PPA 503 – The Public Policy PPA 503 – The Public Policy Making ProcessMaking Process

Lecture 1c – The Basics of Good Writing

Basic Structure of a MemorandumBasic Structure of a Memorandum

• Background – What problems prompted the development of this memorandum?

– Only include the material relevant to the subject of the memorandum.

• Issues – What critical issues does this memorandum intend to discuss?

– Only include those issues for which you intend to develop arguments.

• Background – What problems prompted the development of this memorandum?

– Only include the material relevant to the subject of the memorandum.

• Issues – What critical issues does this memorandum intend to discuss?

– Only include those issues for which you intend to develop arguments.

Basic Structure of a MemorandumBasic Structure of a Memorandum

• Stakeholders – What individuals, groups, or organizations can affect the policy or are affected by the policy?

– Include only those stakeholders that have a significant impact.

• Stakeholders – What individuals, groups, or organizations can affect the policy or are affected by the policy?

– Include only those stakeholders that have a significant impact.

Basic Structure of a MemorandumBasic Structure of a Memorandum

• Discussion, argument, evidence – What arguments or evidence do you wish the reader to consider in analyzing the policy?

– Include only those arguments that concern the critical issues identified in the earlier section.

– Always consider the potential counterarguments of competing stakeholders. What rebuttal might they make and how would you combat it?

• Discussion, argument, evidence – What arguments or evidence do you wish the reader to consider in analyzing the policy?

– Include only those arguments that concern the critical issues identified in the earlier section.

– Always consider the potential counterarguments of competing stakeholders. What rebuttal might they make and how would you combat it?

Basic Structure of a MemorandumBasic Structure of a Memorandum

• Conclusions, recommendations.– Based on your argument and evidence

and given the problem definition, what conclusions would you reach, and, more importantly, what recommendations would you make?

• Conclusions, recommendations.– Based on your argument and evidence

and given the problem definition, what conclusions would you reach, and, more importantly, what recommendations would you make?

Basic Structure of a Policy PaperBasic Structure of a Policy Paper

• Introduction – What policy do you intend to discuss?• Problem Definition:

– What conditions exist that suggest that there is a problem?– Why do the conditions represent a public problem rather than a

private problem?– Who are the stakeholders who will affect the definition of the

problem?– What competing problem definitions might the stakeholders

have?– What problem definition appears to dominate your policy and

why?

• Introduction – What policy do you intend to discuss?• Problem Definition:

– What conditions exist that suggest that there is a problem?– Why do the conditions represent a public problem rather than a

private problem?– Who are the stakeholders who will affect the definition of the

problem?– What competing problem definitions might the stakeholders

have?– What problem definition appears to dominate your policy and

why?

Basic Structure of a Policy PaperBasic Structure of a Policy Paper

• Agenda Setting:– What problem definition appears to dominate your policy and

why?– Relying on Kingdon, what combination of problems and politics

has brought the issue to public attention?– Who are the key stakeholders? Did anyone act as a policy

entrepreneur to get the policy on the government agenda?– What was the issue attention cycle (i.e, did the issue rise and fall

in public attention by producing a solution or without producing a solution)?

– What was the outcome of the agenda setting process?

• Agenda Setting:– What problem definition appears to dominate your policy and

why?– Relying on Kingdon, what combination of problems and politics

has brought the issue to public attention?– Who are the key stakeholders? Did anyone act as a policy

entrepreneur to get the policy on the government agenda?– What was the issue attention cycle (i.e, did the issue rise and fall

in public attention by producing a solution or without producing a solution)?

– What was the outcome of the agenda setting process?

Basic Structure of a Policy PaperBasic Structure of a Policy Paper

• Policy Formulation:– Who are the stakeholders?– What are the competing definitions of the policy problem?

Which definition is dominant?– Relying on Kingdon, what combination of problems,

policies, and politics produce the alternatives?– What are the competing alternatives?– What are the likely outcomes from the implementation of

each alternative?

• Policy Formulation:– Who are the stakeholders?– What are the competing definitions of the policy problem?

Which definition is dominant?– Relying on Kingdon, what combination of problems,

policies, and politics produce the alternatives?– What are the competing alternatives?– What are the likely outcomes from the implementation of

each alternative?

Basic Structure of a Policy PaperBasic Structure of a Policy Paper

• Policy Legitimation:– What competing values must policy-makers

maximize for this problem?– Which values dominate the decision?– Who must make the decision?– Is the policy arena for the decision primarily

executive, legislative, or judicial?– What is the decision?

• Policy Legitimation:– What competing values must policy-makers

maximize for this problem?– Which values dominate the decision?– Who must make the decision?– Is the policy arena for the decision primarily

executive, legislative, or judicial?– What is the decision?

Basic Structure of a Policy PaperBasic Structure of a Policy Paper

• Policy Implementation:– What is the policy decision?– What organization or agency must implement the

decision?– What resources (human, financial, and organizational) will

the organization need to carry out the decision?– How will the agency verify that the implementation was

successful?

• Policy Implementation:– What is the policy decision?– What organization or agency must implement the

decision?– What resources (human, financial, and organizational) will

the organization need to carry out the decision?– How will the agency verify that the implementation was

successful?

Basic Structure of a Policy PaperBasic Structure of a Policy Paper

• Policy Evaluation:– What are the goals and objectives of the policy program?– What are the characteristics of the program that will

achieve the goals and the objectives?– What methods will evaluators use to assess whether the

program achieved the goals and objectives?– Will the evaluator assess the success of the

implementation, the impact of the program, or both?– What conclusions has the evaluator reached about the

program?

• Policy Evaluation:– What are the goals and objectives of the policy program?– What are the characteristics of the program that will

achieve the goals and the objectives?– What methods will evaluators use to assess whether the

program achieved the goals and objectives?– Will the evaluator assess the success of the

implementation, the impact of the program, or both?– What conclusions has the evaluator reached about the

program?

Basic Structure of a Policy ArgumentBasic Structure of a Policy Argument

• Outline of a problem• Argument• Conclusions.• Tell them what you are going to tell

them, tell them, and tell them what you told them.

• Outline of a problem• Argument• Conclusions.• Tell them what you are going to tell

them, tell them, and tell them what you told them.

Writing StyleWriting Style

• Ultimate goal – clear communication.– However, good judgment should balance

the use of rules.

• Ultimate goal – clear communication.– However, good judgment should balance

the use of rules.

Writing StyleWriting Style

• Orderly presentation of ideas.– Continuity in words, concepts, and thematic development

from the opening statement to the conclusion.• Punctuation.• Transitional words (pronouns that refer to the previous

sentence, time links (then, next, after, while, since), cause-effect links (therefore, consequently, as a result), addition links (in addition, moreover, furthermore, similarly), and contrast links (but, conversely, nevertheless, however, although, whereas).

• Orderly presentation of ideas.– Continuity in words, concepts, and thematic development

from the opening statement to the conclusion.• Punctuation.• Transitional words (pronouns that refer to the previous

sentence, time links (then, next, after, while, since), cause-effect links (therefore, consequently, as a result), addition links (in addition, moreover, furthermore, similarly), and contrast links (but, conversely, nevertheless, however, although, whereas).

Writing StyleWriting Style

• Smoothness of expression.– Scientific prose and creative writing serve

different purposes. Avoid creative writing devices that deliberately introduce ambiguity.

– Have someone else read the document or set it aside for several days and reread it.

• Smoothness of expression.– Scientific prose and creative writing serve

different purposes. Avoid creative writing devices that deliberately introduce ambiguity.

– Have someone else read the document or set it aside for several days and reread it.

Writing StyleWriting Style

• Smoothness of expression.– Use consistent verb tenses to avoid abruptness.

• Use past tense (Smith showed) or present perfect tense (Smith has shown) for literature review and description of procedures if they happened in the past.

• Use past tense to describe results.• Use present tense to discuss results, reach conclusions, and make

recommendations.– Avoid noun strings.

• Poor: Commonly used investigative expanded issue control question technique.

• Better: a common technique of using control questions to investigate expanded issues.

• Smoothness of expression.– Use consistent verb tenses to avoid abruptness.

• Use past tense (Smith showed) or present perfect tense (Smith has shown) for literature review and description of procedures if they happened in the past.

• Use past tense to describe results.• Use present tense to discuss results, reach conclusions, and make

recommendations.– Avoid noun strings.

• Poor: Commonly used investigative expanded issue control question technique.

• Better: a common technique of using control questions to investigate expanded issues.

Writing StyleWriting Style

• Economy of expression.– Say only what needs to be said.– Avoid jargon.– Avoid wordiness.– Avoid redundancy.– Unit length.

• Varied sentence length.• Paragraphs longer than a single sentence, but shorter than a

page. Paragraphs should cover a single topic.

• Economy of expression.– Say only what needs to be said.– Avoid jargon.– Avoid wordiness.– Avoid redundancy.– Unit length.

• Varied sentence length.• Paragraphs longer than a single sentence, but shorter than a

page. Paragraphs should cover a single topic.

Writing StyleWriting Style

• Precision and clarity.– Word choice – every word should mean exactly what you intend it to

mean.– Avoid colloquial expressions and approximations.– Avoid ambiguous pronouns (this, that, these, those, it) when the refer to a

previous sentence. Specify what this, that, these, or those are.– Avoid ambiguous or illogical comparisons because of omitted verbs or

nonparallel structure.– Avoid inappropriate or illogical attribution.

• Do not use the third person to indicate yourself and your fellow researchers.• Do not attribute human characteristics to animals or inanimate objects.• Only use “we” to mean yourself and your fellow researchers.

• Precision and clarity.– Word choice – every word should mean exactly what you intend it to

mean.– Avoid colloquial expressions and approximations.– Avoid ambiguous pronouns (this, that, these, those, it) when the refer to a

previous sentence. Specify what this, that, these, or those are.– Avoid ambiguous or illogical comparisons because of omitted verbs or

nonparallel structure.– Avoid inappropriate or illogical attribution.

• Do not use the third person to indicate yourself and your fellow researchers.• Do not attribute human characteristics to animals or inanimate objects.• Only use “we” to mean yourself and your fellow researchers.

Writing StyleWriting Style

• Three strategies for improving writing style.

– Write from an outline.– Set aside the manuscript and reread it

after a delay.– Have a colleague critique it.

• Three strategies for improving writing style.

– Write from an outline.– Set aside the manuscript and reread it

after a delay.– Have a colleague critique it.

GrammarGrammar

• Verbs.– Prefer the active voice.– Use the past tense to indicate an action taking place at a

specific time in the past.– Use the present perfect tense to express a past action that

did not occur at a specific time or to describe an action beginning in the past and continuing to the present.

– Use the subjunctive to describe only conditions that are contrary to fact or improbable.

• Verbs.– Prefer the active voice.– Use the past tense to indicate an action taking place at a

specific time in the past.– Use the present perfect tense to express a past action that

did not occur at a specific time or to describe an action beginning in the past and continuing to the present.

– Use the subjunctive to describe only conditions that are contrary to fact or improbable.

GrammarGrammar

• Agreement of subject and verb.– A verb must agree in number with its subject.– The plural form of some nouns of foreign origins may be appear

to be singular when they are plural.– Collective nouns can be either singular (if referring to the

collective a unit) or plural (if referring to the individual members).– If a subject is composed of a singular and a plural noun, the verb

agrees with the closer noun.– If the number of subject changes, retain the verb in each clause.

• Agreement of subject and verb.– A verb must agree in number with its subject.– The plural form of some nouns of foreign origins may be appear

to be singular when they are plural.– Collective nouns can be either singular (if referring to the

collective a unit) or plural (if referring to the individual members).– If a subject is composed of a singular and a plural noun, the verb

agrees with the closer noun.– If the number of subject changes, retain the verb in each clause.

GrammarGrammar

• Pronouns.– Each pronoun should refer clearly to its

antecedent and should agree with the antecedent in number and gender.

– Pronouns can be either subjects or objects. “Who” is a subject. “Whom” is an object. Substitute “he” or “she” or substitute “him” or “her” to determine the correct word.

• Pronouns.– Each pronoun should refer clearly to its

antecedent and should agree with the antecedent in number and gender.

– Pronouns can be either subjects or objects. “Who” is a subject. “Whom” is an object. Substitute “he” or “she” or substitute “him” or “her” to determine the correct word.

GrammarGrammar

• Misplaced or dangling modifiers.– Misplaced modifiers introduce ambiguity.– Put “only” next to the word or phrase it modifies.– Dangling modifiers have not referent in the

sentence.– Adverbs can be used as introductory or

transitional words, but must be used precisely and sparingly.

• Misplaced or dangling modifiers.– Misplaced modifiers introduce ambiguity.– Put “only” next to the word or phrase it modifies.– Dangling modifiers have not referent in the

sentence.– Adverbs can be used as introductory or

transitional words, but must be used precisely and sparingly.

GrammarGrammar

• Relative pronouns and subordinate conjunctions.– Relative pronouns (that and which).

• Nonrestrictive (which).• Restrictive (that).

– Subordinate conjunctions• While and since (restrict to temporal meanings).• While versus although (use while to link events occurring

simultaneously; otherwise, use although, whereas, or but.• Since versus because (restrict since to time; use because

otherwise).

• Relative pronouns and subordinate conjunctions.– Relative pronouns (that and which).

• Nonrestrictive (which).• Restrictive (that).

– Subordinate conjunctions• While and since (restrict to temporal meanings).• While versus although (use while to link events occurring

simultaneously; otherwise, use although, whereas, or but.• Since versus because (restrict since to time; use because

otherwise).

GrammarGrammar

• Parallel construction.– To enhance the reader’s understanding,

present parallel ideas in parallel or coordinate form (use the same tense and structure).

• Parallel construction.– To enhance the reader’s understanding,

present parallel ideas in parallel or coordinate form (use the same tense and structure).