power and organization

8/8/2019 Power and Organization

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POWER AND ORGANIZATION

Organizational Behavior

RESEARCH REPORT

SUBMITTED TO:FARUKH AHMED MIAN

SUBMITTED BY:

ASAD AFTAB

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Table of Content:

Introduction 3

Hobbes and Power: 5

Power Enhancers: 7

Powerlessness: 8

Power Types: 9

Stages of Personal Power: 11

Strategic Contingencies Theory: 13

Three Dimensions of Power: 14

Toffler's Three Forms of Power: 16

Powerful People: 17

Power in Organizations: 19

Power in Politics: 22

Conclusion 24

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http://changingminds.org/explanations/power/hobbes_power.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/power_enhancers.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/powerlessness.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/power_types.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/stages_power.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/strategic_contingencies.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/three_dimensions_of_power.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/toffler_power.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/powerful_people.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/power_organizations.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/power_enhancers.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/powerlessness.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/power_types.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/stages_power.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/strategic_contingencies.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/three_dimensions_of_power.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/toffler_power.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/powerful_people.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/power_organizations.htmhttp://changingminds.org/explanations/power/hobbes_power.htm


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Definition:Power is the ability to get what you want. As what you want is often constrained by otherpeople, the use of power often includes changing or influencing what others think,

believe and do. It is at the heart of all techniques of changing minds.

French and Raven's Five Forms of Power

The most common description of power is French and Raven (1960). This divides powerinto five different forms.

Coercive power

This is the power to force someone to do something against their will. It is often physical

although other threats may be used. It is the power of dictators, despots and bullies.Coercion can result in physical harm, although its principal goal is compliance.

Demonstrations of harm are often used to illustrate what will happen if compliance is not

gained.

Coercion is also the ultimate power of all governments. Although it is often seen as

negative, it is also used to keep the peace. Parents coerce young children who know nobetter. A person holds back their friend who is about to step out in front of a car.

Other forms of power can also be used in coercive ways, such as when a reward or

expertise is withheld or referent power is used to threaten social exclusion.

Reward power

One of the main reasons we work is for the money we need to conduct our lives. There

are many more forms of reward -- in fact anything we find desirable can be a reward,

from a million dollar yacht to a pat on the back.

Reward power is thus the ability to give other people what they want, and hence ask themto do things for you in exchange.

Rewards can also be used to punish, such as when they are withheld. The promise is

essentially the same: do this and you will get that.

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Legitimate power

Legitimate power is that which is invested in a role. Kings, policemen and managers all

have legitimate power. The legitimacy may come from a higher power, often one withcoercive power. Legitimate power can often thus be the acceptable face of raw power.

A common trap that people in such roles can fall into is to forget that people are obeying

the position, not them. When they either fall from power or move onto other things, it can

be a puzzling surprise that people who used to fawn at your feet no long do so.

Referent power

This is the power from another person liking you or wanting to be like you. It is the

power of charisma and fame and is wielded by all celebrities (by definition) as well as

more local social leaders. In wanting to be like these people, we stand near them, hopingsome of the charisma will rub off onto us.

Those with referent power can also use it for coercion. One of the things we fear most is

social exclusion, and all it takes is a word from a social leader for us to be shunned by

others in the group.

Expert power

When I have knowledge and skill that someone else requires, then I have Expert power.

This is a very common form of power and is the basis for a very large proportion of

human collaboration, including most companies where the principle of specializationallows large and complex enterprises to be undertaken.

Expert power is that which is used by Trades Unions when they encourage their members

to strike for better pay or working conditions. It is also the power of the specialist R&D

Engineer when they threaten to leave unless they get an exorbitant pay rise or a seat bythe window.

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Hobbes and power

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was a 17th century thinker who sought to apply the new

methods of science and the Greek rigor of logic to sociology. In his 1660 masterwork,'Leviathan', he describes power and promotes the notion of a commonwealth as an

effective society.

Hobbes divided motivation into appetites and aversions, predating Freud and his

pleasure-pain principle by a couple of centuries.

Natural Power

Hobbes defined power as the ability to secure well-being or personal advantage 'to obtain

some future apparent well'. He saw people as having 'Natural Power' that come from

internal qualities such as intellectual eloquence, physical strength and prudence.

Instrumental Power

He also noted that we have 'Instrumental Power' which has the sole purpose of acquiring

more power. This includes wealth, reputation and influential friends.

He thus saw the quest for power as the quest for command over the power of others. If I

can get you to use your power on behalf of my purpose, then I can add your power to myarsenal. In its most simple form, we buy the compliance of others.

'The value or worth of a man is, as of all other things, his Price; that is to say, so much aswould be given for the use of his Power.

Relative power

Hobbes noted that power is relative only to the power of others. If I have less power thanyou, then I am effectively powerless in your presence. This leads us to a perpetual power

struggle with other people, each vying for ever greater power and each seeking to acquire

the power of others.

He also noticed that there are some people who can never get enough power, and who

seek to use others rather than cooperate and live in harmony with them. This heconsidered a dysfunction.

Ceding power

Hobbes found that many of us find a balance in life and gaining 'sufficient power' isadequate for us. We also seek to co-operate and share power with others to escape from

an endless escalation.

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'that a man be willing when others are so too, as farre-forth as for Peace and defense of

himself he shall think it necessary, to lay down the right to all things; and be contented

with so much liberty against other men, as he would allow other men against himself.'

He considered the most effective use of personal power in society is to cede it to a central

authority that can use this power without question back on the people who give thepower. This effectively leads to an elected monarch and commonwealth, which Hobbes

called the 'Leviathan'.

The Leviathan, by the way, is monstrous and fearsome sea creature in the book of Job.

Going against the Leviathan was an act of great peril.

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Power Enhancers

Although there are many different types or power, there are a number of things that may

be considered which will increase the power you have.

Scarcity

The Scarcity Principle makes anything that is not easily available more desirable. If the

power I have is something that other people do not have, then I am the only wielder of

this power and hence I can choose how it is used.

Desirability

If what I have is more desirable, then I can make greater demands, asking more for it and

so on.

A negative form of this is where my power is undesirable, such as the power to punish.

Again, the greater the undesirability of my power the stronger the power is (although itwill create very different reactions to a positive and desirable thing).

Skill

Some people have power but are not good at wielding it. Like a swordsman with a sharp

cutlass, a skilful user of power uses just enough to get what they want and no more.

Impact

If my power has a great impact on people, then they will pay greater attention to it. Thus

a bank robber acquires great power (and money) from the use of a gun.

Acquisition cost

Sometimes power costs a great deal to acquire, such as expert power, for which takestime and money to get through college.

Burn rate

Power, when used, may be used up or it may retain its 'full strength'. Thus when a teacher

shouts at a class, it will only work for a while and if they keep it up, before long the

children will ignore the loud thing at the front of the class. A good teacher only needs tohint or raise an eyebrow.

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Powerlessness

The opposite of having power is powerlessness, which is a remarkably common illusion.

Self-image

Many people have a self-image of powerlessness, believing that they are not able toachieve anything. This may take the form of needing to ask for approval before taking

any action (I am not authorized to decide). It may also come from a self image of being

unable to achieve goals (I do not have the skill or knowledge to do anything).

A low self-image can thus have a cripplingly paralyzing on a person, preventing themfrom even beginning any action.

Fear of failure

Another root of powerlessness is the fear of failure. This is often based in the fear of

persecution and rejection and may be related to the paranoid-schizoid position.

The person typically projects forward into the future, sees themselves failing and thencontinues to imagine others criticizing and ostracizing them. The illusion may continue

into feelings of guilt, shame and loneliness.

Internal conflict

Internal conflict can lead to powerlessness, for example where a manager wants todiscipline an employee but also wants to be liked -- the result can be a stasis of inaction.

When equal and opposite forces pull against one another, the net movement is zero.

Internal conflict thus can create significant internal tension but no real movement.

The power of powerlessness

Curiously, powerlessness is a form of power. If I feel powerless, then this gives me thepower to ask for help. I can be powerless like a child and hence demand help from an

adult-figure.

Begging uses powerlessness to persuade.

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Types of Power

Although the French and Raven list is common, here is a composite and extended list that

is perhaps easier to use.

Ownership

If I own something then I can also use it in any way I like. If I own a chair I can set fire to

it, which I couldn't do if I had borrowed it from you. If I own money, I can spend it any

way I choose.

Position

Where you occupy a recognized position, then I will obey the rules regarding that

position (rather than obeying you, per se).

Formal positions include managers, policemen, and so on. These may well have formal

authority vested in them by the company or the country.

Informal positions also exist, such as social leaders or team roles such as the Belbin TeamTypes. If you hold a creative social position such as a 'plant' then I will listen carefully to

your ideas.

Access control

Another form of ownership is where you are the gatekeeper to something that is desired.Bouncers at night clubs and company receptionists are gatekeepers to entire

organizations. Personal assistants control access to the managers they serve. Librarians

control access to knowledge.

Knowledge

Knowledge is power, as they say. If I know something, then I can use it to my advantage.

Knowledge may come in several forms:

Technicalknowledge is knowing how things work. It is the power of experts and

academics. Socialknowledge is knowing things about people. This may include secrets that

could be used for blackmail.

The degree of power that a knowledge user has depends even more than other forms of

power on a supply and demand situation. If nobody wants the knowledge or cares aboutit, then there is little power. But if the world is being invaded by aliens and I know how

to repel them, I can demand a high price for my services.

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Skill

Skill is closely related to knowledge, but is the ability to do something rather than just

know it.

As with knowledge, there is technical skill and social skill. Engineers have technicalskills. Sales people have social skills, which include the ability to communicate and the

ability to persuade others.

Obligation

If I feel obligation towards you, you can tip the scales by reminding me of that obligation.Obligations may come from:

Favors you did me in the past and which I must now repay.

Rules that I must follow, such as social rules to help a person in distress.

Responsibilities that I feel, for example as a parent, friend or a manager.

Trust

If you earn my respect then I will trust you and this gives you far greater power to ask me

for things, as I will not need to wonder whether you may take advantage of me.

Self determination

I am the only person who can decide what I say and do. As such I have power, which canbe much greater than is suspected. I can, for example, always choose to say no and to

walk out. This is of course, the basic power of Trade Unions.

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Stages of Personal Power

Janet Hagberg, in her book 'Real Power: Stages of Personal Power in Organizations',

describes six stages through which people go when developing their power within acompany.

1. Powerlessness

We start from a position of powerlessness. When we join an organization we know

nobody and are totally dependent on others for initial assistance in understanding howthings work, how to influence others and how to get things done.

2. Power by association

Power by association is the power we gain by being able to utilize the power that othersalready have.

As we get to know people and gain their respect and trust, we may leverage their power,for example in asking them to ask others to do things or asking them for introductions.

The secret of gaining associative power is hence in being able to create bonds and draw

on relationships.

We can also join teams, clubs and form other associations and coalitions, thereby gainingthe power of the group.

3. Power by achievement

Power by acquisition is that power which we gain through what we do and the persuasive

evidence that others perceive in this.

Achievement leads to achievement. If we do well at work then we are given moreimportant work and may also get promoted. The power we get from this multiplies, as

people cede power to those who prove their ability, which then allows them to achieve

further still.

4. Power by reflection

In a curious reversal of depending on others for power, we can gain power through

internal reflection and realizing we have all personal power on which we can draw.

A person at this stage is competent and has sound integrity. They are widely respected

and this strength draws others to them, on whose ability and power they mayconsequently depend. Paradoxically, as they let go of their ego, they gain more power.

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5. Power by purpose

People at this stage are driven by their purpose. Their power comes from within. Their

inner power is so much greater than the power of those around them, they can influencedecisions of many others.

Great leaders show this purpose in stirring speeches and powerful and symbolic action.

They succeed because they believe in a greater purpose beyond themselves. They are

visionary and self-accepting, humble and spiritual.

6. Power by wisdom

Stage six people feel a deep connection to the greater universe. They may often spend

time in solitude, connecting and reflecting. They may have been through great pain and

crisis on more than one occasion, yet have used these events to learn and grow.

They have found contentment and live on an 'even keel'. The purpose they work to is veryhigh. They know and accept powerlessness and in doing so find ultimate power. They

embrace paradox and do not need to take sides.

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Strategic Contingencies Theory

Description

Intraorganizational power depends on three factors: problem skills, actor centrality anduniqueness of skill.

If you have the skills and expertise to resolve important problems, then you are going to

be in demand. And by the law of supply and demand, that gives your the upper hand in

negotiations. It also gives you power from the reciprocity created.

If you work in a central part of the workflow of the organization, then what you do isvery important. This gives you many opportunities to be noticed. It also means you are on

the critical path, such that if your part of the company fails, the whole show stops. Again

creating attention and giving you bargaining power.

Finally, if you are difficult to replace, then if you do make enemies up the hierarchy, thenthey cannot just move you out or sideways.

Example

A production manager in an organization is in charge of a key manufacturing operation

(centrality), and understands its complexities very well (uniqueness). From a longexperience, when things go wrong, he is very good at fixing things, both mechanically

and with the unions.

So what?

Using it

Get a job on the critical path through the organization. Become expert in problem solvingin it. Acquire and defend knowledge and skills that nobody else has.

Defending

Do not let any one person become indispensable.

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Three Dimensions of Power

There are three dimensions of power in action, with two, two and three possible states.

This gives 2 x 2 x 3 possible combinations, which gives 12 ways of using power.

Channels

The channels of power are the way in which power is enacted. They can perhaps more

readily be remembered as 'head, hands and heart'.

Physical power

This is power derived from material or physical advantage. Individually, it can comefrom strength or skill, such as the power of a wrestler. It can also come from having

weapons, which can be the ultimate power of groups and governments.

Physical power also comes from having things that are not designed to hurt people.Owning a building or a machine or even a sewing needle are forms of physical power.

Informational power

This is derived from knowledge. For example if I know your weaknesses I could leverage

this knowledge when trying to persuade you, or maybe help you learn and shore up those

weaknesses.

Power often comes from the control of access to information, where you can permit or

offer access to others. Knowledge is power, as they say.

Emotional power

This is the social power of affect, using emotion to get what you want. Charisma is aform of emotional power, including the power of oratory and the use of subtle body

language.

Threats are often emotional in the effect they have. In fact most interactions betweenpeople include some form of emotional power.

Intent

These form the intentof the person using power, helping or hurting others.

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Positive power

This is power used for good, with the intent of helping others. It is used to protect and

nurture, or at least do no harm. It is based on love, care, concern and pro-social values.

Negative power

This power that is used either to directly harm other people or with no care or concern

about them. It is based either on greed and selfishness or on other negative emotions such

as fear and hate.

Deliberateness

These are the deliberateness of power, the triggers which lead to power being used.

Reactive power

This is power that is used in response to situations, for example where a person has the

power to say no or to restrict access in some form. This power cannot be utilized thatuntil someone else wants something that can be blocked.

In some countries, crimes are considered as being less so when they are deemed as being

reactive. Thus, in France, 'crimes of passion' are dealt with more leniently than over the

water in Britain.

Proactive power

This is power used consciously and deliberately, for example using your physicalstrength to attack someone. This is where Values, Morals and Ethics are more significant,as they imply deliberate intent, premeditation and forethought.

Uses of power

Put together, these three domains of power can be used to create the table below. It's a

neat way of understanding how different forms of power appear.

Uses of power Physical Informational Emotional

Reactive

Positive Do no harm Open bookAllow access

Respond to calls forhelp

Negative Allow harmDo not inform

Deny access

Ignore

Reject calls

ProactivePositive Defend

Inform, teach

Warn of danger

Comfort

Nurture

Negative Attack Withhold information Taunt

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Do harm Blackmail, deceive Seduce

Toffler's three forms of power

Futurist Alvin Toffler describes three forms of power and shows how these have changedover time.

Violence

The most basic form of power is violence, or physical forms of power. 'Might is right' is

their watchword and it is close to the law of the jungle in operation.

The basic promise is 'do as you are told and you won't get hurt'.

Those who gain the power of violence do so by controlling the mechanisms of physical

domination, from armies and police forces to the ownership of specific weapons.

Wealth

Money is a more flexible form of power than violence as it can be exchanged for pretty

much anything you want, from goods to services of all kinds.

Money can be viewed as 'stored time/action': you work and are given money, then givethe money to others to save time/action. The trick in acquiring wealth is to invest the

money in ways that it provides a maximum return on investment.

Those who gain wealth do so largely through a superior ability (or sometimes luck) in

investment, taking controlled risks and gaining disproportionate returns.

Knowledge

Knowledge is the ultimate form of power and can be used to acquire both wealth and

violence, if applied in the right way. 'Knowledge is power' is a common saying that

highlights this.

The evolution of power

Toffler indicates how violence was the basic power of the nobility in ancient times,

where powerful elite worked largely through domination that threatened violence to those

who did not comply.

In the industrial revolution, violence gave way to wealth, as the merchant classes becamemore powerful and gained control of critical resources and channels.

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Powerful People

How do powerful people behave? Here are some of the things they do, and why. In

particular powerful people act either to get what they want or simply to sustain andenhance their power.

Using symbols

Powerful people often use the symbols of power to demonstrate to others that they are

powerful. They dress in expensive clothes, drive new and powerful clothes. They havepowerful friends and let others know this.

Power is often illusory, and is as much about confidence as anything else, with power

being ceded by those who believe they have less. Symbols are consequently a part of the

toolkit that 'powerful' people use to persuade others that they have more real power thanthey perhaps have.

Truly powerful people are often understated in how they dress and how they use symbols.

By an almost reverse psychology, they say 'I do not need symbols' and they live more by

their reputation and the quiet knowledge that they can get everything they need. Thesymbols of power are still significant but in their absence rather than their presence.

Speaking more or less

Depending on whether they have a psychological need to be heard or not, powerful

people will speak more or less. The more extraverted people will take the stage andpronounce for a long as they like, quite possibly in a louder voice.

Others will wait quietly then speak briefly but forcefully. Speaking at the end, after others

speak is a distinct technique as it allows the person to take account of the useful

information gained by listening to others. It also allows the powerful person to praise orcriticize other speakers. As others have already spoken, it also allows the powerful person

to close the conversation or change topic.

Rule-breaking

When speaking, powerful people will interrupt more. When they want to speak, they willspeak rather than waiting politely for others to end. Speaking when they want is an

example of how powerful people will break rules.

Rule-breaking may be deliberate, to demonstrate the person's power. It may also enhance

power, for example when they interrupt another person, thus showing they are morepowerful, pushing themselves up the hierarchy and the other person down.

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Rule-breaking may also be unthinking as the powerful person is so accustomed to getting

what they want that without criticism, they act like a bull in a china shop, damaging all

around them.

Thinking less

People with less power may be harmed by people with power so they think carefully

before speaking to powerful people. And because powerful people do not have to worry

about what others might think about them, they think less before speaking.

Also, because they have the power to change decisions, they often think less beforemaking decisions. On the other hand, if the decision might affect their power then they

will be more cautious. For example a rich person will spend a smaller sum (which seems

large to the average person) with impunity, whilst they will be more cautious spendinglarge sums.

Trusting more

When less powerful people trust more powerful people they may be putting themselves in

danger, as if conflict arises between them the powerful person will likely win. Lesspowerful people consequently are less trusting of more powerful people.

In the reverse case, powerful people know they punish others if they are not trustworthy

and that they have the means to extricate themselves from a damaging situation. In

consequence there is less risk for them to trust and so they trust more.

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Power in Organizations

Here is a list sources of power that may be found in organizations (Morgan, 1986), with

further commentary

Formal authority

The simplest form of power is that vested in the position of 'manager'. A manager has

subordinates who must do his or her bidding, only within legal and organizational rules.

The basic employment transaction is 'we give you money, you do as your are told'.

Of course there are many more ways that power can be exerted, and in particular in

motivating people more effectively such as is found in transformational leadership.

Control of scarce resources

Other than directing employees, managers control budgets and the assets and otherresources that the firm holds, from technology to people. A part of this control is the

ability to allocate these resources to projects and other work.

It is not unsurprising that many of the political battles in organizations is over control of

resources and 'empire-building' is a classic game, with a significant risk thatorganizational goals get forgotten in the cut and thrust of winning and losing control of

resources.

Use of organizational structure, rules and regulations

Organizations have hierarchies, departments, teams and other structures, often each withits own rules as well as the rules that govern the action within the organization as a

whole. Many people do not know all of these rules, which makes them a source of power

for those who care to take time to learn their detail.

Power can also be gained from quoting rules that do not exist or misquoting rules byoverstating or understating their meaning.

Control of decision processes

Work is selected and resources are allocated by decisions, many of which are decided in

some form by groups of people. By managing how decisions are made, for example byrequiring consensus or senior-manager signoff, the power of some people may be

curtailed whilst others gain the ability to shape decisions.

When decisions are made in committee or other meetings, the person who chairs the

meeting or keeps the minutes may have notable power to control decisions.

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Control of knowledge and information

Knowledge is power, as they say, and how you gather and distribute it is a source of

power, whether it is technical or social information.

Experts often work in this way, protecting their elevated status by hiding the sources oftheir knowledge and exacting high prices (whether financial or social) for their learned

opinions.

Control of boundaries

The structures and groups of the organization are only so because they have boundaries

which people cross in order to access resources and meet people. Thus, for example, an

executive's Personal Assistant may have disproportionate power in the ability to allow

access or not to the executive. Likewise security guards, though not paid very much canallow, bar or hassle people crossing their boundaries.

Ability to cope with uncertainty

A quite different source of power is personal resilience, the ability to handle uncertainty

and stress that might debilitate others. Such people can gain position by taking on workthat others fear and is a common route for upwardly-mobile go-getters who seek early

promotion.

Control of technology

Technology is (or should be) an enabler, providing data, analysis, information, access and

other benefits. Those who control what technology is used by the organization or whogets the latest computers and software has significant power, and the person who used to

be the 'IT Manager' may now be the 'Chief Information Officer'.

Having the latest technology can also be a status symbol, thereby giving the holder social

power in the way they can show themselves to be influential and clever.

Interpersonal alliances, networks and control of informalorganization

Who you know makes a lot of difference. We naturally help our friends and those who

have helped us in some way in the past. Social networks are the glue of organizations andthose who build and work their informal associates can thereby gain significantly morepower.

In the time when smoking was allowed but only in special 'smoking rooms', it was often

said that this became a 'club' where the low and the high in the organization rubbed

shoulders, which no doubt gave power to the lower people in the name-dropping theycould use and and help they might get.

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Control of counter-organizations

Not to every organization is there an equal and opposite counter-organization, but in the

battlefield of businesses, whole ecologies spring up, include local opposition to factoryexpansion, trade unions seeking ever-increasing pay and benefits and so on. If you can

infiltrate or otherwise hold some sway over the groups who might oppose you, you mayat least be able to damp the danger they power and possibly neutralize them completely.

Symbolism and the management of meaning

We live a lot, more than perhaps we realize, in the sway of the symbols and semiotics of

the workplace. If you can recognize the subtlety and understand the workings of how

meaning is created, then you have a surprisingly powerful tool for change and influence.

Symbols and meaning-making is a particular pattern of culture, and those who wouldchange the underlying culture of an organization can make use of these.

Gender and the management of gender relations

In a balanced workplace, around half the people are men and half are women. In practice,

some women gravitate towards particular roles whilst men seek other work positions. The'glass ceiling' still exists in many companies and, perhaps due to life breaks such as

having children, fewer women make it to the higher echelons.

This can lead to frustrations and energy that can be put to good and destructive use. Ifyou can harness this, you have power. There is also the power of sexual attraction, and

tall and shapely people continue to make good use of their physical assets.

Structural factors that define the stage of action

The 'stage of action' in organizations is set up by the organizational purpose, vision,mission, strategy and other high-level shaping activities that lead to scenarios of activity,

from driving into new markets to struggling with organizational change.

If you can shape the direction of the organization, you have tremendous power to affect

much of what it does and consequently the futures (and power) of others in the firm.

The power one already has

Last, but certainly not least, is the power of the individual. We can be charming, willing,

obstinate and more. And we have feet we can use to leave the company at any time we

choose.

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Power in Politics:Power and politics are often seen as synonymous and most certainly it is important togain and maintain the diverse forms of power you have.

Coalitions

When threatened or otherwise stressed, people form into groups to defend against a

common enemy. They may also band together to achieve a common goal.

This can be bad news and the bottom line is that if you are trying to get something done

in an organization, you really do not want to have to do battle with a coalition.

Avoiding coalitions

It is best if you can first act to avoid coalitions starting, for example by:

Managing information to demonstrate that they are not needed.

Managing thesequence of information to guide their thinking and at least

avoiding the worst forms of coalition.

Increase the visibility of specific issues to show the irrelevance of a coalition.

Break down the problem into separated issues, so a coalition cannot form around

impossibly big issues.

Handling coalitions

Coalitions are more powerful than individuals, not only because they represent mass

action, but because they also build in social obligations such that individual coalition

members will be loathe to act individually and against the interests of the coalition as awhole.

This makes handling them very dangerous. Macmillan and Guth (1985) suggest the

following tactics:

Form a pre-emptive coalition, including some of the key people who would

otherwise join the opposition.

Form a counter-coalition if the opposing coalition appears anyway, althoughwatch out for this causing war games.

Change the power of the coaltions leaders, for example by restructuring their jobsbeneath them, removing their position power.

Co-opt coaltion members onto plum jobs, especially the waverers and key people.

Increase communication and persuasion, because it is surprising how often justtalking works.

Remove coalition leaders, for example by sacking them or sending them overseas.

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Conclusion:

Understand the power you have as well as the power of other people. Use your own

power carefully. Perhaps the greatest power you can have is to get others to use theirpower on your behalf.

Beware of sleeping dragons: many people will only use their power when aroused. The

most effective power is that used so subtly that people do not realize it is being used.

Power does not have to be used directly: threats are often effective, especially whenaccompanied by displays of power. Like gorillas thumping their chests, we seldom need

to fight.

power and organization

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