Practicing Leadership: Principles and ApplicationsChapter 4: The Evolution of Western Leadership

•Trust men and they will be true to you; treat them greatly and they will show themselves to be great.”

Ralph Waldo Emerson

Scientific Management• Scientific Management: an approach to management

that focuses on dividing large projects into smaller tasks and providing training and incentives for workers to achieve these tasks at a high level, thereby increasing production and efficiency.

• Frederick Taylor’s Scientific management calls for:▫ A “science” for every job, including standardized work

flow and work conditions.▫ Carefully selected workers with the right ability to do each

job.▫ Careful training with proper incentives.▫ Clear planning by managers.

Scientific ManagementHenri Fayol’s Principles of Organizations:

Specialization (division of labor) DisciplineAuthority with responsibility OrderUnity of command Unity of

directionSubordination of individual interests RemunerationCentralization EquityChain of command (lines of authority) InitiativeLifetime jobs (for good workers) Esprit de corps

Scientific Management• If Taylor takes the “bottom up” approach and

Fayol takes the “top down” approach, Max Weber is a combination of the two.

• Weber’s characteristics of bureaucracy :▫ fixed jurisdictional areas generally ordered by rules▫ regular activities distributed in a fixed manner▫ command authority distributed in a stable manner▫ method for fulfilling these regular activities with only

qualified persons employed in the activities.

Second Wave Management• The Hawthorne Experiments (1927-1932):

studies of motivation and worker-management relations

• Hawthorne Effect: a finding that providing greater attention to workers and their needs typically results in increased productivity

Operations Management and Quality Control

• Operations Management: The efficient and effective implementation of the policies and tasks necessary to satisfy a firm's customers, employees, and management.

• Quality Movement: the synthesis of "hard" efforts to improve work performance, such as scientific management and quantitative methods, with the idea that organizations should be viewed as complete systems.

Trait Theory• The “Great Man” theory

• Kouzes and Posner (2008) found that the top four traits that workers valued in their managers were:▫ Honesty▫ Forward-looking perspective▫ Inspiring▫ Competent

Research•Interpersonal Factors

▫ Emotional stability▫ Self confidence▫ Manage conflict

•Cognitive Factors▫ Intelligence>problem solving and decision making

•Administrative Factors▫ Planning and organizational skills▫ Knowledge of work being performed

Trait Theory

Behavioral Theories of Leadership

• Kurt Lewin’s behavioral theories of leadership:

▫ The Autocratic or Directive leader – tends to centralize authority, dictate work methods, make unilateral decisions, and limit employee participation.

▫ The Democratic or Participative leader – involves employees in decision making, delegates authority, encourages participation and uses feedback to coach employees.

▫ The Laissez-Faire leader – gives employees complete freedom to ask about decisions and to complete their work as they see fit.

Authoritarian• Sets goals individually• Engages primarily in one-way, downward communication• Controls discussions of followers• Sets policy and procedures unilaterally • Dominates interaction• Personally directs the completion of tasks• Provides infrequent positive feedback• Rewards obedience and punishes mistakes• Exhibits poor listening skills• Uses conflict for personal gain

Democratic• Involves followers in setting goals• Engages in two-way, open communication• Facilitates discussion with followers• Solicits input regarding determination of policy and

procedures• Focuses interaction• Provides suggestions and alternatives for the completion

of tasks• Provides frequent positive feedback• Rewards good work and uses punishment only as a last

resort• Exhibits effective listening skills• Mediates conflict for group gain

Laissez-Faire• Allows followers free rein to set their own goals• Engages in noncommittal, superficial communication• Avoids discussion with followers to set policy and

procedures• Avoids interaction• Provides suggestions and alternatives for the completion

of tasks only when asked to do so by followers• Provides infrequent feedback of any kind• Avoids offering rewards or punishments• May exhibit either poor or effective listening skills• Avoids conflict

The Ohio State and Michigan State Studies• Ohio State’s Leadership Behavior Description

Questionnaire found two primary leadership dimensions:▫ Consideration▫ Initiating structure

• Michigan State’s Studies found that leaders’ behaviors could be analyzed in terms of:▫ Employee-centered behavior▫ Job-centered behavior

The Leadership Grid

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Model

• Effective leadership practice as based on the interplay of the following three dimensions:▫ The amount of guidance and direction a leader gives▫ The amount of social/emotional support a leader provides▫ The readiness level that followers exhibit related to the

particular leadership task at hand

• Leaders can respond to their employees’ need for direction in one of four ways: ▫ directing, coaching, supporting, and delegating.

House’s Path-Goal Theory• The leader must assess followers based on five

expectancy factors:

▫ Followers’ valences▫ Follower’s instrumentality▫ Follower’s expectancies▫ Equity of rewards▫ Accuracy of role perceptions

Fiedler’s Leader-Match Theory• Predicted leader’s effectiveness based on two

factors: ▫Leader’s attributes▫Leader’s situational control

• Least Preferred Coworker Scale

• Leader Situation has 3 dimensions:▫Position power▫Task structure▫Leader-Member relationship

• Experience important

Leader-Member Exchange• Leaders choose who will be in the in-group based on:

▫ Possession of characteristics similar to those of the leader▫ Possession of a higher degree of competence than members of

the out-group▫ Possession of higher levels of extraversion than out-group

members

Servant Leadership• According to Greenleaf, servant leaders:

▫ Listen first so they may understand a situation▫ Develop their intuition▫ Lead by persuasion▫ Conceptualize the reforms they seek and lift others up▫ Empower by creating opportunities and alternatives for

those being served

Transformational LeadershipTransformational leadership: based on mutually beneficial

relationships between leaders and followers whereby the leader is seeking to promote growth and real change.

Transactional leadership: a barter system whereby the leader seeks to meet the needs of a follower and vice-versa. Improved work or societal conditions are not the focus of the exchange.

Critical transformational leadership: an approach to leadership in which the leader is challenged to view information critically, to elicit and value all voices, and to act in a manner that promotes a more just society

Leadership Skills of the Future1. Leadership is a relationship, as opposed to the

property of an individual.

2. Leadership entails change.

3. Leadership can be done by anyone, not only those who are designated as leaders.