Safe Plastic Numbers (Guide)

June 06, 2011- Posted byBabyGreenThumb.comtoSafe AlternativesEven though there are safer choices of plastics, there is no guarantee that harmful chemicals will not leach. Play it safe by avoiding plastics completely.

This guide is intended to help you make safer choices when using plastics. There are several types of plastics some being safer than others. Plastic products are commonly marked with a number enclosed by the recycling symbol, which is typically found on the bottom of the product. This symbol is used to identify the plastic and recyclability of the product. In general plastic products marked with the numbers 2, 4 and 5 are the safer choices.

The following graphic is a quick summary of the plastics labels and their threat level.

The following sections provide information on each type of plastic.

Polyethylene Terephthalate

Plastic #1 - PET or PETE stands for polyethylene terephthalate, a plastic resin and a form of polyester.

Where is PETE found?PETE is commonly used to package:

Cosmetics

Household cleaners

Water

Juice

Soft drinks

Salad dressings

Oil

Peanut butter

Health ConcernsStudies have found levels ofantimony(a toxic chemical) leaching from water bottles that have been placed in heat for prolonged times. Although PETE does not contain BPA or Phthalates, its always best to make sure that your water bottles are not temperature abused. PETE plastic should not be reused because cleaning detergents and high temperatures can cause chemicals to leach out of the plastic. Plastic #1 is only intended for one time use.

High-Density Polyethylene

Plastic #2 - High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is a polyethylene thermoplastic made from petroleum. HDPE is hard, opaque and can withstand somewhat high temperatures.

Where is HDPE found?HDPE is used in the manufacturing of toys, and the packaging of:

Laundry detergent

Milk jugs

Folding chairs & tables

Health ConcernsNo known health concerns.

Polyvinyl Chloride

Plastic #3 - Polyvinyl chloride (PVC or V) is a thermoplastic polymer. Through the use of phthalates, a plasticizer, it can be made softer and more flexible.Read about the harm of phthalates here.

Where is PVC found? Shower curtains

Cling wrap

Waterbeds

Pool toys

Inflatable structures

Clothing

Vinyl IV bags used in neo-natal intensive care

PVC can also be found in car interiors and vinyl flooring, resulting in the release of toxic chemicals into the air.

Health ConcernsPVC is one of the toxic plastics that should be avoided.

Purchase a shower curtain made from organic hemp, bamboo or PEVA. PEVA (polyethylene vinyl acetate) is a non-vinyl (PVC-free), chlorine-free, biodegradable plastic.

Air out the car before getting in.

Avoid using cling wrap made with PVC.

Avoid inflatable structures, air mattresses, and toys made with PVC. Note: Aerobed pakmat and Aerobed Ecolite are PVC and phthalate free.

Choose all baby toys, pool toys, and bath toys that are labeled to be PVC, Phthalate and BPA free.

Low-density polyethylene

Plastic #4 - Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) is a thermoplastic made from petroleum. It can be found translucent or opaque. It is flexible and tough but breakable.

Where is LDPE found? Juice and milk cartons (as the water-proof inner and outer layer)

Most plastic grocery bags

Some packaging material

Health ConcernsNo known health concerns.

Polypropylene

Plastic #5 - Polypropylene (PP) is a thermoplastic polymer. It is strong, tough, has a high resistance to heat and acts as a barrier to moisture.

Where is Polypropylene found? Yogurt & margarine tubs

Plastic cups & baby bottles

Kitchenware, microwavable plastic containers and lids

Health ConcernsMost PP are microwavable safe and dishwasher safe.NOTE: microwavable/dishwasher safe only means that the plastic will not warp when heated. It does not imply that it is a healthy practice. A better alternative is using glass containers to heat foods and to hand wash plastic instead of using the dishwasher.

Polystyrene

Plastic #6 - Polystyrene (PS) is a petroleum-based plastic. It can either be hard or used in the form of styrofoam.

Where is Polystyrene found?Polystyrene is widely used in packaging materials and insulation. Some common items include:

Disposable cutlery

CD and DVD cases

Egg cartons

Foam cups & to-go foam packaging from restaurants.

Health ConcernsAccording to the Foundation for Achievements in Science and Education fact sheet, long term exposure to small quantities of styrene can cause neurotoxic (fatigue, nervousness, difficulty sleeping), hematological (low platelet and hemoglobin values), cytogenetic(chromosomal and lymphatic abnormalities), and carcinogenic effects. Styrene is classified as a possible human carcinogen by the EPA and by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Ways to avoid Polystyrene:

Package left over foods from a restaurant in your own glass or stainless steel containers.

Avoid styrofoam cups or plates and instead use stainless steel, glass, or bamboo products.

Bring your own silverware to fast-food restaurants instead of using their plastic ones.

OTHER (Varies)

Plastic #7 can be a little tricky as it stands for OTHER or O which may or may not contain BPA. It is commonly used to label Polycarbonate (PC). The letters PC may be present with the recycling symbol, which would indicate that the product is made with polycarbonate.

Polycarbonate is derived from BPA.Read more about the harm of BPA here.Where is Polycarbonate found? Electrical wiring

CD/DVD cases

Baby bottles

3 and 5 gallon reusable bottles

Health ConcernsBPA has been found to be an endocrine disruptor. Choose bottles made with the #1, #2, #4, or #5 recycling codes.Two other types of plastic that fall under code 7 are acrylonitrile styrene (AS) or styrene acrylonitrile (SAN), and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). Both AS/SAN and ABS are higher quality plastics with increased strength, rigidity, toughness and temperature and chemical resistance. AS/SAN is used in mixing bowls, thermos casing, dishes, cutlery, coffee filters, toothbrushes, outer covers (printers, calculators, lamps), battery housing. The incorporation of butadiene during the manufacture of AS/SAN, produces ABS, which is an even tougher plastic. ABS is used in LEGO toys, pipes, golf club heads, automotive parts, protective head gear, monitor/TV cases, coffee makers, cell phones, most computer plastic. Our research on risks associated with AS/SAN and ABS is ongoing.Safest Choices

In conclusion, plastic products marked with the numbers 2, 4 and 5 are the safer choices. Regardless of what plastic you use, avoid exposing your plastics to high temperatures (microwave, dishwasher) and use mild detergents for cleaning. Since there is no guarantee that plastics will not leach out harmful chemicals, I suggest playing it safe by trying to avoid plastic when possible.http://www.lifewithoutplastic.com/store/common_plastics_no_1_to_no_7#.VYgF5PmqqkoHow can I tell what type of plastic something is made of, and if that plastic is safe?There is a way to identify the type of plastic in many everyday products, especially food storage containers and packaging. Many, but not all, such plastic products have a number the "resin identification code" surrounded by a chasing arrows symbol and molded, formed or imprinted in or on the container, often on the bottom. Use of the word "resin" is synonymous with "polymer" or "plastic type."

A few things to keep in mind about these resin identification codes:

Developed by plastics industry to faciliate recycling. This system of coding was developed in 1988 by the U.S.-based Society of the Plastics Industry to facilitate the recycling of post-consumer plastics. It is voluntary for plastic manufacturers, but has become relatively standard on certain plastic products sold globally.

Codes do not guarantee recyclability. Although this coding system is designed to facilitate recycling, the presence of a code on a product does NOT mean it is recyclable. We provide below information on the estimated recycling rate of each plastic resin.

Codes do not indicate toxicity or safety. The codes do not provide any information on the toxins contained in the identified plastics or whether or not they are safe - the code simply identifies the type of plastic resin. Plastic manufacturers are not required to disclose other chemicals that have been added to the plastic polmer. Most plastics have numerous synthetic, often petroleum-derived additives in them. We provide below information on what we perceive to be the toxicity and safety of each plastic type, based on our research, experience, and practice of theprecautionary principle.

Only six plastic types explicitly identified. Codes #1 to #6 each identify a specific plastic polymer commonly used in consumer goods all over the world. Code #7 is a general catch-all category which is essentially for every other type of plastic. We highlight a couple of the key common plastics that fall into this category.

The seven plastic resin identification codes are laid out below with added information describing characteristics of each plastic type, typical products it is found in, our perception of its toxicity and safety (including whether or not to avoid it), its estimated recycling rate and recycled products made from it, and suggestions for alternatives you can use to replace it in everyday life (including things available in our store).

We hope that being aware of this system and these plastic types will help you better assess the plastics in your everyday life and the potential risks associated with their use.

Here's a quick summary of our suggestions for use of these plastics, particularly if using them for food and drink(read below for details):2, 4 and 5 are OK for limited useAVOID 1, 3, 6, and 7 (polycarbonate)

Polyethylene terephthalate (PET or PETE or polyester)Description:PET is the most well known member of the polyester family of plastic polymers. It initially gained widespread use as a wrinkle-free fiber (commonly called "polyester"), and the majority of its production still goes toward textile manufacturing. It has become extremely popular for food and drink packaging purposes because of its strong ability to create a liquid and gas barrier - so oxygen cannot get in to spoil food, and the carbon dioxide that makes drinks fizzy cannot get out. Properties: clarity, lightness, strength, toughness, barrier to liquid and gas.

Typical Use: Bottles (water, soft drink, juice, beer, wine, mouthwash, salad dressing), peanut butter/jam jars, oven-ready and microwaveable meal trays, detergent and cleaner containers. Also used inliquid crystal displays,film forcapacitors,insulationforwireandinsulating tapes, and as a common finish for wood products such asguitars,pianosand vehicle/yacht interiors.

PET fabric (polyester) is commonly used in textiles (fabric and clothing), padding and insulation (for pillows, comforters, upholstery), carpet, and mouldings. Also fortyre reinforcements, conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and tarpaulins.

Toxicity: PET may leachantimony(antimony trioxideis used as a catalyst and flame retardant in PET) (PET1,PET2). The longer a liquid is left in a PET container the greater the potential for release. As well, warmtemperatures inside cars, garages, and enclosed storage areas increase therelease of antimony into the liquid. Antimony trioxideis considered a possible carcinogen (PET3). Workers exposed to antimony trioxide for long periods of time have exhibited respiratory and skin irritation and among female workers, increased incidence of menstrual problems and miscarriage -- while there is no evidence that these effects could arise from exposure to the small amounts of antimony released from PET products (such as water bottles), we prefer not to be exposed to it at all (PET3).

Evidence is also emerging thatphthalateendocrine disruptors also leach from PET (PET4,PET5).

PET as a textile - i.e., polyester - likely contains flame retardants incorporated into it during the manufacturing process. As such, polyester is often described as "inherently flame retardant", but it is unclear exactly which flame retardant chemicals are added to polyester as it is being made, and thus it is difficult to know if there is a toxicity issue with polyester fibre.

Recycling: About 29% (PET6). Recycled material downcycled into polyester fibre for fleece clothing, tote bags, strapping. Note: "Downcycling" means that the recycled material is of lower quality than the original PET, and can only be made into progressively lower quality products until it can no longer be recycled and becomes landfill waste which is most likely landfilled.

Alternatives: Use a glass or stainless steel reusable water bottle.Buy in glass and reuse those bottles/jars - mason jars are incredibly versatile. Choose natural fabrics (e.g., organic cotton, wool, hemp) for clothing.

Our Suggestion: AVOID.Many consider PET a relatively safe single use plastic, but given the research indicating it can release antimony and phthalates, and our precautionary approach, we suggest avoiding it whenever possible. If you must use it, keep it away from heat and do not reuse it.

High density polyethylene (HDPE)Description:Polyethylenes are the most widely used family of plastics in the world. The versatile polyethylene polymer has the simplest basic chemical structure of any plastic polymer (repeating units of CH2: one carbon and two hydrogen molecules) making it very easy to process and thus extremely popular for numerous low value applications - especially packaging. HDPE has long virtually unbranched polymer chains which align and pack easily making it dense and very crystalline (structurally ordered) and thus a stronger, thicker form of of polyethylene. Properties: stiffness, strength, toughness, resistance to moisture, permeability to gas, ease of processing.

Typical Use: Plastic bags (grocery), opaque milk, water, and juice containers, bleach, detergent and shampoo bottles, garbage bags, dishes, yogurt and margarine tubs, cereal box liners, some medecine bottles. Also used in Tyvek insulation, PEX piping, plastic/wood composites.

Toxicity: Being relatively stable, it is generally considered a safer plastic for food and drink use, although some studies have shown that it can leach the endocrine disruptornonylphenol(added to HDPE as a stabilizer),especially when exposed to ultraviolet light - i.e., sunlight -and possibly other additive chemicals with estrogen-mimicking activity (HDPE1,HDPE2,HDPE3).

Recycling: About 29% (HDPE4). Recycled material made into bottles for non-food items like shampoo, laundry detergent, motor oil; plastic lumber and furniture, piping, recycling bins, fencing, floor tiles, buckets, crates, flower pots, garden edging, film and sheeting.

Alternatives:Use glass or stainless steel reusable bottles and food storage containers.Buy in glass and reuse those bottles/jars - mason jars are incredibly versatile. Use reusable bags made of natural fibres (cotton, hemp).

Our Suggestion: RELATIVELY SAFE.But has been shown to release endocrine disrupting chemicals.

Polyvinyl chloride (V or Vinyl or PVC)Description: Long the second most widely used plastic resin in the world (after polyethylene),PVC(or vinyl) use has decreased because of serious health and environmental pollution issues associated with its manufacture, use and disposal -- it's whole life cycle is toxic. But it is still popular and in common use because of its cost-effective versatility. The base monomer is vinyl chloride - the presence of chlorine is the cause of many of PVC's problems - which can be combined and blended with numerous chemicals (including plasticizers such as phthalates) to create resins with properties ranging from rigid to filmy to soft to leathery. Properties: versatility, ease of blending, strength, toughness, clarity, transparency.

Typical Use: Soft PVC (softened with plasticizers) used in toys, clear food (e.g., take-out) and non-food packaging (e.g., blister wrap, cling wrap), squeeze bottles, shampoo bottles, mouthwash bottles, cooking oil and peanut butter jars, detergent and window cleaner bottles, loose-leaf binders, shower curtains, blood bags and medical tubing, "pleather" clothing, Naugahyde upholstery, wire and cable insulation, carpet backing and flooring. Rigid PVC used for blister packs and clamshell packaging, credit cards, piping (e.g., for plumbing), vinyl siding, window frames, fencing, decking, and other construction materials.

Toxicity:PVC is widely considered the most toxic and hazardous plastic that is still - unbelievably so -commonly used to make numerous consumer products (PVC1,PVC2). It may contain and/or leach a variety of toxic chemicals including, but not limited to: bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, lead, dioxins, mercury, and cadmium. Here is a taste of the toxic life cycle of PVC:

The vinyl chloride monomer from which PVC is made is a known carcinogen (PVC3), thus putting manufacturing workers and surrounding communities at risk (PVC1).

Soft forms of PVC, such as toys and packaging and bottles, may leach phthalates. For example, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and butyl benzyl phthalate (BBzP) are two phthalates commonly used as plasticizers or softening agents (usually DEHP). DEHP and BBzP are endocrine disruptors mimicking the female hormone estrogen and have been strongly linked to asthma and allergic symptoms in children living in homes where PVC dust was present (PVC4,PVC5) and to ADHD in children (PVC6); may cause certain types of cancer, including breast cancer (PVC7). Recent consumer product legislation in Europe, Canada and the US, bans DEHP and BBzP and other dangerous phthalates from use in children's products in concentrations greater than 0.1% (PVC8,PVC9,PVC10).

When PVC is burned (e.g., via waste incineration, car or home fires), dioxins are formed. Dioxins are known human carcinogens and persistent organic pollutants, and are considered one of the most toxic types of chemicals ever tested (PVC1,PVC11).

Recycling Rate: Very low (PVC12). Rarely recycled because it is difficult to do so on an industrial scale. It should not be recycled because it contaminates the recycling stream. Recycled PVC can become packaging, binders, decking, paneling, insulation, mud flaps, film and sheet, flooring, garden hoses.

Alternatives:Use glass or stainless steel reusable bottles and food storage containers.Buy in glass and reuse those bottles/jars - mason jars are incredibly versatile. Use non-plastic food wrap. Use recycled cardboard binders. Use recycled kraft paper, recycled cellulose wadding or compostable cornstarch peanuts for packaging. Use hemp or cotton shower curtains, and rubber hoses.Green buildinghas taken off and there are now numerous healthy and eco-friendly alternatives to vinyl construction materials.

Our Suggestion: AVOID.At all costs. Can be extremely toxic.

Low density polyethylene (LDPE)Description:Polyethylenes are the most widely used family of plastics in the world. The versatile polyethylene polymer has the simplest basic chemical structure of any plastic polymer (repeating units of CH2: one carbon and two hydrogen molecules) making it very easy to process and thus extremely popular for numerous low value applications - especially packaging. LDPE polymers have significant chain branching including long side chains making it less dense and less crystalline (structurally ordered) and thus a generally thinner more flexible form of of polyethylene. Properties: strength, toughness, flexibility, resistance to moisture, ease of sealing, ease of processing.

Typical Use: Mostly for film applications like bags (grocery, dry cleaning, bread, frozen food bags, newspapers, garbage), plastic wraps; coatings for paper milk cartons and hot & cold beverage cups; some squeezable bottles (honey, mustard), food storage containers, container lids. Also used for wire and cable covering.

Toxicity:Being relatively stable, it is generally considered a safer plastic for food and drink use, although some studies have shown that it can leach the endocrine disruptornonylphenol(added to LDPE as a stabilizer),especially when exposed to ultraviolet light - i.e., sunlight -and possibly other additive chemicals with estrogen-mimicking activity (LDPE1,LDPE2).

Recycling Rate: Low (LDPE3). Difficult to recycle.Recycled material can be made into compost bins, paneling, plastic lumber.

Alternatives:Use glass or stainless steel reusable bottles and food storage containers.Buy in glass and reuse those bottles/jars - mason jars are incredibly versatile. Use reusable bags made of natural fibres (cotton, hemp). Use non-plastic food wrap.

Our Suggestion: RELATIVELY SAFE.But has been shown to release endocrine disrupting chemicals.

Polypropylene (PP)Description: Polypropylene is used for similar applications as polyethylenes, but is generally stiffer and more heat resistant - so is often used for containers filled with hot food. It too has a simple chemical structure (many methyl groups of CH3 - one carbon and three hydrogen molecules) making it very versatile. It's crystallinity (structural order affecting hardness & density) is quite high, somewhere between LDPE and HDPE. Properties: strength, toughness, resistance to heat, chemicals, grease & oil, barrier to moisture.

Typical Use: Food containers (ketchup, yogurt, cottage cheese, margarine, syrup, take-out), medicine containers, straws, bottle caps, Britta filters, Rubbermaid and other opaque plastic containers, including baby bottles. Other uses include disposable diaper and sanitary pad liners, thermal vests, appliance parts and numerous car parts (bumpers, carpets, fixtures).

Toxicity:Being relatively stable, it is generally considered a safer plastic for food and drink use, although it has been shown to leach plastic additives (such as the stabilizing agent oleamide) when PP labware was used in scientific experiments (PP1) and one older study has suggested heated PP may be linked to occupational asthma based on the exposure of a worker in a PP factory (PP2).

Recycling Rate: Low, because often pigmented or mixed with other resins, therefore difficult to sort (PP3). Recycled material made into brooms, brushes, bins pallets, auto battery cases, flower pots.

Alternatives:Buy in glass and reuse those bottles/jars - mason jars are incredibly versatile. Use a glass or stainless steel reusable water bottle. Purchase margarine/butter in cubes.

Our Suggestion:RELATIVELY SAFE.But has been shown to release additive chemicals when used as labware in scientific experiments.

Polystyrene (PS)Description: Polystyrene is commonly associated with the trade name Styrofoam food containers and packing peanuts made of expanded PS (EPS), which is essentially foamed PS that has been puffed up with air. PS synthesis requires benzene, a known carcinogen, to form the monomer styrene, which is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen. Apart from low cost, low strength foam, PS can be made as a clear, glassy, hard polymer used for things like cutlery and cd cases; also higher impact versions exist for harder applications. Properties: versatility, clarity, easily formed.

Typical Use: EPS: Styrofoam food containers, egg cartons, disposable cups and bowls, take-out food containers, deli food plates, packaging, packing peanuts, bike helmets. Harder clear/opaque PS: disposable cutlery & razors, compact disc & dvd cases. High impact PS: hangers, smoke detector housing, licence plate frames, medecine bottles, test tubes, petri dishes, model assembly kits.

Toxicity:PS food containers can leach styrene, which is reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen (PS1,PS2) and is considered a brain and nervous system toxicant (PS1,PS3,PS4). Animal studies have shown adverse effects on genes, lungs, liver, and the immune system (PS2). Note that styrene is also present in second-hand cigarette smoke, off-gassing building materials, and car exhaust. The leaching of styrene from PS containers into food is increased when the food or liquid is hot and oily (PS3,PS4) .

Recycling Rate: Very low, because difficult to recycle (PS5).Recycled material made into packaging and thermal insulation.

Alternatives:Avoid PS take-out containers - bring your own reusable dishes/containers for take-out. Buy in glass and reuse those bottles/jars - mason jars are incredibly versatile. Use reusable dishes (e.g., ceramic, stainless steel) and cutlery (e.g., stainless steel, bamboo) for picnics and events.

Our Suggestion: AVOID.Can leach styrene, which is a brain and nervous system toxin and likely carcinogenic.

Other (O) - all other plasticsThis category does not identify one particular plastic resin. It is ageneral catch-allfor all plastics other than those identified by numbers 1-7, and can include plastics that may be layered or a mixture of various plastics. It includes the new bioplastics.

Polycarbonate (PC) is an extremely common plastic in this category and is often associated with this category (sometimes a product will have the number 7 on it with the letters "PC" underneath), so we describe it below -- But keep in mind thatpolycarbonate is not the only plastic in this categoryand if a product has a number 7 on itwithoutthe letters PC under it, the product could be made of polycarbonate or it could be any other plastic (and there are thousands!). The only way to know for sure is to ask the manufacturer or have the plastic tested.

Polycarbonate (PC)

Description:Polycarbonate use as a consumer plastic has decreased drastically in recent years due to the health-related problems associated withbisphenol A (BPA), the primary molecule in PC polymers, as well as increasing national bans on its use for certain products such a baby bottles and infant formula packaging. It is a tough family of engineering plastics originally developed to be an alternative to die-cast metal. It'sstrength and transparencymade it a popular choice for consumer products needing to be shatter-proof, and also for epoxy resins. PC is also known by various trade names includingLexan,MakrolonandMakroclear. Properties: Easily molded, temperature resistance, stiffness, strength, optical clarity.

Typical Use: Baby bottles, sippy cups, water bottles, three and five gallon large water storage containers, metal food can liners, juice and ketchup containers, oven-baking bags, carbonless paper receipts. Also used in custom packaging, eye glass lenses, epoxy resins, dental sealants, compact discs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs, lab equipment, gears, snowboards, car parts, housing forcell phones, computers and power tools.

Toxicity:The problem with PC is bisphenol A (BPA), the synthetic backbone which readily breaks down and leaches from PC. For example,BPA leaching is a significant concern with PC epoxy-lined cans used for foods, especially oil-based and/or acidic foods, which will increase leaching. There is lots more information in ourBPA section, but in a nutshell... BPA is often described as ahormoneorendocrine disuptor, because it mimics human hormones, in particular theestrogenhormones, which are involved in normal cellular function, reproduction, development and behaviour. Peer-reviewed scientific studies have linked BPA to numerous health problems including chromosome damage in female ovaries, decreased sperm production in males, early onset of puberty, various behavioural changes, altered immune function, sex reversal in frogs, impaired brain and neurological functions, cardiovascular system damage, adult-onset (Type II) diabetes, obesity, resistance to chemotherapy, increased risk ofbreast cancer, prostate cancer, infertility, and metabolic disorders -- research into the impacts of BPA on human healthis extensive and ongoing (PC1,PC2,PC3,PC4).

Recycling Rate: Very low (PC). Not all municipalities include polycarbonate as readily acceptable for their recycling programs. Recycled PC may be used to make plastic lumber.

Alternatives:Buy in glass and reuse those bottles/jars - mason jars are incredibly versatile. Use a glass or stainless steel reusable water bottle. Use a stainless steel water dispenser for large quantities of water or other liquids. If you must use the large blue PC bottles, transfer the water to another container as soon as you bring it home.

Our Suggestion for PC: AVOID.Leaches bisphenol A (BPA), which is a known endocrine disruptor with numerous adverse health effects, including increased risk of cancers.

Key references for the above text:

Anthony L. Andrady, ed.Plastics and the Environment. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2003.

Susan Freinkel.Plastic: A Toxic Love Story. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011.

Rick Smith & Bruce Lourie.Slow Death by Rubber Duck: How the Toxic Chemistry of Everyday Life Affects Our Health.Toronto: Alfred A. Knopf, 2009.

E.S. Stevens.Green Plastics: An Introduction to the New Science of Biodegradeable Plastics. Princeton & Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2002.

Beth Terry.Plastic Free: How I Kicked the Plastic Habit and How You Can Too. New York: Skyhorse Publishing, 2012.

R. C. Thompson, C. J. Moore, F. S. vom Saal and S. H. Swan, eds. "Theme Issue: Plastics, The Environment and Human Health."Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B.Vol. 364, No. 1526, 27 July 2009.

Michael Tolinski.Plastics and Sustainability: Towards a Peaceful Coexistence between Bio-based and Fossil Fuel-based Plastics.Salem, MA: Scrivener Publishing, 2012.

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