town. The patterns for this type of

development, has grown in strength since the late 1970s.

2 Rural Residential Development in Palmerston North

2.1 Palmerston North District Plan –Rural Residential Subdivision Provisions

The following Resource Management Issue is identified in the Rural Zone and is relevant to

the Rural Review:

The provision for rural-residential development, which avoids remedies or mitigates any

adverse effects on the efficient use of resources and on rural environmental and amenity

values.

Significantly there are no specific zones, objectives or policy framework for rural residential

activity in the District Plan.

Within the Rural Zone, the standards for controlled activity subdivisions4 include a minimum

lot size of 4 hectares, unless they are to occur within the ‘overlay’ or other identified area on

the Planning Maps:

(i) Within the Aokautere Rural-Residential Area - A minimum site area of 3,500m2. This shall include 3,500m2 of contiguous land where any part does not have a slope exceeding 11 degrees, as measured between two points no more than 10 metres apart, which is able to accommodate all of the following:

- A residential building platform - Vehicle access to the residential building platform - A minimum area of 800m2 for the purposes of accommodating an on-site effluent

disposal system.

(ii) Within the Moonshine Valley Area - 1.5 hectares. This shall include 5000m2 of contiguous land where any part does not have a slope exceeding 11 degrees, as measured between two points no more than 10 metres apart, which is able to accommodate all of the following:

3 See Sanson, Cook and Fairweather (2004).

4 See Section 7 (Subdivision) of the District Plan Rule 7.16.1.2.

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- A residential building platform - Vehicle access to the residential building platform - A minimum area of 800m2 for the purposes of accommodating an on-site effluent

disposal system.

(iii) In other areas – 1 hectare5. This shall include 5000m2 of contiguous land where any part does not have a slope exceeding 11 degrees, as measured between two points no more than 10 metres apart, which is able to accommodate all of the following: - A residential building platform - Vehicle access to the residential building platform - A minimum area of 800m2 for the purposes of accommodating an on-site effluent

disposal system. Other relevant standards include minimum requirements regarding access, preventing rural residential development within 500 metres of existing intensive farming operations, and Controlled Activity Standards relating to earthworks. In addition, in the Rural Zone the construction of a dwelling on a section under 1 hectare in size is a Non-Complying Activity.

2.2 Rural Residential Trends in Palmerston North, 1999-2008

The Table below shows the pattern of rural residential development that has taken place

over a 10 year time span, between 1999 and 2008.

Consents Issued 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Rural/Rural residential

dwellings 37 34 33 46 50 49 31 43 14 28

Building consents

authorised 244 215 242 281 318 397 347 379 257 180

% of Rural/Rural

Residential dwellings as

total of new dwellings 15.2 15.8 13.6 16.4 15.7 12.3 8.9 11.3 5.4 15.6

Table 3: Rural Residential Development in Palmerston North

Table 3 shows a fairly consistent demand pattern in the number of rural-residential

dwellings over the time period with a slight overall decline trend emerging, between 2004

and 2007. There is a notable spike upwards in 2008.

Map 1 in Appendix A, shows rural and rural residential development within the Palmerston

North City boundary over the last 10 years. Within the rural residential overlay area there

are several new clusters of rural residential development, for example around the Pahiatua

Track and Pineland Drive, shown in Figures 1 and 2 below. Considerable rural residential

development has also occurred outside of the rural residential overlay, in the rural zone.

Some of this development has been smaller than the 4 hectare standard.

5 This area is commonly referred to as the rural residential Overlay area, and is identified in the Rural

Zone, by a “hatching” notation.

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Within the rural residential overlay area, in the last 10 years, Council monitoring of the

consent activity and status, shows a varied picture as shown on Map 2 in Appendix A. This

map indicates that there have been quite a range of compliance issues, with the other

standards, as defined in the District Plan.

As shown on Map 3 in Appendix A, the majority of new allotments created in the Rural

Residential Overlay area are within the range of 0.6 to 3.9 ha and 4 to 11.9 ha in size.

Figure 2: Snapshot of subdivision around

Pineland Drive

Figure 1: Snapshot of subdivision

around the Pahiatua Track

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The following presents some statistics summarising the demand pattern for Rural

Residential Development in the Rural Zone, over the past 10 years.

Rural Zone, Rural Residential landbank

Rural Subdivision (Outside Overlay Area) 2001.29ha 232 Lots

Rural Subdivision (Inside Overlay Area) 2583.66ha 521 Lots

Rural Residential landbank as defined by Area (District Plan):

Rural Residential Overlay Area 10805.26ha

Parklands 26.17ha

Moonshine Valley 76.15ha

Aokautere Rural Residential 298.91ha

The following tables provide further breakdown of the size of the allotments created within

the Rural Zone and Rural Residential Overlay Area.

Figure 3: Range of Parcel Sizes (Lots) Created, PNCC Rural Zone (1999-2009)

The largest single proportion of lots created were between one and two hectares and within

the rural residential overlay. This could be attributable to the Controlled Activity standard of

one hectare for the Rural Residential Overlay encouraging parcels of this size to be

created.

Anecdotally PNCC staff has observed demand for smaller lots (2500m2 to 5000m2); Figure

4 below provides a further breakdown of the number of these smaller lots that have been

created.

0

50

100

150

200

250

<0.1ha 0.1-1ha 1-2ha 2-4ha 4-8ha >8ha

Nu

mb

er

of

Par

cels

Cre

ate

d

Parcel Size Created

Subdivision within PNCC Rural Zone over past 10 years

Rural Zone

Rural Residential Overlay

Split - between RR Overlay andRural Zone

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Figure 4: Range of Parcel Sizes (Lots) Created Under 1ha, PNCC Rural Zone (1999-

2009)

Of note from Figure 4, is that most of the lots under one hectare have been created in the

Rural Zone outside of the Rural Residential Overlay; this is considerably less than the four

hectare standard specified in the District Plan for the Rural Zone.

A review of Rural-residential subdivision consents approved under the current District Plan

framework have highlighted a number of resource management issues6 including:

the potential for low density urban growth extending into areas potentially inappropriate

for such growth;

An increased desire for urban services in the rural environment and the ad-hoc

provision of associated infrastructure, in particular local roading networks;

the effectiveness and suitability of on-site wastewater treatment systems (septic tanks);

potential effects on the overall productivity of the rural zone;

the subdivision of rural land that may suitable for future residential growth;

effects on rural amenity and local landscape features; and

reverse sensitivity (complaints from new rural residents about existing rural activities);

2.3 Palmerston North – Physical Resource Description

2.3.1 Landforms

The 2008 Palmerston North City Council State of the Environment Report records the

following information about the City’s land resources:

- Palmerston North City occupies an area of 32,594 hectares. Its land area extends northeast to Ashhurst and the Manawatu Gorge, eastward up to the ridgeline of the Tararua Ranges,

6 Palmerston North City Council (2011) Rural Residential Land Use Strategy Discussion Document.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

<0.1ha 0.1-0.25ha 0.25-0.5ha 0.5-0.75ha 0.75-1ha

Nu

mb

er

of

Par

cels

Cre

ate

d

Parcel Size Created

Subdivision within PNCC Rural Zone Less than 1 hectare

Rural Zone

Rural Residetnial Overlay

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November 2011 11

and also extends south of the City. In the Palmerston North City District Plan, the total land area as zoned comprises approximately 18% urban and 82% rural.

- The rural land contains two clearly distinct landforms. On the eastern side, steep hill country extends up to the ridgeline of the Tararua Ranges. The remaining landscape is lowland plains, formed by the Manawatu River that flows southwestward through the City. Typical rural land uses include farming, plantation forestry, and areas of native vegetation.

Figure 5: Palmerston North Land Resource: (Source Turitea Reserve Management Plan)

The New Zealand Land Resource Inventory (NZLRI) undertaken in the 1970s and 1980s in New Zealand, provides an inventory of the City’s land resource. The Inventory records five physical factors for each ‘unit’: rock type, soil, slope, erosion and vegetative cover. These factors along with climate considerations are used to determine land-use capability classification. Land use capability (LUC) is an ordered arrangement of the land which classify its capacity to sustain production permanently.

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There are eight major land-use capability classes. Class I and II comprise land which is most suitable for cropping, Class III and IV can, in some areas, sustain cropping, Classes V to VII are suitable for pastoral or forestry activities. The limitations reach a maximum with Class VIII, being land which is suitable only for protection purposes. The LUC information is available for all of New Zealand and is mapped at a 1:50,000 scale. LUC data has been used by Local Government to help determine resource management policy positions, or highlight areas of concern and to assess areas of sustainable land uses for areas of land (Jessen, 2001). In the Palmerston North District Plan, it is understood that, the Rural-Residential overlay was principally derived from LUC Class V and higher land. In other words, land less able to support more intensive farming such as cropping or intensive pastoral farming. From Table 4 below it can be seen that approximately 16% of the Palmerston North City area is what can be considered high class land. LUC classes I and II generally correlate with ‘high class soils’. Some 30% of the Palmerston North land area is LUC Class III and IV which is still considered to be productive land, but likely to contain other limitations such as climate which do restrict the use of land. The largest proportion of land fall within classes VI and VII, being some 41% of the District.

Class I

Class II

Class III

Class IV

Class V

Class VI

Class VII

Class VIII Excl Total

ha 1219.2 4069.4 7500.8 2637.3 0.0 9376.0 4153.7 435.3 3764.1 33155.8

% of PNCC land 3.7 12.3 22.6 8.0 0.0 28.3 12.5 1.3 11.4 100.0 Table 4: The New Zealand Land Resource Inventory Classifications for Palmerston

North City

The range and proportion of LUC classes generally affect patterns of land use. A

comparison of the three main categories of land use is shown below, along with a

comparison with two neighbouring territorial authorities, of Manawatu and Horowhenua

District Council. The figures used are sourced from the 2007 Agricultural Production

Census.

Palmerston North City Manawatu District Horowhenua District

Cropping &

Horticulture

1.2% 2.8% 3.8%

Pastoral 85.2% 87.6% 78.6%

Production Forestry 7% 2.8% 7.8%

Table 5: Comparative analysis of the three main rural land use activities in the

Palmerston North, Manawatu and Horowhenua Districts (2007 Agricultural

Production Census)

2.3.2 Land Transport Resources

The length of roads, both sealed and unsealed, is one measure of the level of infrastructure provided by the Council or the New Zealand Transport Agency (NZTA) as Road Controlling Authorities. As at April 2005 the Council controlled 460 kilometres of road.

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Total Length of Roads in Palmerston North, as at April 2005:

Roading Assets Urban Rural Overall

Sealed 305.10 km 117.2 km 422.30 km

Unsealed 0.90 km 36.9 km 37.80 km

Percentage Sealed 99.71 % 76.05 % 91.78 %

Total Maintained 306.00 km 154.10 km 460.10 km

[Source: Palmerston North City Council - City Networks Unit, 2010]

In addition, NZTA administers and funds 48 km of roads within Palmerston North City. This is made up of SH57 (28.6km), SH3 (18km), and SH56 (1.6km).7 Surveys have shown that the majority of people residing in rural residential properties still work in town. Accordingly, the impact on rural roading is an important consideration for Council. Currently public transport services from rural residential areas to the City’s major employment areas are limited. Initial discussion with PNCC staff have identified a number of transportation issues specific to rural residential subdivision: Some developments (in consents process) do not adequately consider the downstream

effects or total effect of all small developments. Rights of Way do not provide for good connectivity and raise network pressure on some

roads, lowering amenity for those residents whose properties are adjacent to that road. A number of Roads have been indentified in the City’s rural areas, where from a traffic

point of view further development is considered inappropriate. Many roads where rural residential development has been occurring are not suitable for

high volume traffic movements, as sight distances are often inadequate. A common argument is that as traffic volumes on the road are low, so it is unlikely that a driver turning into a property will encounter another vehicle at critical times. But as development in the area increases, so too does the risk of accidents.

A review of the Rural Road Standards needs to be considered. Pressure to increase roading standards places more pressure on funding. In some locations, the specifications may be inappropriate from a usage and urban design perspective.

At the time of preparing this report Council was currently undertaking investigations and supporting studies to develop a new roading hierarchy and road design standards for Palmerston North City. Proposed Plan Change 7, Roading Hierarchy, was publically notified 16 November 2011.

7 Sourced from: State of the Environment Report, Length of Our Roading Network.

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3 Issues and Effects

3.1 Policy Issues identified in research papers

A number of research papers were reviewed to summarise common environmental effects

arising from rural residential subdivision. Hunter et al (1998) concluded that environmental

effects of any rural subdivision is dependent on a range of factors, including environmental

setting, size of lots, spatial and temporal pattern of subdivision, mix of land uses, and

attitudes and values of land holders.

3.1.1 Loss of Versatile or High Class Soils

The loss of high class soils through subdividing rural land into smaller units raises two

areas of concern. Firstly, that these smaller units may no longer be used for commercial

food production, and secondly, the loss of the ability to use these soils in the future due to

them being covered with hard surfaces, foreclosing future options. Table 4 above showing

LUC classes shows that approximately 16% of the of the land area of PNCC is identified as

Class I & II land. While this data is soils information, highly versatile soils are generally

found on highly versatile land. The loss of versatile soils has been raised as a concern in a

number of notified subdivision applications and through the District Plan review process

(see below in Section 3.3).

Hunter et al (1998) noted the following points regarding versatile soils:

The size of the issue depends upon the percentage loss of soil under hard surfaces.

Importance increases with the overall density of development enabled through the

subdivision.

Hard surfaces commonly cover about 400 m2 per lot, plus a driveway.

Percentage loss of versatile land, for areas not requiring additional roading is estimated

at 1% for 8 ha lots and 2% for 4 ha lots. Internal roads commonly occupy 4-8% of the

area, in a conventional rural-residential development.

For rural-residential development, the percentage loss of versatile land is estimated as

>12% for 1 ha lots and >20% for 0.5 ha lots.

Regional Policy Framework

The Proposed One Plan as amended by Decisions, August 2010 discusses the issue of the

loss of versatile land. In the Scope and Background of Chapter 3 – Infrastructure, Energy,

Waste, Hazardous Substances and Contaminated Land it states the following :

Urban growth and versatile soils

Allowing urban expansion, including the development of rural residential “lifestyle blocks”,

onto the more versatile soils adjacent to urban areas results in a reduction of options for

their future productive use. This can adversely affect the ability of future generations to

meet their reasonably foreseeable needs.

This is supported by the following issue, objective and policy:

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Issue 3-1C: Adverse effects from urban growth on versatile soils

Urban growth, including the development of rural residential “lifestyle blocks”, on versatile

soils can occur on the fringes of some of the Region's urban areas, most notably

Palmerston North. This can result in those soils no longer being available for use as

production land. [pg 3-3]

Objective 3-1C: Urban growth and versatile soils

Avoiding, as far as is reasonably practicable, urban growth that results in Class I and II1

versatile soils2 being no longer available for use as production land^. [pg 3-4]

__________________ 1 As identified in the Land Use Capability (LUC) Classification system. 2 For general information purposes these soils largely comprise the following soil

series: Egmont, Kiwitea, Westmere, Manawatu, Karapoti, Dannevirke, Ohakune,

Kairanga, Opiki and Te Arakura.

Policy 3-3B: Urban growth and versatile soils

In providing for urban growth, including rural residential (lifestyle blocks), Territorial

Authorities^ shall place priority on:

(a) the retention, as far as is reasonably practicable, Class I and II versatile soils being

made no longer available for use as production land^

(b) considering the consolidation of existing or partly developed areas before opening

up urban development.

These insertions into the One Plan are further explained at 3.7.1A:

3.7.1A Urban growth and versatile soils

The RMA requires those with functions under it to have regard to resource costs and

benefits of urban development. For example, directing urban growth or development onto

less versatile soils may increase travel distances, costs of service provision or other

economic or environmental costs of land development. However, allowing urban expansion

onto the more versatile soils adjacent to urban areas will result in a reduction of options for

their future productive use, which is a cost to future generations. Territorial Authorities need

to weigh these matters when making land use decisions. [pg 3-14]

If the above objective and policy come “in to effect” unchanged, PNCC will need to

demonstrate in their second generation District Plan how the policies in the District Plan

“give effect” to the RPS (One Plan).

3.1.2 Decreases in groundwater quality/Impacts on water quality

Changes in potential impacts on water quality can depend on what the previous land use

activity was. Some studies have found that effects on water resources and water quality

can be negative if changing from pastoral farming, but positive if cropping land is

subdivided. Hunter et al (1998) concluded that the increased potential for contamination of

ground and surface water from effluent disposal is an effect arising from subdivision (a

negative effect) and needs to be balanced against the reduced input of nitrates and

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pesticides associated with a reduction in the extent of intensive land uses such a dairying

and cropping (a positive effect).

Septic tank discharges associated with rural households can have significant cumulative

effects when lot sizes are small. The Regional Council rules and standards regarding

effluent disposal is discussed further in section 3.2.1 below.

The potential impacts of rural subdivision on the water resource will obviously depend on

what water supply is being used.

Some research has identified that stormwater runoff can have an adverse impact, if

improperly designed. Factors that would increase the likelihood of adverse stormwater

effects occurring include poor drainage on sites, steep slopes or gradients around the

developed site, low grade in streams and ‘sensitive’ land uses downstream.

Inadequate sediment control during construction periods (earthworks) can lead to

sedimentation of waterways which has both biological and hydrological impacts. While this

is generally a short term effect, it can lead to adverse effects depending on the sensitivity of

the receiving environment. The Regional Council also has rules and standards relating to

earthworks.

3.1.3 Biodiversity

Whereas some native birds thrive in subdivided areas (e.g., fantail), those requiring

specialised habitats, and those affected by the presence of humans, habitat modification,

and domestic cats, may decline. Subdivision and development adjacent to or within

specialised habitats such as forest and wetlands may result in declining values of bird

habitat and loss of biodiversity.

A number studies reviewed found that there is often an intention to plant trees on lifestyle

properties, with the types of species being planted varying greatly from exotic landscape

trees to native trees.

A number of studies have also found that rural residential subdivision can increase plant

pests and weed diversity.

3.1.4 Amenity/Landscape Effects

There are a number of issues related to rural subdivision that fall within the topic of

“amenity”. Subdivision of large areas of rural land can been seen as introducing a

considerable change to the rural environment. Subdivision may introduce smaller

landscape patterns, due to housing, roading and additional planting (gardens).

There can also be a range of impacts on landscape values, at varying scales. The degree

of sensitivity of a landscape to subdivision will depend on a number of factors, including

such things as natural patterns of landscape and drainage, significant natural features and

the values that a community places on landscapes or particular landscape features. The

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Palmerston North District has a number of landscapes that are highly valued by the

community (discussed further in Section 3.1.4 below).

Palmerston North City Council has recently commissioned a report to prepare a detailed

Landscape Study of the City8. A further staged investigation is underway to supplement

this Report and to support future Community Consultation processes to identify the values

the community places on the different landscape types, units and attributes.

3.1.5 Size of lots

The size (area) of properties (or allotments) within a subdivision, can affect the impact of

activities or particular events that are calculated on a per hectare basis. Factors such as

effluent disposal, runoff of water, sediment generation, loss of versatile soils are all

dependent upon the relative areal extent or density of housing, hard surface, earthworks,

septic tanks etc. Other things being equal, there is a general principle that the smaller the

average area of lots within a subdivision, the larger the impact of subdivision. Therefore

where small subdivision sizes are proposed, more care must be taken by decision makers

to ensure that there will not be significant adverse effects. This may not apply to such an

extent, when services such as effluent disposal are integrated, as in a rural-residential

development.

From a number of studies looking at smallholders and small holdings in Canterbury, Cook &

Fairweather (2005) noted two conclusions as to why larger farming blocks were being

subdivided into smaller units. Firstly, subdividing into smaller horticultural blocks is

attractive as smaller blocks are more viable units for this type of production. And secondly,

subdivision also meets market demand from purchasers having the desire for a rural

lifestyle, where production activity is a secondary consideration. They went on to state, the

immediate implication of the second wave is concern over impacts on agricultural

production from the increase in small holding, where land previously used for farming fails

to be used for the production of agricultural goods. As Hayes (2002) observed, such

concerns have resulted in legal challenges to the subdivision of farmland with appeals to

the Courts for the purpose of overturning decisions to subdivide. The Environment Court

has found the efficient use of the land area had bearing on decisions to subdivide rural land

while expressing concern over the changes that might occur in the rural landscape (e.g.,

Tata Partnership v Tasman District Council 22/1/03, Wg/2003). However, as Wheen (2002)

has highlighted, the Courts have also concluded that while subdivision of rural land would

not necessarily sustain the life supporting capacity of the soil and maintain resources for

future generations, it is possible to argue that other uses can be condoned where they

provide for the needs and rights of an expanding community.

3.1.6 Land Use and Production on Rural Residential Blocks

Research on land use change and the wider regional implications of smallholding, confirms

that seeking privacy is an important motivation for smallholders and that long-term

ownership of land is anticipated by smallholders. The literature also shows subdivision from

8 Opus International Consultants (2008), Palmerston North Landscape Study.

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traditional farm land does not necessarily lead to a decrease in productivity. For Scarrow et

al.’s (1996) study at least, an estimated 52 per cent of land included in the survey was

producing more, or equal, to what it produced prior to subdivision, presumably on the

larger-sized holdings.

Fairweather & Robertson (2000) surveyed a number of small holders to ascertain the

smallholders’ past, present and future land use activities to find out what they produced on

an annual basis. The results are shown as Table 6 below, the table. Shows the land-use

activity data and reports the number who selected each option and presents the land uses

in order from most to least frequently selected.

Table 6: Smallholders’ past, present and future land use and value of

production (from Fairweather and Robertson (2000)).

3.1.7 Disadvantages of Rural Residential Living

In their research, Cook and Fairweather (2005) surveyed smallholders to gain an

understanding of the disadvantages encountered with the rural-residential lifestyle choice.

This is shown in Table 7 below.

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Reverse sensitivity, or complaints about existing farming operations (smell, noise) is

anecdotally a common concern with rural residential development as reported by Local

Government Planning Staff. The scale of this issue prompted MfE to produce a brochure

“Thinking about living in the Country”.

Table 7: Survey results of smallholders to gain an understanding of the

disadvantages encountered with rural residential dwellings (from Cook

and Fairweather (2005))

3.2 Horizons Regional Council Concerns with rural residential development

Horizons Regional Council notified the Proposed One Plan (POP) in May 2007. Hearings

were completed in April 2010 and the Decisions on the POP released in August 2010. The

relevant Proposed One Plan objectives and policies, (and where appropriate rules), were

reviewed in order to identify areas likely to be of interest to the City Council in reviewing the

rural residential rules and also potential impacts on planning for future rural residential

development.

In addition, to a brief analysis of the implications of the Proposed One Plan, matters

addressed in discussions with Horizons’ staff from have been incorporated into the section

below.

3.2.1 Effluent disposal

There are strong Policy signals in the POP and from discussions with staff that effluent

disposal is a key concern, particularly onsite disposal from clusters of small allotments.

The proposed RPS sets out policies relating to point source discharges to land, it requires

that point source discharges are managed so that there is no significant degradation of

existing groundwater, that pathogens are controlled, and the re-use of nutrients and water

is maximised.

The Proposed Regional Plan allows for the onsite wastewater disposal subject to

performance standards, the permitted activity standards depend on the overall size of the

property (lots) and soil type. Smaller lots will require secondary treatment systems and the

standards would not allow for onsite wastewater discharges to land where properties are

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smaller than 2500m2 (or 5000m2 for subdivisions after the rule came into effect) as a

permitted activity. Properties that were smaller than 5000m2 would require consent as a

restricted discretionary activity for onsite wastewater disposal.

This will be an important matter for Council to consider in its reviewing of the rural-

residential subdivision rules.

As part of the development of the POP, Horizons have developed a standard also known as

a Manual for Onsite Wastewater Systems, to assist applicants with the design and

management of systems. The relevant provisions are set out below;

1.3 Regional Rules

New Proposed Regional Rules for land disposal of treated effluent have been developed

with the objective of improving the quality of effluent discharge and land disposal systems.

The overall aim is better protection of surface water and groundwater in the Region. The

proposed rules for land disposal are more stringent than previous rules for small sites

(generally accepted as being up to 5,000 m2 where there are risks from cumulative effects

of multiple onsite effluent disposal systems. Proposed requirements for large sites (defined

for this document as being greater than 10 hectares), are less stringent.

1.3.1 Permitted Activity Rules

On-site wastewater systems must comply with Permitted Activity criteria, or they will require

discharge consents from Horizons.

Policy 13-3 of the Proposed One Plan (POP) sets out the management objectives for

discharges of domestic wastewater.

Proposed Rule 13-10 sets out the conditions/standards for Permitted Activity classification

for the discharge of domestic wastewater from systems that existed lawfully when the POP

came into effect.

Rules 13-11 and 13-12 set out the conditions/standards for Permitted Activity classifications

for new and upgraded systems. The rule for new systems only becomes applicable after the

One Plan, or this section of the Plan, becomes operative.

[pg 3 Manual for Onsite Wastewater Systems (2010)]9

3.2.2 Biodiversity

The loss of indigenous biological diversity is identified as a significant resource

management issue in the POP. In fact, the POP (as amended by Decisions) has the loss of

the Region’s native habitat (indigenous biological diversity) as one of its four keystone

environmental issues. Objectives in the RPS are designed to protect rare and threatened

habitats, and maintain at-risk habitats.

9 http://www.horizons.govt.nz/about-us/one-

plan/overview/background/SearchForm?Search=Onsite+Wastewater+System+Manual

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The Regional Plan specifies rare, threatened and at-risk habitats and sets out a

methodology for determing how these are to be identified and classified. Schedule E is a

component of Part II - the Regional Plan, and assists the undertaking of assessment of

habitats, and in determining whether a resource consent is required.

The policy implications for rural residential development are that such habitats are

predominantly located in the rural areas (hence Council Planners processing development

or subdivision consents may need to consider if the application triggers Regional Council

consent requirements in addition to those in the District Plan). Such biodiversity features

(e.g. bush remnant, wetlands) may also be a catalyst for protection, through techniques

used to manage or control the effects of rural-residential subdivision (see Section 4.1.13

below).

3.2.3 Natural Hazards

The Manawatu-Wanganui Region is vulnerable to a number of natural hazards. The

principal threat is from flooding. Other natural hazards include earthquakes, tsunami,

volcanic action and land subsidence. Climate change is likely to influence the frequency,

scale or intensity of atmospherically influenced natural hazard events such as flooding.

The vulnerability of the Manawatu-Wanganui Region to natural hazard events is increased

because of human activity such as:

land disturbance and vegetation clearance, particularly on hill slopes in a Hill

Country Erosion Management Area, which can increase the erosion risk and the

amount of sediment in the flood channel, in turn increasing the intensity of, and

effects from, floods and reducing the effectiveness of mitigation measures such as

stopbanks;

the increasing number of people living in hazard-prone areas (including associated

infrastructure) such as along the coast and adjacent to rivers, which increases the

damage potential from natural hazard events, putting lives at risk. It can also reduce

the effectiveness of existing mitigation measures such as stopbanks.

The approach to managing natural hazards in POP is to:

a) set out a clear regional framework for natural hazard management,

b) improve clarity around the respective roles of the Regional Council and Territorial

Authorities under the RMA,

c) discourage future residential development and placement of critical infrastructure* in

areas prone to natural hazard events, particularly areas at high risk of flooding, and

d) continue to provide information to Territorial Authorities and the general public with

regard to natural hazards.

[refer Chapter 10 – Natural Hazards]

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Schedule I shows floodways and areas prone to flooding and include a number of areas in

the City: Moutoa floodway, Taonui Basin spillways, floodways and floodable area and the

Reid Line floodway.

Policy 10-2 in the RPS is particularly relevant as it places restrictions on development in

areas prone to flooding. Flood avoidance is to be preferred to flood mitigation, the RPS

generally requiring dwellings not to be located in any 0.5% AEP area.

3.2.4 Landscapes and natural character

The POP identifies the Tararua and Ruahine Ranges in particular as being at risk from the

effects of development, including from development in the rural zone and rural residential

subdivision. The policy objective is that the outstanding landscapes identified are protected

as far as practicable:

Table 8: Part of Table F1 in Schedule F, showing Regionally Significant

landscapes within the Palmerston North City Council area

Schedule F: Regionally Outstanding Natural Features and Landscapes is a component of

Part I - the Regional Policy Statement and lists some regionally outstanding natural features

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and landscapes in the Manawatu-Wanganui Region and their associated characteristics

and values, in narrative form.

Similar to the requirement for assessments to be undertaken for biodiversity purposes,

further studies under this policy will be required (using the approach set out in Policy 7-7A

and the criteria listed in Table 7.2) at the time that any use or development is proposed for

those areas, so that the actual location of the feature or landscape can be defined in

relation to the use or development proposal.

This will be an important consideration for Council to consider in its review of rural

residential subdivision rules. The Palmerston North Landscape Study and supplementary

work will significantly assist in providing direction and a defining a landsape management

framework for the City, including the management of the landscape values within the rural

areas.

Also see Section 4.1.7 below that discusses the technique of identifying particular ridges

which are considered by the community to have special landscape values and which may

be adversely affected by activities occurring along or close to the line of the ridge.

3.2.5 Discharges to Air

In the decisions on the POP Chapter 8 – Air in the RPS it is noted that in respect of ambient

air quality:

Policy 8-4 and the associated methods assist in education of the community about rural

versus lifestyle block incompatibilities and also encourage Territorial Authorities to review

future land use developments to prevent incompatibility and reduce future complaints.

This policy reads:

Policy 8-4: Incompatible land^ uses

Air quality problems arising from incompatible land^ uses establishing near each other must

be avoided, remedied or mitigated primarily through district plans^ and Territorial Authority^

consent decisions which:

(a) prevent the future establishment of potentially incompatible land^ use activities near

each other, or

(b) allow the establishment of potentially incompatible land^ use activities near each

other provided no existing lawful activity, operated in a manner that adopts the best

practicable option^ or which is otherwise environmentally sound, is restricted or

compromised.

Air quality is therefore another consideration that should be taken into account when

determining the best locations for allowing rural-residential development. These effects are

touched on in Section 3.1.7 above.

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3.3 District Plan Review Discussion Document – Summary of Submissions

relating to rural residential matters

SUBMITTER SUMMARY OF SUBMISSION POINTS

Perception:

PLANNING

(Phillip Percy &

Alan Titchener).

Gives the example of the Hart subdivision on the eastern end of Kelvin Grove which includes a list of environmental outcomes that can be used when planning and designing rural residential land.

Notes that a prescriptive minimum lot size approach would not allow the design to be fully responsive to the limitations of the site nor would it provide a means for fully utilising the positive opportunities available on the site. The minimum lot size is classed as a blunt instrument for managing the effects of development in rural areas whereas the preference should be to create an optimum development rather than necessary a ‘complying’ development.

The revised provisions in the District Plan should allow for more creativity, innovative and flexibility in planning and design of communities. With specific regard to landscape character and amenity values, these need to be tailored together with the outcome of the Palmerston North City Landscape study.

Comprehensive planning for larger areas should encourage integration and connectivity within and between development which can be achieved through structure planning, design guide or both.

Integrated management of rural land across local government boundaries should occur. PN city has relatively small land area and relatively high proportion of urban land use compared with neighbouring local authorities.

Trust Power

Limited

No minimum lot size suggested. The conception is to retain the ability of land to be subdivided into smaller lots.

Concerned about rural residential development being inappropriately located incurring reverse sensitivity effects.

Rosemary Adams

Supports lifestyle blocks of less than 1 hectare. Would like the speed limit on local rural roads to be lowered from 100km to 70km thereby

enhancing safety for cyclists and motorists.

Aggregates and

Quarry

Association

Raises concern about ongoing rural zone subdivision as it represents a threat to the overall productivity of the zone and that lifestyles blocks can adversely affect the efficient use and development of the significant natural resources such as aggregate in the zone. This is because aggregates may be constrained by adjoining incompatible or inappropriate land uses such as rural-residential subdivision.

Does not support the notion of lifestyle blocks in Rural Zone less than 1ha. Comments that PNCC need to better manage land identified for rural-residential and to establish

a rural-residential strategy to identify the preferred locations for development to occur.

Nigel & Shirley

Ellingham

Concern that there is no overall plan for potential developers to adhere to in terms of rural residential subdivision.

There are no provisions made for paper roads and no buildings should be allowed to be located on paper roads.

Developers have subdivisions approved with plans within their boundaries. No provision has been made for continuity of roads to adjacent properties.

Believes that Council should make long term plan (20 years) to freeze land for paper roads which would assist potential developers to have clear understanding of the land that could not be built on thereby enhancing the city to have through roads rather than having pockets on a case by case basis

John Whitelock

No existing or previous strategy exists to guide the future development of lifestyle blocks within the City.

Within the large rural sector of PN, there is a need to create an environment that ensures that the rich rural asset is recognised and able to fulfil its production potential.

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A rural residential subdivision area be designated and contained within poorer fertility land Questions the social and personal compatibility between rural residential subdivision and

business of rural sector which includes the following: o rural farm odours o harvesting, cultivation at extended hours o early morning stock movements o farm motorbikes o plant operations Believes that 1 hectare may not be benchmark, if effluent and access can be accommodated in

smaller lots.

Jenny Olsson

‘Lifestyle blocks’ and ‘rural residential’ needs to be defined Minimum lot size requirement must be in line with what the industrial sector can supply in

equipment to treat effluent and household requirements so that the reticulation is not required to be supplied by Council.

The effects of changing zone to allow for more rural residential properties changes the dynamics of rural community as rural residential people don’t necessary have the background of how to behave and make commitment to rural community living.

Mid Central

Health

Encourages Council to use Health Impact Assessment to determine the future development of lifestyle blocks. This will determine the true costs on the rest of Palmerston North citizens of increased urban sprawl created by the current popularity of lifestyle blocks.

Phil Pirie

Subdivision controls in the Rural Zone should be similar to Manawatu District Council which will ensure that there is no creation of inefficiently large lifestyle lots and consequential loss of productive land.

Selwyn Wycherley

PNCC should review performance standards and strategic direction for rural residential development including minimum and maximum thresholds.

Uses the example of Mr Wycherley site which is currently seeking to subdivide the site into 29 lots. This site as stated in the submission is considered to be an excellent example of where a reduction in the minimum rural-residential lot size would provide for demand while avoiding ad hoc rural residential development.

The District Plan should acknowledge unique positive attributes that serviced rural lots and reduce minimum size standards for similar proposed developments in the vicinity of 4000m².

Kevin O’Connor &

Associates Ltd

Outlines the example of the Kingsdale Park Drive subdivision as an opportunity for Council to illustrate strategic planning.

The District Plan should reflect that serviced rural residential lots require less land than conventional rural residential subdivision.

David Parham

A semi urban Greenfield zone should be created to avoid planning and infrastructure problem where rural land is urbanised. The suggested zone would control activities and co-ordinate development so that future use is not prejudiced.

Bruce & Marilyn

Bullock

Provision for a village like development with small lots within a larger rural zone could be provided for people who wish to live in rural environment but not have the responsibility of looking after a large area of land.

Judy Milne

Rural subdivision has adverse effects on rural landscape and poses conflicts of interest between farmers and lifestyle expectation.

Higgins

Aggregates Ltd

Higgins Aggregates Ltd considers it to be inappropriate to implement a minimum lot size of 1heactare for lifestyle blocks as this increases the fragmentation and would create a density of development that is not considered appropriate in Rural Zone.

They also note that the other important issue to consider is the issue of reverse-sensitivity effects arising from rural residential subdivision located in close proximity to industrial type activity and request Council to consider this during the District Plan review.

Noel Olsson The District Plan needs to have zones which do not permit rural residential subdivision

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Restrictions in rural areas on commercial or industrial development

MC² Group Ltd

The release of appropriate lifestyle zones should be balanced against needs to retain productive farmland as well as reserving land on perimeter of city for future growth.

New Zealand

Defence Force

Concerned about rural residential development located close to the Linton Army Camp due to reverse sensitivity issues, security of Camp and traffic issues associated with movement of large military vehicles.

No mention of Linton Army in the reverse sensitivity policies of the subdivision section. NZDF believe adding such a reference would be helpful.

AgResearch

Limited

Rural residential development close to Grasslands Research Centre has the potential to result in reverse sensitivity issues that could limit research undertaken at research centre.

AgResearch seeks Council to introduce guiding provisions in relation to the location of rural residential zones requiring an adequate setback such as 500m from the research centre.

J & K Love Trust

Partnership

That restricted access roads are removed from the Plan as it places subdivision pressure on better rural land in the City.

Rural lifestyle blocks have the potential to improve the landscape.

Horizons Regional

Council

The Proposed One Plan has a higher standard for disposal of effluent waste on site with an aim to minimise cumulative effects on the environment. R13-11 incorporates the minimum lot size required for onsite domestic wastewater discharge.

PN Industrial &

Residential

Developments Ltd

The minimum lot requirements should be 5000m² but between 1500-2000m² of stable land.

Kevin O’Connor &

Associates Ltd

Minimum lot sizes needs to be considered in conjunction with the soil type. Lots of 20 hectares and greater in rural zone subdivision to be non-complying to protect

productive farming capability. Any block suitable for subdivision should have a calculation standard similar to the Manawatu

District Council to provide subdivision opportunities. A minimum lot size of 3500-5000m² but with between 1500-2000m² of stable land. The rational

behind lots sizes is the size of effluent disposal area, water collection tank, driveway and area for dwelling.

Alison Mildon

Lifestyle blocks are a threat to the overall productivity of the rural zone.

Ross Castle

Ashhurst zoning to be either rural or rural residential and wishes for the minimum lot sizes to increase in Ashhurst.

A sustainable and cohesive future development plan should be put in place for Ashhurst before rezoning.

Manawatu

Chamber of

Commerce

Council provides services to the community and if the community has a demand for lifestyle blocks then Council’s job is to manage and enable this.

3.4 Results of Consultation on Residential Growth Options for Palmerston North

(2010)

Council has recently been undertaking work looking at future areas for accommodating

urban growth, one of the questions asked during this consultation process specifically

related to rural residential development. The question and responses are set out below:

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Question 7: Do you think that any of the residential growth areas should be used for

other uses, such as rural residential/lifestyle?

Some submitters were supportive of rural residential subdivision, provided the following

requirements were met:

- Rural residential should be located where soils are difficult for farming and landscape

and vistas are not compromised.

- Council should decide what size of land holding is relevant, with minimum section

sizes for properties.

- Landowners must comply with planning restrictions for that area.

- Fitzherbert East together with Pahiatua Track East and West and Polson Hill (on the

left of SH57 travelling south) should be reserved for rural residential subdivision.

- Old West – Rural/residential subdivision (on left of SH57 travelling south).

- Kahuterawa East and West, and the area between Millricks and Kendalls Line could

be considered for rural residential.

- The existing integrity and character of any particular area must be maintained as much

as possible.

- Some areas have rugged terrain and would be more suited to rural residential than

residential due to infrastructure costs.

- Ashhurst South would suit small lifestyle blocks - 1-2 hectares, better than higher

density housing.

- Need for rural residential lifestyles to cater for all needs - but these should not be on

the better class land (should be on Massey side).

- Those further away from the city should be used for rural residential lifestyle e.g.

Ashhurst North and South, Kahuterawa East and West, Linton, Linton East,

Fitzherbert East, Pahiatua Track West and Hendersons.

A number of submitters were opposed to rural residential subdivision, for the following

reasons:

- Rural residential developments use large areas of land that could otherwise used for

500m2 or 1000m2 sections.

- Rural residential is very expensive to redevelop at a later date - the services have to

be redirected.

- Allowing rural residential development around a city makes urban expansion more

difficult (e.g. Anders Rd).

- Class III soils are valuable too and lifestyle development is not a 'green' option in

terms of reducing carbon footprint or peak oil.

- Would prefer to see residential growth rather than lifestyle as it is a better use of land

to house a greater population. Lifestyle blocks waste farmable land.

- More intensive development contributes more to compact city.

- Lifestyle blocks mean more vehicle trips to town, reduce quality of life for urban

residents, increase crime, and discourage active transport.

- Rural residential development undermines the goal of environmentally sustainable

transport.

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4 Techniques to Control Effects relating to Rural Residential

Development

4.1 Introduction

A Ministry for the Environment Publication10 outlined a toolbox of planning

techniques that relate to the development of land in rural areas. This stock take of

techniques, provided the basis for the following section, but has been expanded on,

and where possible examples are cross referenced to actual Council policies that

are summarised in Appendix B, Review of Territorial Authority Policies.

Councils use a range of planning techniques to control the effects of rural

residential development. These include:

Specifying standards for lot size, shape, minimum frontages

Controlling rural subdivision as a controlled activity, discretionary activity or non-

complying activity with respective performance conditions for each

Setting minimum allotment areas for subdivision and associated minimum site

areas for dwellings (permitted or controlled activity), defined according to zones

or management areas

Placing controls over buildings rather than allotments

Protecting ridgelines and view-shafts

Using rationing methods

Identifying special areas

Using structure plans

Using clustering techniques

Residential Farm (or Forest) Park Development Requirements

Allowing nature feature protection lots

Transferable Development Rights

Each of these techniques are outlined. The advantages and disadvantages are

outlined.

4.1.1 Specifying standards for Lot size, shape, minimum frontages

This is a common control technique that gives clarity and is used as an alternative to

minimum lot sizes in order to space lots out along roads for traffic safety reasons

and to retain open space between allotments. An example of this type of technique

is in the Manawatu District Plan, which has a standard that in Rural zones the

minimum lot size is 8 ha (in Rural Zone 1) and an average 4 ha lot size in the Rural

Zone 2. These rules relate to the effects on versatile land and productive options.

10

The Impact of Development on Rural Lanscape Values, 2000.

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Advantages

Can assist in ensuring subsequent development is well-spaced from adjoining

development.

Avoids irregular or awkward shapes and maintains spaciousness between lots.

Disadvantages

An arbitrary standard with no better relationship to the variability of soils or the

landscape. Can be difficult to apply to complex and varied topography.

The use of standards relating to road frontages and entrances would need to be

based on sound evidence that the perception of a property from its road frontage

is an important landscape value for road users.

A frontage requirement does not control where dwellings and driveways will be

built and these are often the most obvious visual effects of a new allotment.

Requirements for lengthy road frontages can cause allotments to be “strung-out”

along roads compared to a concentration of allotments and therefore could

impact on landscape values.

4.1.2 Controlled Activity

A common control technique is to enable rural subdivision as a controlled activity –

and generally a minimum allotment area standard applies. There are many

examples of the types of provisions that can be included regarding controlled activity

applications, ranging from very general to very specific.

Section 6.7 in Appendix B shows a range of allotment standards which have been

defined by other territorial authorities.

Advantages

Some certainty regarding level of subdivision and development that can take

place.

Assessment criteria that relates clearly to the values of a particular area is useful

in providing specific guidance.

Non-regulatory information, guidelines, advocacy and other assistance can

support the plan’s provisions.

Can specify what matters will be assessed as part of an application. For

example, Tauranga District Council’s Variation No 1 to its Proposed District Plan

required as a standard for its controlled activity status, that a landscape

assessment be undertaken and presented with the application for subdivision.

Disadvantages

Council staff are concerned as to how far they can go in go in applying

conditions that seek amendments to boundaries, design, layout, reserve before

it effectively becomes a declination of what was originally sought.

Avoidance of adverse effects limited to matters of detail, if greater discretion or

control is required to ensure values are not adversely affected controlled activity

status may not be sufficient.

Inconsistency of interpretation by staff and applicants of assessment criteria.

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4.1.3 Discretionary Activity

The category of consent can sometimes be a default activity status for applications

that do not meet controlled activity rules, though for a number of Councils both full

and restricted discretionary status are used.

District Plans have been found to vary markedly in the level of guidance given on

policy or assessment criteria to assist Councils and applicants in considering

whether an application will be deemed controlled or discretionary activity subdivision

consent.

Section 6.7 in Appendix B shows a range of allotment standards which have been

defined by other territorial authorities.

Advantages

Ability to decline applications.

Can consider wider effects (compared to controlled).

Flexibility to consider range of allotment sizes without being arbitrarily limited by

a minimum allotment area.

Opportunities for public involvement (assuming public notification).

Restricted discretionary status can be used to clearly define the matters to be

considered, and applications can be specified as non-notified without the written

approval of affected persons being obtained.

Disadvantages

Uncertainty for landowners, may discourage investment.

Potential for issues that may or may not be of resource management concern to

be raised.

Public involvement through public notification and submissions can act as

significant disincentive to pursuing a resource consent.

4.1.4 Non-Complying Activity

Many District Plans specify subdivisions that do not comply with controlled activity

status as non-complying activity.

Advantage

Clear and certain application of rules, gives a clear signal that the minimum area

– or other standards – must be complied with, or the application will default to

being a Non-Complying Activity and can be more difficult to obtain consent.

Disadvantages

Can be an arbitrary approach, and not allow sufficient flexibility to consider a

range of approaches

Can be used as a default position.

Significant disincentive to landowners and potential purchasers.

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Creative approached may be stifled.

4.1.5 Minimum Allotment Area for subdivision and associated minimum site

areas for dwellings (permitted or controlled activity) or other activities,

defined according to zones or management areas

The minimum areas are usually based on a range of environmental outcomes

sought for different zones in the district. It is not uncommon for the District Plan to

have different allotment areas based on different zones. For example the Manawatu

District Council has different standards for subdivisions within defined ‘nodal’ areas.

This technique may also include specifying a minimum effective disposal area (e.g.

as proposed by Horizons in the POP – see Section 3.2.1).

The Tararua District Council’s District plan has moved away from defining a

minimum allotment area, instead a suitable subdivision area is based on meeting

the effluent disposal areas required. The District Plan does however have minimum

subdivision sizes around urban buffer areas.

Advantages

Certainty regarding level of subdivision and development that can, or is likely to

take place, in any area.

Relatively straightforward enforcement and administration of subdivision.

Overall density of dwellings can be precisely achieved.

Disadvantage

With performance standards for effluent disposal fields, likely that easier option

of meeting the standards would be chosen, and opportunity for enhancing

treatment or design lost.

4.1.6 Controls over buildings rather than allotments

This is a traditional District Plan approach where controls are placed over buildings

in rural areas such as setbacks from boundaries and separation distances between

dwellings. Standards are used for different reasons e.g. amenity and landscape

values to retain spaciousness, rural outlooks and privacy.

An example of this technique is found in the Manawatu District Council Plan,

whereby in the rural zone, houses within 100m of road frontage cannot be located

within 400m of an existing dwelling. The purpose of this rule is to prevent ribbon

development along rural roads.

Advantages

Certainty regarding the location of dwellings and other buildings, for people

wanting to build, and for adjoining landowners.

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Enforcement and administration of building requirements are relatively

straightforward.

Where the effect of building is on visual amenity as viewed from roads, a

separation distance can ensure buildings do not dominate the outlook from

adjoining roads.

Disadvantages

Standards often imposed without research or sound understanding of their

effects or whether or not the desired environmental results will be achieved.

Often the effectiveness of separation distances is overestimated – particularly in

a rural area.

Does not take into account the varied nature of the landscape or control the

siting and orientation of buildings on the site.

Separation distances often fail due to the unfairness of the “first-in first-served”

nature of the rule, which then constrains the choice of sites for subsequent

houses.

4.1.7 Ridgeline and View-Shaft Protection

This is where District Plans identify particular ridges which are considered by the

community to have special landscape values and which may be adversely affected

by earthworks, utilities, vegetation clearance, or buildings immediately along or

close to the line of the ridge. Some Plans also identify view shafts from important or

popular public viewing points, which could be blocked or detracted from tree planting

or buildings in close proximity to the viewing point.

The Hastings District Plan and Manawatu District Plan are both examples where

view-shaft and ridgeline protection areas are identified and must be taken into

account with consenting subdivisions. Consent Notices are sometimes placed on

Certificates of Title restricting certain types of buildings on property that may affect

these special amenity areas.

Advantage

Adverse effects on ridgelines or view shafts can be avoided or mitigated.

Disadvantages

Need to be clear about how the location of any activity is measured in relation to

the ridgeline or viewing point.

Can be crude or limited in the landscape issues they address; more

comprehensive assessments may be needed so that the standards imposed can

more effectively address the landscape impacts of building in these areas.

Where ridgeline avoidance rules have been used without identifying specific

ridgelines on Planning Maps most Councils have found the rules vague and

difficult to interpret.

These rules are very specific in the landscape effects being addressed and need

to be based on a good understanding of precisely what effects the standards are

seeking to avoid or mitigate.

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Rules tend to have general statements about avoiding development on

ridgelines, skylines and hill tops but need to be backed up by landscape

assessment reports to show that a proposed development is any more

detrimental to landscape values than development on hill slopes, in gullies, or in

flat paddocks.

4.1.8 Rationing Methods

A method that is increasingly being used by Councils to achieve a fair and workable

way of ensuring a low density of residential development throughout the

countryside. The method is based on the development principle that subdivision of

additional allotments can be rationed over both time and space.

Advantages

Seen as being fair between landowners allowing the ability to subdivide at least

one house site from their existing title.

Rationing across existing ownership patterns means the effects are spread more

evenly across the countryside.

Disadvantages

There is no relationship between the location of the existing allotments and the

ability of the landscape to absorb the development without adverse effects on

landscape values. Potential for cumulative adverse effects on rural character

and amenity.

May be no control over the location and layout of the new allotments as these

are likely to be sited to most suited to the landowner.

In areas where the landscape can accommodate greater levels of development

without adverse effects on landscape values, these techniques can be inflexible

and arbitrarily restrict more development; potentially increasing costs and

contributing to housing unaffordability.

Entirely unrelated to landscape effects; lack of guidance on how to consider

applications that go beyond the standard or how to consider conditions on

controlled activity applications.

4.1.9 Identification of Special Areas

This is where a District Plan identifies parts of their rural areas where the community

has accepted development in the rural environment at a more intensive level (and

variously name these areas as: country-side living areas, rural-lifestyle zones, rural-

residential areas etc.) or alternatively that development needs to be carried out in a

sensitive way because of the vulnerability of the landscape values (and known as

‘outstanding natural features or landscapes’, coastal protection areas’ etc.).

For example, the POP has set out criteria for identifying “significant natural areas” –

see discussion in Section 3.2.2. There are then rules that restrict certain activities in

proximity to significant natural areas that meet the criteria specified.

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The Hutt City Plan has a Landscape Protection Residential Activity Area. The

Hastings District Plan has a number of special areas defined, such as the Te Mata

and Tuki Tuki Special Character Areas.

Advantages

Guides development into suitable areas and away from areas, where the

adverse effects from development can be more severe or obvious.

Disadvantages

Whatever rules and standards are applied, the specific areas must be identified

through a rigorous landscape assessment process done expressly for this

reason or via the methodology or criteria specified.

4.1.10 Structure Plans

Structure Plans may be included in District Plans to define the allotment pattern and

overall layout of roads, open space and protection areas for future development.

Often used for areas likely to be under pressure for development, in the immediate

future, and to ensure efficient and co-ordinated infrastructure provision.

Advantages

The process and results can be easily understood through the preparation of a

detailed development plan.

Where there has been community input there can be considerable community

buy-in to the overall development concept.

Enables the co-ordinated consideration of an area with an integrated vision

aligned to a logical cost effective and funded infrastructure plan.

Can achieve specific outcomes for an areas including avoiding adverse effects

on landscape values.

Provides certainty for landowners and the wider community as what’s likely to

happen on a particular piece of land and when.

Disadvantages

Unless the Structure Plan is included in the District Plan, it has no legal status

and outcomes are not assured.

Inflexible – any variations require a resource consent or a change to the District

Plan.

Some Councils can get concerned that development rights (such as subdivision

potential) will not necessarily be spread equitably or evenly between

landowners.

Flexibility may be improved if allotment boundaries are not shown, so strategic

direction is given through road layout, open space/protection areas etc; thus

allowing imaginative subdivision design process to be ‘controlled’ by the

landowner/developer.

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4.1.11 Clustering Techniques

This is where subdivision rules encourage clustering of residential allotments within

a countryside or rural environment. Specific standards may be prescribed for such

things as defining the cluster, the proximity of the residential allotments and

distances from other clusters or other developments.

Advantages

Means that large rural open-space areas are retained while still accommodating

residential activities.

“Hamlets” are a recognised feature of many rural landscapes and provide an

option for meeting the demand for rural lifestyle subdivisions, provided a rural

character is maintained.

Disadvantages

Not always the most suitable pattern of subdivision in terms of the ability of the

landscape to absorb development without adverse effects.

May compromise the rural qualities, of separation and privacy, that rural

residents frequently seek.

Rules often include complex standards to prescribe the clustering of residential

allotments.

Adequate monitoring and reporting mechanisms need to be put in place to

enable the long-term management of the balance of the undeveloped allotment

and to prevent further future subdivision.

4.1.12 Residential Farm (or Forest) Park Development Requirements

This is where District Plan provisions enable the development of residential

allotments as a ‘farm park’ development within the rural area. Residential allotments

and their dwellings are each individually located to ensure the least impact on

landscape or natural character – and this is sometimes controlled through the use of

a Structure Plan, which is included within the Plan rules.

The Hastings District Plan has different standards for allotment sizes in Farm Park

Developments, together with supporting policy outlining what is hoped to be

achieved by the development of Residential Farm Parks.

Advantages

Innovative new technique that will mature with further adaptation and

development.

Can achieve comprehensive land diversification and management while

managing any adverse effects from subdivision and development on important

values or natural features.

Disadvantages

Plan change procedures can appear unduly onerous and time-consuming to

potential subdividing landowners – especially when the development model is

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unfamiliar to Councils and because the outcome of any plan change request is

uncertain.

Clear guidance on the environmental outcomes sought need to be articulated in

the plan, to provide certainty as to how any application is going to be

considered, and its fit with more conventional zones.

Rules and standards need to provide sufficient flexibility, evolve with experience,

and to ensure that they do not place unnecessary impediments in the way of

achieving the desired results.

Adequate mechanisms need to be put in place to enable the long-term

management of any balance farm or forest areas, and to prevent further

inappropirate subdivision.

4.1.13 Nature Feature Protection Lots

Some Plans include provisions enabling the subdivision of residential allotments in

rural areas where the long-term legal protection of a natural feature (e.g. bush or

wetland) is achieved at the same time. Typically the creation of a rural residential

type allotment is allowed where it would not otherwise be allowed, on the proviso

that an area of native bush or other natural heritage feature is identified and

protected.

The technique can be enhanced by stipulating performance standards or conditions

regarding the design and layout of subdivision to enhance, for example, ecological

corridors; increasing threshold and/or intensification sizes of natural areas that

qualify as protection lots; and enabling developments where planting is part of a

comprehensive approach to rehabilitation and enhancement of land.

Advantages

Protection of lots provides an effective incentive for legal, long-term protection of

natural features.

Landowners receive some financial gain from having a natural feature on their

property.

Opportunities are made available for people to live in rural areas but dispersed

according to the location of the natural features.

Techniques are well accepted and understood in the areas where they have

been applied.

Enables active management and enhancement of the natural feature to be

implemented via conditions e.g. fencing, weed and pest control.

Disadvantages

Residential allotments can become located in an ad hoc manner based on the

location of the natural features rather than on the most suitable location in terms

of avoiding or mitigating effects on more general landscape values, natural

resources or servicing requirements.

If rules aren’t carefully prescribed and appropriate assessment required, very

small areas of low-quality bush can be used as the basis for obtaining additional

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residential development rights, without there being much advantage in terms of

protection of the natural feature.

New owners of residential allotments containing natural features may, have little

experience, or be unaware, of the active management that is needed to ensure

long-term protection of the feature.

The focus may be on protection of existing significant stands to the detriment of

areas of regenerating areas.

Small, isolated pockets of bush can have significant edge effects – diminishing

the overall ecological value of the bush lot.

Insufficient public benefits may accrue vis-a-vis the private benefits (subdivision

bonuses) being given.

4.1.14 Transferable Development Rights

This is where the right to subdivide and erect an associated house is transferred

from the property containing the natural feature to another location provided that

long-term legal protection is given to the natural feature. Transferable rights may

also apply to other situations (not involving natural features) and forfeiture of rights

to develop in certain areas or to subdivide from areas, where it is considered that

the adverse effects of subdivision and development cannot be avoided, remedied or

mitigated, into a wider range of recipient areas.

Advantages

As for 4.1.13 above; residential development can be directed to locations where

the environmental effects are not as significant or can be managed more

effectively.

Transfer of development rights enables landowners to benefit from having a

natural feature in their property (which is protected) whilst development can

occur in a more suitable area (or at a greater intensity/density).

Disadvantage

Recipient areas (or criteria for determining recipient areas) for any transferred

allotments, must be carefully chosen.

4.1.15 Rules limiting Earthworks

These can include limits on volumes or area of earthworks and setbacks, these can

occur in both Regional and District Plans.

Advantages

Can be a useful way to control potential nuisance effects associated with the

development of subdivisions, particularly if a number of lots are being developed

at the same time

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Disadvantages

Detailed design of subdivisions is not always known at the time subdivision

consent is being sought, leading to the need for further consents being sought

once a subdivision consent is granted.

4.2 Monitoring Rural Land Use Change

The study by Hunter et al (1998) has shown that in rural subdivision certain resource

components (water resources, soil, biodiversity) may be affected, while others

remain unchanged. Often the degree of adversity of the effect is directly influenced

by a range of local (e.g., existing land use) circumstances and vulnerabilities of the

system (e.g., movement of contaminants through soils) within which the subdivision

occurs. Further, the effects of rural subdivision are not unique to rural subdivision.

Monitoring the effects of rural subdivision could therefore be indistinguishable from

the broader matter of "environmental monitoring". It is therefore inappropriate to

design a generic indicator or a set of indicators to monitor the effects of rural

subdivision.

Hunter et al (1998) suggests it appears to be more useful to clearly identify two

parameters: the critical components of the system and the carrying capacity. The

critical components are those that when changed are likely to produce the most

deleterious effects. These components will vary between regions and districts.

Carrying capacity is a measure of how much change in the critical components can

be imposed before the component becomes dysfunctional within the ecosystem and

therefore becomes a problem.

Identifying the critical components comes from an understanding of the types of land

use activities and the environmental issues in the locality. Potential critical

components that are subject to impact by rural subdivision are listed in Table 9.

Carrying capacity is determined from an understanding of the additive impacts of

subdivision in relation to those critical components.

Environmental

Effect Indicator When needed

Water quality –

(septic tank related) Ground and/or surface

water nitrate and coliform

values

Average section size <2 ha or when

ground or surface water is vulnerable

Water quality (bore

aquifer related) Groundwater nitrate and

pesticides values Land use is intensified with subdivision

Water resource Water consumption,

stream flow (in terms of

frequency, duration and

extent of water shortage)

Limited water resource

Waterways Weed growth, physical

condition of waterway Land use is intensified with subdivision

and/or cropping

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Environmental

Effect Indicator When needed

Stormwater runoff Water flow in drainage

channels during rainfall

events

Average lot size is <2 ha and land is

difficult to drain or ponds downstream

Sediment Turbidity, sediment

deposition affecting other

values (e.g., aquatic

habitat), costs of

maintaining waterways

A number of sections developed in one

year and drain into a sensitive water

body

Versatile soils Area of versatile soils

under hard surfaces Average section < 4ha

Soil erosion Severity of erosion (area

and depth of soil loss) Sloping land with erodible soils

Soil health Organic matter and bulk

density in upper 10 cm, %

bare ground

Generally more relevant to large-scale

agriculture rather than rural subdivision

per se

Weed diversity Changes in number of

species of problem weeds

per unit area of land

Land use becomes a mosaic of differing

types, each with own weeds

Weed spread Temporal changes in

weed species distribution As land use changes, affecting

neighbour interactions

Mammal pests Changes in desirable

biodiversity components

impacted on by pests

Where sensitive biodiversity

components are part of the system

Insect pests Changes in abundance or

frequency of outbreaks of

insect pest species

Little different for rural subdivision than

other land uses

Bird pests Changes in number or

diversity of bird pests per

unit area of land

When mosaic of differing land uses

occurs

Pathogens Changes in abundance or

frequency of outbreaks of

pathogen pests

Little different for rural subdivision than

other land uses

Indigenous

biodiversity - plants Abundance and numbers

of indigenous species Where indigenous vegetation is part of

or directly affected by subdivision

Indigenous

biodiversity - birds Abundance and numbers

of indigenous species Where indigenous species are part of or

directly affected by subdivision

Habitat diversity Changes in habitat types

per unit area Little different for rural subdivision than

other land uses, but rate of change may

be greater following subdivision

Table 9: Potential critical components that are subject to impact by rural

subdivision and potential indicators for monitoring effect of rural Land

Use Change (from Hunter et al, 1998)

Monitoring the rate of development (subdivision consents) and the uptake of

sections in rural areas is an important component of meeting Councils obligations in

terms of Section 35 of the Resource Management Act and appropriately providng for

this aspect of the residential market, through District Plan provisions.

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In Greater Christchurch Sub Region, the Council’s have collaborated on developing

a monitoring strategy to monitor the development capacity of the landbank (aligned

to a growth model), including demand trends for rural residential development,

which is capped to a maximum number for each district.

4.3 Managing Demand/Growth

A number of different methodological approaches can be distinguished in research

on managing demand/growth.

‘Green’ Philosophy

A number of the techniques identified in this section can be considered a ‘green’

approach to managing growth and development. Generally Councils seek to be

proactive by imposing specific standards and selecting areas for development that

have been considered in the wider context to be the best fit for the area.

This can be considered a more pro-active approach as by imposing more

comprehensive requirements that restrict where development can occur.

Responding to Demand

Some growth can be more demand driven, by allowing the wider market to

determine where development occurs – often when an individual has a particular

desire to subdivide an area.

This can be considered a more reactive approach, and has the potential to lead to

varying pressures on infrastructure.

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5 APPENDIX A - Rural Residential Development within the

Palmerston North Boundary 1999-2008

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6 APPENDIX B – Review of Territorial Authority Policies

A number of District Plans from a range of territorial authorities were reviewed. The focus

was to look at what particular issues were being addressed in their objectives and policies,

as well as looking at plan specifications for different rule categories. Where possible,

information about the level of rural residential subdivision in that district is also provided.

6.1 Manawatu District Council

6.1.1 Objectives and Policies – Rural Zone

In the Rural Zone, the sustainable use of soil resources is highlighted. Objectives relate to

promoting sustainable land use, safeguarding qualities of the District’s soils, maintaining

future options and managing the effects of urban growth.

There is particular policy around the quantity of versatile land ‘lost’ under buildings etc. The

Plan defines versatile land to mean Class I and II of the LUC, but specifically excludes IIs2

as not being as versatile.

The Table below shows that compared to national figures, MDC area has a relatively high

proportion of Class I and II land compared to both the wider region (Horizons Regional

Council) and the North Island.

MDC HRC North Island

Class I 5.5% 1.5% 1.3%

Class II 12.9% 3.9% 4.0%

Other relevant objectives and policies relate to:

Rural Character and Amenities

In order to maintain character and amenity, one objective refers to maintaining a

predominance of primary production, so the natural environment predominates over the

built one, there is a environmental contrast between town and country and the natural

quality of forests, rivers and lakes is enhanced (see Objective LU8).

Outstanding Landscapes

Objective LU9 is to protect, and where appropriate, enhance the quality of outstanding

landscapes. Various landscapes in the District are named, being:

a) Pohangina River and river valley.

b) Oroua River and river valley upstream of the Mangoira Stream confluence.

c) Rangitikei River and river valley upstream of Putorino.

d) The ridgeline of the Ruahine ranges.

e) The Ruahine State Forest Park.

f) Pukepuke lagoon.

g) The coastline of the District, including the dune areas immediately adjacent to the

sea.

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h) The vistas from Stormy Point lookout and the Mt Stewart Memorial.

New subdivision in some of these landscapes are specifically covered in associated

policies a) and d).

Potential Conflict Between Rural Land Uses

Ensuring rural dwellings and properties enjoy rural amenity consistent with primary

production and other rural activities are provided for by Objective LU 10; and LU 11

seeks to minimise conflict between potentially incompatible activities. Associated

policies are aimed at around trying to deal with reverse sensitivity issues. For example

Policy D which seeks to ensure that the presence of existing land uses and their right to

continue is recognised by those who purchase or use land within the area affected by

those land uses.

6.1.2 Subdivision Chapter

Managing Impact on Rural Soils

Objective S1 is to Protect the Life Supporting Capacity of Soils. The Policies are aimed

around protecting future use, and the loss of versatile soils to urban use.

The Plan uses an average lot size philosophy. There can be some small blocks, but still

have to have some large blocks. There is the requirement that at least 50% or 20ha,

whichever is smaller, be left as one piece. The Plan also does not want uniform blocks.

Two Rural Zones are defined:

Rural Zone 1 identifies the main areas of versatile land and recognises potential

effects on its productive options by requiring an 8ha minimum average lot size.

Rural Zone 2, which comprises areas of less versatile land, the average lot size

must be 4ha. Subdivision control in this area is primarily based on landscape and

rural character considerations.

It is noted in the Plan that freeing up rural-residential subdivision of non-versatile land close

to Palmerston North and Feilding may bring overall small-block prices down. This would

allow productive users to compete for high quality land on a more equal basis.

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6.1.3 Subdivision Trends

The following tables have been copied from the Manawatu District Council’s 2007 State of

the Environment report:

Figure 6: Subdivision trends in the Manawatu District (from Manawatu District Council's

2007 State of the Environment report)

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From the three tables in Figure 6 above it can be seen that the majority of the subdivision

occurred within Rural Zone 2. Comparing the Lot sizes created the distribution of Lots

sizes in Rural Zone 1 and Rural Zone 2 are similar for lots created up to 8ha in size. Of the

lots created in Rural Zone 1, there is a higher proportion of larger lot sizes (over 8

hectares). This is likely a reflection of the policies which required a large minimum average

lot size in Rural Zone 1.

Of note from the tables above, the largest proportion of Lots created were between 1 and 2

hectares followed by Lots sizes 2 and 4 hectares.

6.2 Rangitikei District Plan

The Rangitikei District is approximately 4,500 square kilometres of predominantly rural land.

The Rangitikei District landforms are made up of the following types:

Sand country - 5%

Alluvial plains and terraces - 15%

Downlands 11%

Hill country 50%

Mountainlands 19%

6.2.1 Objectives and Policies

Objective 5 relates to the sustainable management of soils for future use. Highly versatile

soils are valued for potential use.

Objective 6 relates to the protection of the productive capability of scarce soils. This is

supported by policies which seek to avoid subdivision and development of Class I and II

soils for urban purposes, and avoiding the expansion of Marton and Bulls onto Class I and

II where infill capacity remains.

The Plan tries to confine urban density to urban areas, and promote low density

development in rural areas.

Objective 7 is for the provision for activities in the rural environment in a way that maintains

and enhances environmental amenity, community health, safety and convenience. The

policies supporting this objective are to ensure opportunities for privacy, maintain low

density of built development and open character, including maintaining overall low building

height. Policies also refer to maintaining separation distances between residential activities

and rural activities.

Objective 8 is for the provision for range of allotments suitable to support diverse rural

production and rural communities. The policies are for subdivision allotments able to

provide water supply, effluent, and network utilities.

Any subdivision is a controlled activity, the allotment size and shape to accommodate any

existing buildings or activities on the site and to accommodate any of the permitted

activities listed for the zone.

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6.2.2 Subdivision Trends

Analysis of subdivisions in Rangitikei since 199311 show there has been little in the way of

pressure from subdivision over this period. Of particular interest is subdivision of land with

Class 1 and 2 soils, which showed that:

There were 500 lots created by subdivision over the 10 years from 1993 – 2003.

100 of these (or 20%) were on Class 1 or 2 soils.

All of the subdivided lots on Class 1 and 2 soils were of less than 8 hectares and

involved a total land area of 242 hectares.

However despite this level of subdivision only 12 new dwellings have been built on

Class 1/2 soils during that period.

Since the District Plan became operative in 1999, there have been 40 subdivisions on

Class 1/2 land with only 3 dwellings built in this period. It is not known why this has

occurred, but possible reason may include people ‘landbanking’ lots as a form of future

investment, or changes in the economic climate.

Figure 7: Subdivision and Dwelling on Class I and II land; Rural Subdivision trends 1993-

2003 (Rangitikei District State of the Environment)

11

Rangitikei District Council, State of the Environment Report (2003)

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6.3 Tararua District Plan

The Tararua District covers an area of approximately 436,500 hectares. Significant

landscape features within the District include mountain ranges and hill country, interspersed

with alluvial plains and fans, and river terraces. The alluvial plain to the east of the Tararua

and Ruahine Ranges forms a “corridor” of high quality land intensively used for farming and

horticulture.

From the 2006 NZ census data 17,631 people usually live in the Tararua District.

6.3.1 Objectives and Policies

One of the objectives of this District Plan is the sustainable rural land use and efficient use

of resources. The policies that support this objective are (1) that activities must be

compatible with the inherent productive capabilities of land and protect soil structure; and

(2) to avoid, remedy or mitigate against significant irreversible losses of productive

capabilities of the Districts Class I and II land. The Plan defines boundaries of rural and

urban management areas and rules ensure non-rural activities are generally located within

the urban management areas.

Another objective is to maintain the vitality and character of the District’s rural areas.

Policies provide for a range of rural subdivision and housing in rural areas, subject to

environmental standards. The plan encourages non-rural activities to locate within urban

management areas, rather than rural areas.

The Plan notes a move away from specifying minimum lot sizes. In most rural areas no

minimum subdivision size is specified, rather the minimum area required is defined by the

area needed to meet the Plan’s effluent disposal standards. The Plan does have minimum

subdivision size controls around ‘urban buffer areas’.

The Plan goes on to outline the reasons for not defining lot sizes, stating that arbitrary

minimum subdivision size standards throughout rural areas have often led to people being

forced to have more than then they actually want or need, and this often results in a lack of

stewardship of the land. Minimum subdivision size controls have only been retained in the

‘urban buffer areas’ around the District’s four main towns as an additional mechanism to

promote urban consolidation.

6.4 Hutt City District Plan

Lower Hutt City is made up of the area bounded by the coast between Korokoro and Windy

Point (Palliser Bay), by the western hills of the Hutt Valley, the ridge of the Rimutaka

Ranges, and ending just beyond the Taita Gorge. This land area totals 37,998 hectares

(379.987km2).

The usually residential population of Lower Hutt City, as recorded in the 2006 Census, was

97,701.

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Topography of the Hutt City area varies. There are two major river valleys – the

Wainuiomata and Orongorongo. Flat river terraces rise to dominant and often steep hill

areas. Within the hilly areas are isolated locations of more gentle topography. On the

western hills of the Hutt Valley the topography is characterised by the steep escarpment

bordering the Hutt River and gentler hill country leading back into the Belmont Regional

Park. The influence of the coast on the character of some parts of the rural environment is

very significant.

6.4.1 Subdivision – General Rural and Rural Residential Activity Areas

The resource management issue is identified in this section of the District Plan is defined as

inappropriate subdivision leading to adverse effects on amenity values and an inefficient

land use pattern.

The associated District Plan objective is to ensure that the amenity values and the efficient

use of land in the General Rural and Rural Residential Activity Areas, are maintained by

restricting subdivision of lands which would lead to greater intensity of use and

development for urban related purposes, such as more intense residential development.

One of the policies supporting this is that the minimum size of allotments should be large so

as to ensure that rural amenity values and an efficient land use pattern are maintained. In

the related explanation, it is considered that there is an adequate supply of urban land and

it would be inefficient to subdivide rural land into urban sized allotments.

Subdivision in the Rural Residential and General Rural Areas is a Controlled Activity.

The Hutt City Plan has a Landscape Protection Residential Activity Area.

They have some Rural Residential Activity Areas, with the following performance

standards:

- No allotments < 8,000m2 - Average area of all allotments 1.5ha - Optimum house sites - Show proposed works - Areas of regenerating bush are to be identified and preserved

Other Rural Residential Activity Areas have the following performance standards:

- Minimum size of allotment – 2ha

- Minimum frontage requirements

- Compliance with policies and objectives

General Rural Activity Areas have the following performance standards:

- Minimum allotment size 15ha

- Minimum frontage

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6.4.2 Rural Zone

Rural Residential Activity Area - Definition

This Area consists of areas where the subdivision pattern has already allowed for the

establishment of rural residential lifestyle development. It also includes areas where future

urban development may occur, as the land adjoins residential activity areas.

The more intense subdivision pattern allows for a greater intensity of buildings and

development than in the General Rural Activity Area.

General Rural Activity Area

The remainder of the rural area is identified as the General Rural Activity Area; where more

extensive rural activities occur. The Activity Area includes land adjoining the coast with

high amenity values which should be protected from inappropriate subdivision, use and

development.

Rural Residential Activity Area

One of the objectives is to ensure the character and amenity values of Rural Residential

areas are maintained and enhanced.

Policies seek to provide for Rural Residential subdivision within the established areas with

Rural Residential characteristics and amenity values. Policies aim not to detrimentally

affect Rural Residential Character and amenity values or intrinsic values of ecosystems.

Allowance for small businesses providing products and services to city and rural

environment is more appropriate because of the scale and effects generated by activities.

Character and amenity is not compromised by inappropriate subdivision standards.

Subdivision pattern is very important, the City wants large allotments, of varying size and

wide frontages.

The District Plan has specified some elements within the site that determine the character

and amenity values of rural residential subdivision. It highlights in particular where

buildings are to be located on the site. The first determinant is minimum size and shape of

sites; then the relationship of buildings to boundaries, height of buildings and adequacy of

daylight admission etc. There are various standards prescribed for permitted dwellings.

6.5 Hastings District Plan

The Hastings District has a total land area of 5,229 km2. The total population of the District

as at the 2006 census was 70,842.

The Hastings District is situated on the fertile alluvial Heretaunga Plains. Topography varies

from the hills of Havelock North to sandy beaches. Hastings is located approximately 15km

inland from the coast.

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6.5.1 Rural Residential Zone

Rural residential use is recognised as having grown in popularity and is generally located

on land of lower fertility, mostly on hills close to the urban areas of Hastings, Havelock

North and Napier. The Rural Residential zone provides for those people who seek to live in

a semi-rural environmental, while remaining within close commuting distance to urban

areas for employment, shopping, entertainment and recreation activities.

In addition to providing a lifestyle choice for the community, the Rural Residential Zone also

supports a range of specialist land use activities, which often requires only small amounts

of land, or which are sustainable in a part-time or hobby capacity.

The resource management issues that the Hastings District Plan seeks to address include;

the need to provide for a range of activities within the Rural Residential Zones; that these

zones are generally located in close proximity to urban areas; potential for conflict between

Rural Residential activities and other activities in the Rural and Plains Zones are minimised;

protection of significant landscapes, natural areas, historic or cultural features; and that in

areas where Rural Residential development is aggregated, there may be demand

generated for Council to provide reticulated services to those areas and that this needs to

be carefully managed.

The objectives of the Hastings District Plan are as follows

- To provide for Rural Residential activities within Hastings District while avoiding, remedying

or mitigating any potential adverse effects of the activities on the environment.

- To provide a buffer between rural and rural residential activities to mitigate the adverse

effects of these activities both within the Rural Residential Zone and at the zone interfaces.

- To provide for low density rural residential development within close proximity to urban

areas in a manner that protects the future use of the finite soil resource of the Heretaunga

Plains.

A range of policies support the above objectives, these are around providing for a range of

activities to provide flexibility for people living in the zone to meet their needs; mitigating the

effects of buildings; requiring that activities are self-sufficient in the provision of on-site

water supply, wastewater and stormwater disposal; requiring specific consideration of

landscape and visual effects of development on land comprising Significant Landscape

Character Areas; minimum lots sizes; and monitoring effects to determine the on-going

appropriateness and necessity of Development and Performance Standards included in the

District Plan.

A number of methods are used within the District Plan. As well as identifying the role of

Rural Residential Zone as a key component of Council’s wider Urban Development

Strategy, the District Plan also contains a Low Density Residential Strategy, sensitive

landscape, natural, historic or cultural features are identified, and minimum subdivision

sizes and other criteria are identified.

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November 2011 54

Hastings District Council makes use of Land Information Memorandums – when one is

requested by a member of the public, a statement will be included that specifically notes the

zone concerned is located close to productive rural areas and that residents live in an

environment where agricultural practices occur.

Minimum site area for Rural Residential Zone is 0.8 hectare, with an average of 1ha.

Sites created by subdivision for lifestyle lots or residential farm parks shall comply with the

standards specified for each zone in Table 15.1.8.3 (see below).

6.5.2 Heretaunga Plains – Urban Growth Needs

Hastings District Council, Napier City Council and the Hawkes Bay Regional Council are

currently working together on the “Heretaunga Plains Urban Development Strategy.” This

work includes market analysis of the various components of the residential sector on the

Heretaunga Plains and to explore residential demand.

The key findings for the Lifestyle Market Analysis were as follows:

There is sufficient supply to 2015 with a predicted surplus in supply from 2015-2045,

however this is based on projected demand for new lifestyle housing being 10% of

household growth projections. Over the last 10 years it has been approximately

20%.

Lower future demand is predicted due to changing demographics, demonstrated by

a significant fall off in demand over the last 2 years when demand has been

between approximately 5-10%.

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November 2011 55

Supply and demand outcomes are sensitive to small variations in assumptions

however to some extent market force will balance supply. If there is insufficient

supply of lifestyle blocks, prices will rise and demand may ease and vice versa.

A number of existing development proposals have stalled due to current economics

and recent falling demand.

Any future demand is likely to be close to urban facilities.

Smaller lifestyle blocks may be a developing trend and the relaxing of subdivisional

rules in rural residential areas (i.e. in-fill) may help meet some of the land demand in

preferred areas, thus reducing the need for further rezoning.

Demographics (aging population and smaller family units) are expected to result in

lower future lifestyle demand but if demand does not ease as predicted, there would

be a shortfall in supply.

Projections are based on 27 new lifestyle houses per year on average over the

study period.

6.6 New Plymouth District Council

A three stage Rural Review was initiated by NPDC as part of the Council’s ongoing

monitoring and review programme. The need to initiate a rural review was highlighted in

submissions to the District Plan, and more recently through the LTCCP, Coastal Strategy

and Land Supply review process. The Rural Review Project started in August 2008 and

involved three stages:

Stage 1: Assessment of issues and preparation of a discussion paper (August 08-

November 08)

Stage 2: Consultation on options (December 08- May 09)

Stage 3: Plan Change process (June 09-June 10)

As a result of the Stage 1 discussion paper “Subdivision and land-use in the rural area”

broad directions for the Rural Review process programme were confirmed, which involved

the development of Plan Changes as part of the District Plan review process. These plan

changes focussed on:

A. Maintaining rural character plan change

Purpose: To change the Rural Subdivision and associated Land-use rules that relate

directly to maintaining rural character.

Principle of Plan Change: That the current flexible subdivision policy is maintained to the

extent that the opportunity for rural residential living is still available across the rural area

but that the provisions are strengthened so that rural character can be maintained.

B. Lifestyle area plan change

Purpose: To investigate the development of lifestyle areas, providing an opportunity for

small lot living in appropriate parts of the rural environment.

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November 2011 56

Principle of Plan Change That an additional opportunity for small rural lots is provided

through lifestyle areas to be located on the urban fringe of settlements. These areas will be

in addition to still allowing small lifestyle lots across the rural area, although at a reduced

intensity.

Timing: The opportunity for lifestyle areas is to be considered where relevant when

implementing the Framework for Growth.

Further work on lifestyle areas will be initiated concurrently with the rural character plan

change.

Potential areas to investigate:

Inclusion of objectives, policies and rules relating to lifestyle areas.

That criteria for the assessment of lifestyle areas are included in the District Plan.

This will include, but not be limited to topography, productivity capacity, accessibility,

servicing and landscape issues.

That subdivision and land-use controls are included to allow development at a

greater density than in the general rural area, which will develop and maintain a

lifestyle character.

Lifestyle areas are identified in the District Plan.

C. Important landscape areas plan change

Purpose: To include additional land-use and subdivision controls in the Coastal Policy Area,

on Regionally Significant Landscapes and in the newly identified Outstanding Landscape

Buffer.

Principle of Plan Change: That through consultation with the community, additional controls

are placed on sensitive landscapes and those areas adjoining these landscapes to ensure

that landscape character is protected in these areas of high landscape value.

6.6.1 Plan Change 27 Changes to Subdivision and Land Use Provisions relating to

maintaining Rural Character

This Plan Change proposes to amend the subdivision and land-use provisions (relating to

maintaining rural character) in the Rural Environment Area by:

Strengthening the policy context under Issue 4 and related objective and policies to

control the scale, location, density and design of land use and subdivision and land-use.

Increasing the minimum allotment size for subdivision from four hectares to 20 hectares

as a controlled activity.

Providing opportunities for small allotments as a controlled and discretionary activity.

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November 2011 57

Including controls on small allotment subdivision.

Submissions and further submissions have now closed with a Hearing date to be

confirmed.

6.7 Lot size – other councils

The information below is collated from responses to a question posted on a Local

Government List Serve (2009) regarding Lot sizes and activity status for subdivision in the

rural zone.

Territorial

Authority

Rural Lot size

Hastings 20ha

Invercargill No minimum lot size, but no more than 1 dwelling per 2ha

Far North Controlled - 20ha

Restricted discretionary - 12ha; or maximum of 3 lots provided minimum lot size is 4000m2

and at least one lot is 4ha; or maximum of 5 lots provided minimum lot size is 2ha.

Discretionary - 4ha; or maximum of 3 lots provided minimum lot size is 2000m2 and at least

one lot is 4ha; or via management plan with an average lot size of 2ha.

Waimakariri 4ha

Queenstown

Lakes District

Council

There is no minimum lot size in the Rural General zone – full discretionary regime.

Rural residential – 4000m2

Rural Lifestyle – 1 ha provided that the total lots to be created by subdivision (including

balance of the site within the zone) shall not have an average of less than 2 ha.

Wairoa Generally an effects based plan

No minimum lot size given for rural zones but are performance standards that have to be

complied with to be a controlled activity

South Waikato A minimum area of 30 hectares is permitted to be subdivided into a maximum of three

allotments (i.e. two additional). Each allotment must be at least 2500m2 and the average

site area per subdivision shall be two hectares.

OR

A minimum area of 4 hectares is permitted to be subdivided into a maximum of two

allotments (i.e. one additional). Each allotment must be at least 2500m2 and the average

site area per subdivision shall be at least 2 hectares.

A plan change becoming operative in three days will make any breach of the above rules

Non Complying. (April 09)

Wanganui 4ha

City of Lower

Hutt

Requires a minimum allotment size of 15ha for General Rural.

Porirua Rural area is:

40 ha Controlled

5 ha Discretionary

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November 2011 58

Territorial

Authority

Rural Lot size

These are about to be reviewed at the Plan is 10 years old this year, and don't see the

existing regulatory regime as being adequate to respond to the issue of increasing land

fragmentation and the consequential management of effects associated with that, given

the increasingly peri-urban character of about 1/3 of Porirua's Rural Zone

Have had a recent (privately-introduced) operative zone (Judgeford Hills Zone) which

provides for smaller cluster-style lots (~2,000 sq m) as a controlled activity if they are in

accordance with the Structure Plan for that zone.

South

Wairarapa

District Council

For controlled:

1) If there is an existing house - whatever size can meet yards and on-site sewer

disposal/treatment OR

2) 2 lots not less than 1ha OR

3) anything else 4ha.

Only one chance to do a sub 4ha proposal - 1 & 2 can only occur on a "pre Proposed Plan

decisions" site. In some areas, it’s a straight 4ha, no exceptions (unless they ask nicely

through a non-complying application - but has to be something special to get through)

Hurunui 5ha (although starting a review)

Marlborough

District Council

Have two Plans:

In the Wairau/Awatere Plan, controlled rural subdivisions in:

- versatile soils area (zone 3) are 8ha+

- zone 4 = 20ha+

In the Marlborough Sounds Plan, rural lots are 20ha+

Thames-

Coromandel

Minimum average lot size for rural lots - at least 20ha and Discretionary in both Rural and

Coastal Zones

Provision also for conservation lots of 5ha

Horowhenua i2000m2 under the Operative DP and varying from 5000m2 to 40 hectares depending on

the landscape domain under Proposed Plan Change 20

Central Otago In an average of 8ha in Rural with a minimum of 2ha and an average of 2ha in Rural

Residential (no minimum) - breaches are non-complying.

Napier City 4ha (Main Rural zone)

Taupo Has a tiered approach being:

< 4ha = Non complying

4ha - 10 ha = Discretionary

>10ha = Controlled

Westland 5000m2

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November 2011 59

Territorial

Authority

Rural Lot size

Auckland City

Council

Have landform-based controls in the islands and generally the minimum site size is 25ha.

Subdivisions require either discretionary or non-complying activity consent. Have

provisions for reducing the minimum site size; refer section 12 of the proposed Hauraki

Gulf Islands plan on-line at

http://www.aucklandcity.govt.nz/council/documents/hgi/default.asp

Nelson City

Council

15ha in the standard rural zone,

3ha in low density small holdings

1ha average, 5000m2 minimum in some specified areas,

Manukau City as the following minimum standards:

Rural 1 Zone - Rural Residential Lots - Minimum site must be 20ha; new site shall be of

the range of 0.15 to 2.0ha

Rural 2 Zone - minimum lot size of 1.8ha

Rural 3 Zone - minimum lot size of 5000m2.

Rural 4 Zone - minimum lot size of 1ha.

Tasman 12 ha Rural 1, 50 ha Rural 2 and 3

Gisborne DC Rural Productive: 8ha

Rural Residential: 1ha

Rural Lifestyle: 5000m2

Rural General: 1000m2

Subject to the general standards non-compliance with the above is discretionary.

Waikato District

Council

Subdivision is a controlled activity.

Minimum lot size is 5000m2, otherwise Non-complying.

Average lot size is 1.3ha, otherwise Restricted Discretionary.

There are other controls attached to the above requirements.

Whangarei

Operative

District Plan:

Countryside Environment = 20ha Controlled, 4ha (average) Discretionary

Coastal Countryside = 20ha Controlled, 10ha (average) Discretionary

There are a bunch of rules that determine how to work out minimum and average areas

(e.g. in Countryside: over 8ha = 8ha, minimum = 4000m2, no more than 3 lots < 3ha, no

more than 2 < 2ha, and 1 < 1ha), and there are ‘once off’ opportunities for environmental

benefit lots.

4ha and 6ha controlled activity in the countryside and coastal countryside areas

respectively, but Judge Newhook didn’t agree so 20ha put in place and directed Council to

have another look at it.

261

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November 2011 60

APPENDIX C - References

Barnett, H. & Ormiston, A.W. (2007) Manual for On-site Wastewater Design and

Management: Technical report to Support Policy Development; Horizons Regional Council

Cook, A.J. & Fairweather (2005) Characteristics of Smallholdings in NZ; Results form a

nationwide Survey; research report No. 278, Agribusiness and Economics Research Unit

(AERU), Lincoln University

Crothers, C (2008) Recent Land Use Changes in Rural NZ: broad and more detailed

statistics; Paper prepared for the EDS Conference on rural change; Department of Social

Sciences and Economic and Social Statistics Unit, AUT University

Fairweather, J. R. (1993) Smallholder Perceptions of the Rural Lifestyle, AERU Research

Report No. 220, Lincoln University, Canterbury.

Fairweather, John R. (1996) "We Don’t Want to See Our Neighbours’ Washing", New

Zealand Geographer, Vol. 52, No. 2, pp. 76-83.

Fairweather, J.R and Robertson, N.J. (2000) Smallholders in Canterbury: Characteristics,

motivations, Land use and Intentions to Move; research report No 245, AERU, Lincoln

University

Goodwin, J; de Lambert, R., Dawson, S. and McMahon, S. & Rackman, A. (2000)

Development Impact on rural Values, ministry for the Environment; ME Number 354

Grant, Ian F. (2000) "Looking For the Good Life", New Zealand Geographic, No. 45, Jan-

Mar, pp. 34-54.

Hayes, E. (2002). Lifestyle blocks: the changing face of North Canterbury: effects and

responses. MA thesis, University of Canterbury.

Hewitt, A., Lynn, I., Manderson, A.’ Wilde, H. & Willoughby, J. (2008) Assessment of

available soil and land resource information for the Manawatu-Wanganui Region, Landcare

research Contract report: LC 0708/148

Hunter, Grant, Jarvis, P., Kilvington, M.; Partridge, T., Webb, T., Macdonald, W &

Saunders, C (1998) Biophysical and Ecological Impacts of Rural Subdivision;

Commissioned by MAF Policy prepared by Landcare Research, Hill Young Cooper Ltd,

and Commerce Division, Lincoln University, PO Box 84, Lincoln University MAF Policy

Technical Paper 98/5

Paterson, John (2005) “What is a “Lifestyle Block” and is it a form of “Rural Gentrification?”

A paper presented to “Focus on Rural Research”, an evening sponsored by the Waikato

Branch of the NZ Geographical Society, Hamilton, 17 November 2005. Department of

Societies and Cultures, University of Waikato

Rose, J.M. (2009) Turitea Wind Farm call-in s42A report for MWH Ltd.

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Rural Property Focus (undated) Harcourts Rural Property, Summer 09-10 Flyer

Sanson, R.; Cook, A. & Fairweather (2004) A Study of Smallholdings and their owners;

MAF Information Paper No. 53 prepared for MAF Policy

Sparrow, Mary (1996) Waimakariri District Rural Residential Zone Survey, Waimakariri

District Council: Rangiora.

Schmid, A (2001) Residential development in the Rural Zone, Research Thesis

Statistics NZ: NZ: AN Urban/Rural Profile

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