pre-and post-tsunami coastal planning and land-use policies and issues in sri lanka

8/2/2019 Pre-And Post-tsunami Coastal Planning and Land-use Policies and Issues in Sri Lanka

1/32

167

Pre-and post-tsunami coastal planning and land-use policies and issues inSri Lanka

R.A.D.B. Samaranayake1

Sri Lankas coastal zone contributes 40 percent to the national GDP and is pivotal foreconomic development. Coastal resources such as coral reefs, mangrove forests, seagrass

beds, salt marshes, sand dunes and coastal wetlands have been exploited by development

activities; consequently, coastal erosion, degradation and transformation of coastal habitats,

as well as water quality deterioration, are major threats. Damage generated by the tsunami

in December 2004 has exacerbated socio-economic, cultural and environmental issues. The

Sri Lankan Government has had to provide immediate relief, restore livelihoods and rebuild

housing facilities and other infrastructure, including hard and soft defense mechanisms.

In addressing coastal issues caused by human activity or natural hazards, the Sri Lankan

Government has recognized the importance of coastal zone management; it has developed

policies and institutional frameworks for coastal resource management. Under the provisionsof the Coast Conservation Act (No. 57) of 1981, the Coast Conservation Department was

established to implement coastal zone management through national level policies and

coastal zone management plans, as well as local Special Area Management plans for specific

sites. During the implementation of the coastal management programme, future needs have

been identified to regenerate and improve the quality of coastal zone resources.

1. Background

1.1 Status of the coastal area of the country

Sri Lanka is an island with a total land area of 65 510 square kilometres encompassed by a 1620-kilometre-long coastline lying within latitude 610 north and longitude 7982 east. Underthe provisions of the Maritime Zones Law No. 22 of 1976, the territorial sea and the ExclusiveEconomic Zone (EEZ) extend to a distance of 12 and 200 nautical miles respectively, or up to themaritime boundary between Sri Lanka and India. The extent of the territorial sea and the EEZ is21 500 and 517 000 square kilometres respectively (Appendix 1).

The climate of Sri Lanka is influenced by two monsoons and two intermonsoon periods. Thesouthwest monsoon, which occurs from May to September, is associated with cyclonic windcirculations or depressions and is marked by heavy rainfall and squally weather, especially on

the southwestern seaboard. The northeast monsoon occurs between December and February,and is characterized by heavy rainfall more or less confined in the northeastern half of thecountry, and with wind generally coming from an easterly direction. The wind is usually lightduring the two intermonsoon periods March to April and October to November.

For administrative purposes, the coastal region is divided into 74 coastal divisions of thedivisional secretariats. Sri Lankas coastal zone has served as a focal point for the social,cultural, environmental and economic development of the country for centuries.

The land area of the coastal zone, which is approximately 24 percent of the total land area, is

1 Director of Coast Conservation, Coast Conservation Department, Sri Lanka.


2/32

168

occupied by 34 percent of the countrys population, of which 45 percent lives in urban areas.Sixty-five percent of the countrys urbanized areas are located in this zone. Therefore, ahighly developed road and rail transport infrastructure can be found in this area, together withcommercial ports, fishery harbours and anchorages. The coastal area thus provides access totransportation and shipping lanes which lead to distant markets and link neighbouring

communities through navigable lagoons, rivers and canals. Some of the richest biodiversityareas in the country occur in the coastal zone, including coral reefs, extensive seagrass beds,mangrove forests, salt marshes, beaches, sand dunes, coastal wetlands, highly productiveestuaries and lagoons and sanctuaries, which in toto, cover an area of 160 000 hectares.(Appendix 2).

The coastal zone also serves as a focal point for economic development. Forty percent of theGross Domestic Production (GDP) comes from the coastal zone with 70 percent of the totalindustrial output. The contribution to economic development by way of tourism-relatedindustries is high, as more than 80 percent of the tourism-related infrastructure is locatedwithin this zone (most in the western and southwestern coastal belts). There are nearly 100

sites of special historical, archaeological, cultural and religious significance and 100 more ofspecial scenic and recreational importance scattered within the coastal zone.

Fishing is the predominant coastal economic activity along the eastern and northeasterncoasts during the southwest monsoon and along the southern and western coasts during thenortheast monsoon. Marine fisheries are of considerable socio-economic importance alongthe entire Sri Lankan coastline. In 2003, the fisheries sector contributed nearly 3 percent tothe GDP and employed over 300 000 persons directly and in related activities. Thelivelihoods of about one million people depend directly and indirectly on the fisheries sector.The fishing industry has become an important foreign exchange earner for the country; in2003 foreign exchange earned through exports of fish products such as tuna, shrimp, lobsterand ornamental fish to all major international markets amounted to about US$100 million(US$1.00 = Rs.107.00). Fish contributes nearly 65 percent to the total animal proteinconsumed in Sri Lanka. Prior to the disaster, about 285 000 tonnes of fish were landedannually (Appendix 3), of which 90 percent was consumed locally and 10 percent wasexported. However, in order to satisfy increasing local demand for fish protein, Sri Lankaimports annually an additional 70 000 tonnes of dried and canned fish.

Gillnetting is the primary fishing method (about 80 percent of production), followed by beachseine, bottom trawl and other forms of nets. The purse seine came into use in recent years, butits future is uncertain because of severe objections by gillnet operators . Diverse types of

traditional and larger scale fishing craft are used. Fishing activities occur around the entirecoast, at 12 fishery harbour centres, several large and small anchorages, and as many as 700village-level landing sites.

Over 15 fishery resource surveys have been conducted in Sri Lanka since 1920, mostly ondemersal resources. Some of the potential yield estimates made in the past were based onthese surveys. The results of the two seasonal surveys conducted during 19781980, usingprimarily the acoustic survey method, are used practically in every developmentplan/programme in Sri Lanka up to the present day. Based on the survey results, potentialyields from coastal resources were estimated at 170 000 tonnes for small pelagics and 80 000tonnes for demersals. However, whether this potential yield has already been attained cannot

be accurately determined since the surveys were not followed by reliable statistical datacollection.


3/32

169

In the estuaries and lagoons spread throughout the coastline with a combined surface waterarea of 1 265 square kilometres, only the major lagoons and estuaries (Puttalm Lagoon,Negombo Lagoon, BolgodaPanadura Estuary, Batticaloa Lagoon and Jaffna Lagoon)contribute significantly to fisheries (Appendix 4). Economically important invertebratesfound in the estuaries are shrimps, mud crabs and edible bivalves. Over 26 species of shrimps

have been recorded in Sri Lanka and are caught in various lagoons, estuaries and the seausing traditional methods. Spiny lobsters abound in reefs and rocky areas and some 183tonnes of lobsters were exported with a value of Rs.267 million in 2005.

From about 710 square kilometres of brackish water mangrove swamps, marshlands and saltmarshes along the coastline, about 35 square kilometres have been converted into prawnponds. Aquaculture, particularly of the jumbo tiger prawn, Penaeus monodon, is concentratedin the ChilawPuttalam area and in Dutch Bay and Negombo Lagoon. Aquaculture hasgained importance in the recent past because of the high export demand. In 1997, the exportof prawns generated the highest contribution to foreign exchange revenues from fisheries atRs.2.194 billion, equivalent to 51 percent of total export earnings. In 2005, shrimp production

was around 1 800 tonnes and export earnings were Rs.1.769 billion.

Agriculture is much less important than fisheries and industry in coastal areas in itscontribution to the national economy (only 17 percent of the gross domestic agricultureproduct from the coastal region). The coastal region contains about 25 percent of thecountrys total croplands. Paddy accounts for 70 percent, coconut 26 percent and rubber twopercent of the coastal agricultural GDP. About 55 900 hectares of coconut are currentlycultivated in the coastal region. Small areas of tea are found in the coastal divisions of Galle,Matara, Colombo and Kalutara districts, and cinnamon is grown in Galle, Matara andKalutara. The coastal region has over 420 000 agricultural holdings with an average size of0.65 hectares. About one-third of these holdings contain both crops and livestock and aboutsix percent has only livestock. The majority (about 61 percent) grows only crops. Of greatersignificance is the many home and small market gardens that are important sources of foodfor the poor. Food from these gardens is used for home consumption or is sold in localmarkets. Homesteads account for about 24 percent of all croplands. The trend in coastal areasis towards smaller landholdings and more intensive farming. The average employment inagriculture for the whole coastal region is only about 24 percent, varying from 1.1 percent inthe Colombo region to nearly 80 percent in the divisional secretariat areas of Batticloa,Mulativu and Kilinochi.

The land area per capita in coastal areas is decreasing due to the population increase. Hence,

a higher degree of self-reliance in basic foods will come only through more intensive anddiversified small farms and gardens. This is viable in some parts of the coastal region. Thewet zone of the southwest coastal belt contains stretches of flat lands with potential for groupor cooperative farming for the large-scale production of crops. With an adequate water supplymost of the year, these areas lend themselves to intensive agriculture, animal husbandry andpoultry farming, which could help to increase food production in the country.

The first comprehensive forest survey was carried out from 1956 to 1961.The survey foundthat the total area of forest was 2.9 million hectares, or 44 percent of the land area. Accordingto the next inventory done by FAO in 1982 to 1985, Sri Lankas forest cover was 1.76million hectares and the area of scrubland was 625 000 hectares.The aggregate figure of

2.385 million hectares, or 36 percent of the land area is often cited as the area of forest land.In the 2003 estimates, natural forests which included closed canopy natural forests, sparse


4/32

170

forests and mangroves, accounted for 1 422 hectares, indicating the rapid declining trend offorest cover in the island. Over 95 percent of forests are state-owned. Following the ForestOrdinance of 1885, some forests were proclaimed reserves. Because of time-consuming, legaland administrative procedures for establishing reserve forests, several more areas were setapart as proposed reserves, also under the jurisdiction of the Forest Department. Village

forests were placed under the District Secretary, and other Crown forests were at varioustimes transferred between the Forest Department and the District Secretary. The forestrymaster plan concludes that the total area of productive plantation forests is 97 650 hectares.Of this, 77 000 hectares are industrial wood plantations, comprising teak, Pinus, industrialwood species of eucalyptus and other species.

Vegetation associated with landforms is of immense importance for their stability. Plantswith adaptations such as prop roots, pneumatophores and deep tap roots, consolidatesediment leaving slight opportunity for waves to transport them. In addition, plants act asbarriers that dissipate wave energy. Dune vegetation captures sand and contributes to itsvertical growth, enhancing the protective function. Mangroves and salt marshes also

consolidate sediment with their unique roots and act as wind barriers that protect thehinterland. A good wind shelterbelt mix should include shorter trees and shrubs. Whereverthere are wide thick belts of mangroves or seashore forest, protection has been afforded tocoastal settlements and property. Other benefits that coastal vegetation offers includeconservation of biodiversity, providing livelihood support for coastal communities throughagricultural and forestry crops, affording shade for various human activities and contributingto recreation and scenic beauty.

Tourism in Sri Lanka has primarily focused on scenic sandy beaches and coastal estuariesand lagoons. About 80 percent of tourist revenue comes from facilities in coastal areassupplemented by the diversity of attractions in the interior cultural triangle. Wildliferesources add to coastal potential. Two national parks, Wilpattu and Ruhuna, border thenorthwest coast and southern coast respectively. Several lagoons and coastal wetlands serveas bird sanctuaries and marine sanctuaries.

At present, over 75 percent of graded hotels and over 80 percent of the hotel rooms arelocated along the coast. The number of hotel rooms in the country increased gradually to 14322 until 2004, and then decreased to 13 162 in 2005, due to the destruction of hotels incoastal areas by the tsunami. Once one of the fastest growing sectors, tourism declinedsteeply during the civil unrest in 1983 to 1989. It peaked in 2004, with 566 202 arrivals andrevenue of Rs.4.2 billion, but then came a decline in 2005 (549 308) due to the tsunami.

Pleasure travel accounts for about 92 percent of the total arrivals in Sri Lanka. Business andofficial travel accounts for about six percent, while arrivals for other purposes such as social,religious, cultural and educational purposes account for the balance (Appendix 5).

1.2 Issues and driving forces

Coastal erosion: The impacts of coastal erosion are most severe along the west andsouthwest coasts. It has been estimated that along the western coastal segment, extendingabout 685 kilometres from Kalpitiya to the Yale National Park Bay, about 175 000 to 285000square metresof coastal land are lost each year. Of this amount, about 95 000 to 160 000square metres are lost annually from the 137-kilometre segment that stretches from the mouth

of the Kelaniya River (north of Colombo) to Talawila (Kalpitiya Peninsula) (CZMP, 1990).Most of Sri Lankas coastline is retreating. In several locations, the rate of retreat has


5/32

171

increased due to human activities. Erosion rates vary greatly between different locations, andmaximum local retreat rates of around 12 metres/year have been observed in some areasbetween Mahaoya and Lansigama. Available records indicate an average rate of coastalerosion of about 0.5 metres/year and an accretion rate of about 0.2 metres/year.

The coastal zone, while extremely valuable to the countrys economy, is also very fragile andhighly vulnerable to the many dynamic processes which occur on land and at sea, caused byboth natural and human-induced forces. Beaches and coastal stretches are continuouslysubjected to wave action and are increasingly threatened by natural processes like stormsurges which cause erosion or accretion. The dynamic balance which normally existsbetween erosion and accretion, has been upset by human intervention, and severe imbalancesin these complementary processes have occurred in the last several decades. Sand mining inthe major rivers as well on beaches and dunes has reduced the amount of sand which wouldotherwise be available to replenish sand lost during storm events.

Sand mining: Sand mined from coastal areas and rivers is used by the construction industry.

Sand mining in a river lowers its bed, causes bank erosion and reduces the supply of sand tothe coast. The river bed and the banks will show continuous erosion when the extraction ratenears or exceeds natural production. In these circumstances there may be a sharp drop insupply of sand to the coast.

A survey of the location, extent and socio-economic issues related to coastal sand miningfrom Puttalam to Dondra Head conducted by the CCD in 1984 was updated in 1991. Thisarea includes most of the major sand mining locations in Sri Lanka. The 1991 study revealedthat approximately 576 938 cubes (1 633 700 cubic metres) of sand were mined from thecoastal region. This indicates a 14 percent increase in 1991 over 1984. River sand mining hasincreased drastically over the last two decades. For instance, sand mining has increased in sixrivers from 1.2 million cubic metres in 1984 to 5.5 million cubic metres in 2001. The presentsand requirement for the entire country has been estimated at seven to 7.5 million cubicmetres per year, of which approximately 40 percent is used in western Sri Lanka.

Coral mining: Other human activities such as reef breaking for coral mining, reefdynamiting for fisheries and removal of coastal vegetation contribute to degradation. Coral isone of the sources of lime for the construction industry. In certain parts of the southwesterncoastal sector, coral has been mined for almost 100 years. This has aggravated coastal erosionin Sri Lanka. During coral mining, the coral rock is gathered, crushed and burned for use as alime source for plastering and other construction purposes.

Historically, coral is mined from inland deposits of relic coral that are 5 000 to 6 000 yearsold. More recently, due to reduced supplies and general population pressure, coral miningactivities have extended to live corals. Mining of inland deposits outside the coastal zone isallowed with a permit. Mining of live corals is strictly prohibited. In the southwestern coastalarea, the restrictions may have played a role in reducing the mining of live corals from 7 659tonnes (42 percent of the total) in 1984 to 4 020 tonnes (20 percent of the total) in 1994.The end result is increasing coastal erosion and the consequent loss of usable land andassociated infrastructure, houses and archeological and religious sites, all accompanied bysocio-economic loss.

In economic terms, the public and private costs of erosion are enormous. Millions of rupeesare spent annually to cope with losses imposed by erosion. Approximately Rs.1 520 million


6/32

172

were invested in erosion management in the coastal zone from 1985 to 1999; Rs.2.3 billionhave been spent on coastal stabilization works through the USAID-funded Coastal ResourcesManagement Project (CRMP) from 2000 to 2005 in addition to the government allocation ofRs.100 million annually.

Overexploitation and degradation of habitats: Other human activities are equallyresponsible for the degradation or loss of coastal resources through numerous extractive andexploitative activities, which also impact adversely on fish and other aquatic resources. Dueto destructive fishing practices and environmental impacts such as siltation and pollution,only two (Kandakullya and Talawila) out of some eight coral reef areas studied under theCRMP showed live coral coverage greater than 50 percent. Two nearshore reefs, Weligamaand Polhena, showed a significant proportion of dead corals, while dead corals at Hikkaduwaand Akurala are reported to amount to 25 percent (Appendix 6). Even within the countrystwo declared marine-protected areas, corals continue to be damaged by divers collecting fishfor the ornamental fish export trade and overuse of the coral reef area by tourists and boatoperators continues.Destruction of coral reef habitats has obvious consequences for small-scale fisheries. As many economically important fish and shellfish species utilize reefs forhabitats, spawning and feeding grounds, the destruction of the habitats leads to reducedstocks of fisheries resources.

Cumulative damage to mangroves has resulted from their overutilization and transformationof large areas to other uses such as shrimp ponds and lowland agriculture. Mangrovesestimated to cover approximately 12 000 hectares in 1986 had been reduced to 8 687 hectaresby 1993. Some 1 500 hectares of coastal area between Chilaw and Puttlam, most of itmangrove forest, have been developed for aquaculture, and about 63 percent of thepreviously existing mangroves in Puttalam Lagoon has been reported lost in the ten-year

period from 1982 to 1992. In Negombo, 50 hectares of mangroves were cleared and filled inthe mid-1980s for a national housing project. Most of the mangrove forests in Sri Lanka arebeing eliminated through a combination of encroachment of human settlements, cutting forfuelwood and clearing of coastal areas for intensive shrimp culture. All of these conversionactivities result in habitat destruction and reduced productivity in coastal fisheries. Loss ofmangroves leads to increased shore erosion in coastal areas and loss of land.

Unregulated fishing and the use of destructive fishing methods such as dynamite fishing,cyanide poisoning and mechanized push nets have seriously damaged fish habitats andreduced fish stocks. The use of moxy netsfor the collection of ornamental fish for exporthas destroyed coral reefs and led to reduced fish and shellfish stocks. Pollution from

industrial, agricultural and domestic sources has degraded coastal habitats and has threatenedthe sustainability of the nearshore/coastal fisheries. Oil pollution from shipping has furtherdegraded fish habitats.

Transformation of habitats: Salt marsh areas have also been destroyed by humanintervention, including conversion for salt production (for example at Hambnantota and Palavi),shrimp aquaculture (various lagoons) or reclamation (for example Muthurajawela Marsh). InPuttalam Lagoon, 50 percent of the existing marshland was lost in a ten-year period.

Lagoons and estuaries are threatened by pollution and siltation and this is exacerbated insome cases by water diversions that reduce natural flows. Pollution can result when lagoons

are used as harbours (Negombo, Chilaw), sewage disposal sites (Kelani Estuary, Negomboand Lunawa lagoons), or for receiving industrial effluents (Lunawa and Negomabo, Kelani


7/32

173

and Valaichchenai estuaries). A number of lagoons are being severely impacted byencroachment and land reclamation which contribute to a direct loss of functional lagoons(Chilaw, Negombo, Mawelia lagoons). All of these impacts hamper the preservation of areasof high ecological and aesthetic value, such Bentota Estuary, Bolgoda Lake and parts ofNegombo Lagoon and the subsequent use of these sites for recreation, conservation, scientific

research, and educational purposes.

Water quality degradation: The growth of the tourism industry has resulted in the impropersiting of facilities as well as increased coastal pollution owing to inadequate or poorlydesigned infrastructure. Encroachment or unplanned and unauthorized development hascaused direct habitat loss and increased public health risks as a result of inadequateinfrastructure for sewage treatment and potable water. Rampant logging and mining in uplandareas, which generate economic benefits for companies undertaking these activities and to acertain extent, increased government revenues, have proven detrimental to lowland activitiessuch as fisheries, aquaculture and coastal tourism-dependent industries. Most importantly, theinability of the resource base to renew itself under such heavy exploitation and pollution

pressure exacerbates the situation.

2. Tsunami impacts and coastal land-use and land management issues

2.1 Tsunami impacts

The tsunami-affected about one million people initially and devastated two-thirds of SriLankas coastline. The tsunami caused extensive damage and disruption to human life,livelihood, infrastructure, private and public property and economic and social activities. Theofficial death toll was 35 322; 21 441 people were injured and over 5 000 are still missing.Approximately 516 150 people have been internally displaced (Appendix 7).

The tsunami caused severe damage to fisheries assets, residential houses, schools, hotels,railways, roads, electricity supply, ports, fishery harbours, anchorages, health institutions andprivate commercial buildings. The fisheries sector per se suffered enormous losses alongtwo-thirds of the coastline.

The total cost of the required relief, rehabilitation and reconstruction efforts is estimated to bearound US$2 billion. The government has projected that it will take three to five years torebuild destroyed structures and achieve full recovery.

The government created the Task Force to Rebuild the Nation (TAFREN) as the primaryinstitutional mechanism for recovery and reconstruction, to coordinate, facilitate and assistimplementing organizations, to coordinate donor assistance and fund-raising activities, toexpedite the procurement process and to enable implementing agencies through capacitybuilding. TAFREN focused on four thematic areas.

Getting people back to their homes; Restoring livelihoods; Health, education and protection for everyone; and Upgrading national infrastructure.

Implementing agencies established several innovative mechanisms at the sectoral level such

as permanent housing and education.Displaced families initially found shelter in emergency accommodations such as tents, public


8/32

174

buildings and religious institutions or sought refuge with friends and relatives. It wasrecognized in the early stages that emergency accommodation would be only a temporarysolution because the reconstruction of approximately 98 000 houses would take time.Therefore, transitional shelters were required to bridge the gap between emergencyaccommodation andpermanent housing.

Through all three housing phases, the government provided the overall policy, guidelines andframework for house reconstruction. Relevant line ministries and departments such as theMinistry of Urban Development and Housing, Urban Development Authority (UDA),National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB), Ministry of Power and Energy,Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB), Ministry of Highways, Road Development Authority (RDA)and other relevant government institutions worked together with TAFREN on house building.The government received the support of international organizations, including majorinternational non-governmental organizations (INGOs), multilateral and bilateral donors andcivil society organizations to construct transitional shelters and permanent housing.

The Tsunami Housing Reconstruction Unit (THRU) was created under the Ministry of UrbanDevelopment and Water Supply. THRU offices were established in the tsunami units of alltsunami-affected districts and divisional secretariats and work with village rehabilitationcommittees operating at the village level. At the local level, the focal points for coordinationand implementation in the respective districts are the district secretaries and the divisionalsecretaries.

As a result of the combined effort of the government, private sector, civil society andinternational community, the achievements in restoring livelihoods have been remarkable.The available information shows that between 70 and 85 percent of households affected bythe tsunami had regained their main sources of income by November 2005. On the otherhand, at least 15 percent of the tsunami-affected population is living off an income oftemporary relief work, not necessarily an income earned through regular work. Thepercentage of persons living off other sources is presumably higher in areas with lowereconomic activity.

2.2 Land issues

Twenty-four percent of Sri Lanka is under the Coastal Divisional Secretariat, but along thecoast, beaches and coastal reservations are state lands. Prior to the tsunami, most of theCrown lands in urban areas were encroached on by the coastal communities. In these

populated areas it was very difficult to maintain the set-back zones stipulated under coastalzone management plans owing to unauthorized construction and demolition orders to ejectthem. A set-back (buffer) zone is defined as an area left free of any physical modification. Itis good planning practice to leave a minimum set-back from the mean sea level line. A set-back is desirable to allow for the dynamics of seasonal and long-term fluctuations of thecoastline, and to ensure public access to the waterfront and visual access to it. Therefore, aset-back area belongs to the owner of the land and it benefits the owner to protect theproperty from hazards. However, the enforcement of these regulations was not successful insome areas owing to socio-economic conditions and political interferences. The encroachersof the set-back areas were devastated by the tsunami and had to be provided with emergencyaccommodation.


9/32

175

Vis--vis vulnerability factors such as exposure to extreme natural events, geomorphologicalcharacteristics, current development densities and availability of free space, the cabinetdecided to implement set-back zones of 100 and 200 metres in the west and south coasts andnorth and east coasts respectively. Then a senior committee was appointed to prepare interimguidelines for all the development activities within the coastal zone; these are effective until

formal guidelines are formulated based on the findings of studies on vulnerabilityassessments, coastal bathymetry and coastal mapping. The buffer zones for developmentactivities within the coastal zone and interim guidelines declared by the government aredescribed hereunder.

2.2.1 Interim guidelines

A 100 m buffer zone should be delineated for any new constructions in the west and southcoast from Kala Oya river mouth (Ganga Wadiya) to Kirindi Oya river mouth and a 200 mbuffer zone should be delineated for any new construction in the East and the North coastfrom Kirindi Oya river mouth to Kala Oya (Ganga Wadiya) (sic).

In compliance with the government decision, the declared buffer zones (south andwest:100 metres, north and east: 200 metres) will be applied in issuing developmentpermits within the coastal zone. No developments will be permitted within thedeclared set-back zones.

Exemptions may be granted only if the Coast Conservation Advisory Council (CCAC)determines that there are compelling reasons for allowing an exemption.

Set-back exemptions are determined by the CCAC for the following developmentactivities: Nationally important projects; Fisheries-related buildings and infrastructure; and

Tourism-related developments.

The elevation of the development site, soil and geomorphological conditions, coastal hazard-proof building plans, evacuation and safety plans and national or sectoral importance of theprojects will be assessed in granting exemptions.

Similar set-backs will also be applied for developments within coastal islands. With the concurrence of the CCAC, approval will be granted for a set-back (25

metres, structure-free) from the edge of the cliff, when developments are carried out inareas five metres from mean sea level in the identified 13 high grounds, characterizedby rock outcrops or hard soil.

Within the coastal zone, a 100-metre set-back should be maintained either on thebanks of rivers, streams, lagoons and any other waterbodies that are permanently ortemporarily connected to the sea.

A structure-free set-back should be maintained from the seaward toe of the fore dunesup to the landward toe of the back dunes, where the total width is greater than 100metres on the west and south coasts and 100 metres on the east and north coasts.

Approvals will not be granted for any development activity within any national parksor sanctuaries that lie in the coastal zone.

Due to limited or non-availability of land to relocate displaced families under donor-built

housing programmes and homeowner-driven programmes, the Secretary of the Ministry of


10/32

176

Urban Development and Water Supply and the district secretaries requested the CCAC toreduce the set-back zone size.The CCAC considered the request and approval was granted for construction following theset-back standards stipulated in the national Coastal Zone Management Plan, 1997.

Now the land in the set-back zones is vacant. Prior to relaxation of the set-back zone size themarket value of other land coming within the set-back areas declined, but subsequently it hasincreased gradually despite tsunami risk. Incidences of land capture by powerful playersfollowing the tsunami have not been reported. However, people who own coastal lands havealready started reconstructing their businesses, mainly in the tourism and fisheries sectors.

Rehabilitation and reconstruction of coastal protective structures: After the tsunamistrike, rapid surveys were carried out by government officers along the coastline of thecountry, including the north and east quadrants. It was observed that the tidal wave hadpenetrated from 500 metres to 1 kilometre on the west coast and about 1-2 kilometres on theeast coast. More damage to buildings and structures was incurred within a 200-metre range

on the north and east coasts. Further, erosion of the coast has been aggravated andapproximately 2030 metres of land width have been lost on the western and eastern coasts.Significant morphological changes to the coastline have been observed at Bentota beachbarrier, Gin Oya barrier, north of Mahaoya, dunes in Hambantota and Pottuvil (breaches) andsome coastal stretches in the east.

A team of experts from the CRMP carried out a rapid survey on damage to harbourbreakwaters and coastal structures and submitted a report to the CCD, the Ministry ofFisheries and the Asian Development Bank (ADB).

On recommendations from the report, most of the coastal protective structures damaged bythe tsunami were to be rehabilitated before the onset of the monsoon. Failure of therevetments and groynes would result in submergence of the low-lying areas of coastalstretches.

In early 2005, the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources also carried out a country-wide field analysis of tsunami impacts on the coastal belt of the country. This reporthighlighted the key issues in the aftermath of the disaster, including the pollution of thecoastal strip by solid waste and debris and its contamination by seawater, as well as impactson coastal ecosystems.

In compliance with UNEPs guiding principles formulated at Cairo in February 2005, theCCD is constructing set-backs, reconstructing protective structures, rehabilitating sand dunesand establishing green belts along the coastline.

Under the Coastal Protective Structure Rehabilitation Programme, the CCD identifiedpriority areas to be rehabilitated before the onset of monsoons in 2005. The CCD completedrehabilitation and reconstruction of revetments, groynes and offshore breakwaters in Galle,Matara and Kalutara districts. These structures are approximately 3 000 metres in length.Under the ADB-funded Coastal Resources Management Project, rehabilitation of BentotaSand Spit, Hikkaduwa groyne and Tangalle revetment was carried out.The total cost of thework was around Rs.300 million. The cost of the work at Galle marine drive and the Kinniya

coastal stretch in the east is estimated to be around Rs.200 million.


11/32

177

Rehabilitation of sand dunes: The CCD has initiated the rehabilitation of damaged sanddunes. A survey was carried out in Hambantota District to identify the damaged areas of sanddunes with the assistance of the National Aquatic Resources Development Agency (NARA).Designs and plans to carry out this pilot project have cost Rs.25 million. This programme willbe extended to the eastern coast with the assistance of a proposed project on restoration of

coastal ecosystems funded by GEF/IFAD.

Establishment of a green belt: The Forest Conservation Department commenced therehabilitation of coastal forests and establishment of shelterbelts along the coastline byfollowing major landscape types.The CCD, as the custodian of the coastal zone, coordinatedthe programme to restore and rehabilitate vegetation to create a green belt that may beresilient and stable enough to prevent or mitigate the devastating effects of natural disasterssuch as cyclones, storm surges and tsunamis; this was done in collaboration with the ForestConservation Department, the Urban Development Authority, the Coconut DevelopmentAuthority, local authorities, NGOs and coastal communities in the area. This programmecommenced in Galle District and was extended to other parts of the island; guidelines for

establishment of the green belt were developed with the assistance of IUCN and stakeholders.This programme is mainly implemented by NGOs and coastal communities under theguidance of CCD extension staff and the Forest Department.

Coastal communities learned that areas where coastal protection structures were in place weresecure and their properties and lives were protected to some extent from tsunami waves.Therefore, requests came from the communities to reconstitute and reconstruct the damagedstructures before the onset of the monsoon following the tsunami. Breakwaters, piers andfishery harbour groynes, anchorages and landing sites have to be rehabilitated andreconstructed as requested by fisherfolk and other coastal inhabitants. Biodefensive methodsof ecosystem restoration programmes such as the establishment of green belts and sand dunerestoration are being implemented and are well-accepted.

However, in different locations such as beach seining areas and landing sites, conflicts havearisen with fisherfolk apropos the execution of coastal protection structures; remedial action,such as the implementation of beach nourishment programmes in areas for beach seining andinclusion of alternative anchorage facilities in the planned coast protection structures, havebeen taken to mitigate issues in consultation with the coastal communities.

Restoration and reconstruction are major challenges because many of the affected shorelinesare densely populated and multiple developments are taking place. Hence, any reconstruction

effort must ensure efficiency, sustainability and equality, and be guided by principles that arescientific, participatory and in total harmony with natural systems.

3. Lessons learned from tsunami reconstruction and rehabilitation

Tsunami reconstruction and rehabilitation programmes have entered into the latter part oftheir second year. Now it is possible to learn lessons from past achievements andshortcomings.

Equity and gapsThe first and primary guiding principle of the tsunami programme was equity. While

there is no evidence of intentional unequal treatment, some communities (notablythose in Ampara) are much less advanced than others; this is mainly attributable to


12/32

178

differing local capacity and the impact of the set-back zone restrictions. As workprogresses, it must be ensured that these factors are addressed and no one is leftbehind.

Lack of coordination

The number of actors and the size of the reconstruction needs have made coordinationa huge challenge, especially between state and non-state actors. An intensified effortwill be needed during this major reconstruction period among agencies, partners andgovernment authorities at the central level, and among officials, development partnersand communities at the local level, including in particular representatives of allaffected ethnic groups. Strengthening of weak capacity at local and districtgovernment levels has to be continued, building on existing programmes.

Monitoring and measuring impactAnother emerging lesson from the first year is that it is a huge challenge to monitorinputs such as all the different sources of funding and to measure outputs and

the results on the ground.

Improve links to conflict-prone communitiesMuch of the tsunami-affected area was also in locations that were only recentlyconflict-prone. In the first year of the tsunami recovery effort, it was clear that theimpact on the conflict-affected areas of this massive tsunami effort needed to becarefully considered and monitored, and equity of treatment, at least with respect tostandards, needed to be ensured.

Integration of disaster risk concerns in coastal management and

developmentThe 2004 tsunami forced scientists to reconsider the guidelines for development in thecoastal zone; the following components were intrinsic for developing guidelines on ascientific platform: Assessment of coastal hazards; vulnerability and risk; analyzing the elevation

model for both the hinterland and nearshore; coastal hydrodynamics andsediment processes; mitigatory measures, including defensive shorelinestructures and buffers; appropriate guidelines.

Criteria for design and construction of buildings and other structures in thecoastal environment.

Assessment of socio-economic impacts on set-back standards.

When these assessments and studies have been completed, new guidelines includingthe new set-back zones for different coastal stretches will be developed for the nextrevision of the national coastal zone management plan.

Reduction of future vulnerabilitiesSri Lanka was not considered to be a country prone to large-scale natural disasters anddid not have appropriate institutional capacity to deal with the impact of a tsunami. Inlight of this experience, establishment of a suitable early warning system and disastermanagement and response capabilities quickly emerged as important priorities. Aninterinstitutional committee for early warning was established in the first quarter of2005. With an interim mechanism for an early warning system in place, thegovernment is working with other stakeholders for a permanent early warning system.


13/32

179

Realizing the need for prompt and organized action, the Parliamentary SelectCommittee on Disaster Management was appointed. Subsequently, the DisasterManagement Act, No. 13 of 2005 was passed by parliament on 13 May 2005. As aresult, a Disaster Management Centre was established in September 2005. This Centrewill promote community-based disaster management programmes. The Ministry for

Disaster Management was established in November 2005 to take the lead role indirecting the strategic planning for disaster response, risk mitigation, preparednessplanning and risk reduction.

The CCD is playing an important role in disaster risk management of the coastalenvironment. Therefore, the mission of the Disaster Management Centre will assurethe sustainability of future coastal area management in Sri Lanka.

4. Policy and institutional framework for coastal area management

Coastal zone management began in the early 1960s when coastal issues received greater

attention from the government. A coast protection unit was established in the Colombo PortCommission in 1963, with the realization that a comprehensive approach to coastal zonemanagement was required. The need for a more management-oriented approach was firstrecommended in 1971 by the unit. In 1978, the issue of coast conservation was transferred tothe Ministry of Fisheries, which created a separate Coast Conservation Division, basicallydirected towards maintenance of coastal stability by planned engineering works combinedwith a sound planning and management approach. This division was upgraded to the status ofgovernment department in 1984 under the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources(Appendix 8).

The mandate of the CCD is: The sustainable development of coastal resources and themanagement of coastal processes to optimize social, economic, and environmental status of

Sri Lanka (sic). The CCDs responsibilities are achieved through the activities of severaldivisions. The Coastal Resources Development Division is responsible for the developmentof national coastal zone management plans, coastal habitat management, socio-economicissues and implementation of Special Area Management (SAM) plans. The Research andDesign Division undertakes research and design of coastal protection structures, coastalinvestigations and monitoring of coast protection structures. The Works Division is theengineering division and undertakes construction and maintenance of coast protectionstructures (Appendix 9).

There are several government agencies which have some legal or administrativeresponsibility for the coastal zone and the management of its resources, although primaryresponsibility for coastal zone management is lodged with the CCD. At the local level,government departments and agencies deal with district level and divisional level officeswhen operating in the field. Municipalities and town councils are responsible for wastemanagement, urban development and management. Local committees and organizations playan advisory and consultative role with the agencies responsible for Coastal ResourcesManagement (CRM). Local level members of parliament, provincial councils and localauthorities responsible for the district sit on the District Development Council, which has avariety of functions to bring development down to the local level where CRM matters arealso discussed.


14/32

180

The Coast Conservation Act, No. 57 of 1981 shifted emphasis from Coast Protection toCoastal Zone Management.

The act decreed the appointment of a Director of Coast Conservation with the followingterms of reference:

Administration and implementation of the provisions of the act. Formulation and execution of work schemes for coast conservation within the coastal

zone.

Conduct of research, in collaboration with other departments, agencies andinstitutions for the purpose of coast conservation.

The act defines the Coastal Zone and Development Activity as follows:The Coastal Zone is defined as that area lying within a limit of 300 metres landward of

the mean high water line and a limit of two kilometres seawards of the mean low water

line and in the case of rivers, streams, lagoons or any other body of water connected to

sea, either permanently or periodically, the landward boundary shall extend to a limit of

two kilometres perpendicular to the strait baseline drawn between the natural entrance

points thereof and shall include waters of such waterbodies (Appendix 10).

Development Activity is defined as any activity likely to alter the physical nature of the

coastal zone in any way and includes the construction of buildings and works, deposit of

wastes or other materials from sea outfalls, vessels or by other means, removal of sand,

corals, shells, natural vegetation, seagrasses or other substances, dredging and filling,

land reclamation, and mining or drilling for minerals, but does not include fishing.

The act came into effect on 1 October 1983. With the experience of enforcing the CoastConservation Act and addressing issues arising from changes in economic activities in thecoastal zone, the CCD promulgated the Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act No. 64 of1988. The establishment of state ownership of the beach, the prohibition of coral mining andawarding considerable powers, duties and functions to police officers were importantprovisions included in the act.

Land proposed for development activity may be privately or state owned. A permit has to beobtained from the CCD under the Coast Conservation Act of 1981 for all developmentactivities that are likely to alter the physical nature of the coastal zone. Activities that may beengaged in without a permit within the coastal zone are fishing, cultivation of crops, planting

of trees and vegetation and construction and maintenance of coast protection works by theCCD. In the permit procedure, a planner from the CCD carries out a preliminary inspection atthe site of the proposed development and submits his assessment of the site to the planningcommittee of the department. When decisions are made on the permit issue, observations andrecommendations are received from relevant agencies such as the Fisheries Department or theTourist Board. If the planning committee feels the proposed development may have moreenvironmental or socio-economic impacts, the proposal is submitted to the Director of CoastConservation for a decision on the EIA. Then the director uses his discretion for conductingan EIA in consultation with the Environmental Scoping Committee. Environmental,economic and social analyses are carried out through the EIA process. Under EIAprocedures, the developer is requested to submit the EIA report according to the Terms ofReference issued by the CCD. When the EIA report is received by the CCD, it is submitted tothe CCAC and the public for their comments within 30 days. Availability of the report in


15/32

181

specific locations is gazetted. Finally, the permit is issued for macrodevelopments in thecoastal zone under the provisions of Coast Conservation Act.

As required by the Coast Conservation Act, the first National Coastal Zone Management Plan(1990) was prepared and approved by the cabinet in 1990. The plan deals with coastal

problems such as erosion, loss and degradation of natural coastal habitats and the loss anddegradation of archaeological, historical and cultural sites as well as recreational and scenicareas. It describes the nature, scope, severity and causes associated with each problem.Objectives and policies for the management of each problem are identified through specificmanagement techniques. In particular, the rationale and procedures for continuing the coastalpermit system are outlined in detail. Implementing actions in this plan are regulation, directdevelopment, research, coordination, education and planning and policy development.

In the preparation of the National Coastal Zone Management Plan, technical committees arebeing established involving relevant stakeholders with the required expertise for proposedchapters of the plan. Then the draft management plan is submitted to the Coast Conservation

Advisory Council, which has 11 ex-officio members and three members appointed by theminister. The council shall, within 60 days of the plans submission by the director, makemodifications, if any, and submit it to the minister for provisional approval who will make itavailable for public inspection. The public may give their comments and make modificationsto the plan, and submit it for cabinet approval. Upon approval by the cabinet, the ministershall cause the plan to be published in the gazette.

Coastal 2000: Recommendations for a resource management strategy for Sri Lanka's coastal

region is a review document based on a series of 20 special studies commissioned by theCCD under the CRMP, which articulates the current policy on CRM and makesrecommendations vis--vis future directions and strategic interventions in coastal zonemanagement based on the achievements and shortcomings of the first decade of nationalcoastal zone management.

Based on identified problems and suggested changes, the following policies and strategieswere carried in Coastal 2000 and approved by the cabinet in 1992.

A second generation CRM programme should be implemented simultaneously at thenational, provincial, district and local levels and must involve the private sector.

SAM plans should be developed and implemented at specific geographic sites ofecological and economic significance.

A monitoring and research programme should be undertaken to find answers tospecific resource management problems concerning the utilization of coastal habitats,fisheries, water quality, mineral resources and sites appropriate for aquaculture andtourism.

Institutional and human resource capacity to address management problems must bestrengthened.

Public awareness and education are priorities for all aspects of the programme.

The Coast Conservation Act requires the CZMP to be revised every four years. The CCD,with the assistance of the CRMP, initiated revision of the CZMP using experience andlessons learned in the implementation of the first national CZMP. The CCD and the CRMP

reviewed the main objectives, policies and activities of the CZMP.


16/32

182

The revised Coastal Zone Management Plan (1997) was approved by the cabinet inSeptember 1997 and became effective on 1 November 1997.

The revised CZMP (as did the 1992 version) outlined interventions to reduce coastal erosion,minimize degradation of coastal habitats and minimize loss and degradation of

archaeological, cultural and scenic sites. A new chapter addressed coastal pollution. Anothernew chapter addressed SAM by recognizing the need for locally-based collaborativemanagement. The final chapter summarizes the objectives, policies and actions to beimplemented by the CCD and sets forth priorities for action.

As in the previous plans, the revised Coastal Zone Management Plan (2004) presents aframework for the CCDs agenda for the following five years. The preparation and reviewmirrored processes for the previous two plans and cabinet approval was granted in 2005, withinterim guidelines suited to tsunami rehabilitation and reconstruction.

4.1 Conflicting and overlapping policies

A characteristic of coastal resource management, protection and conservation is the numberof government institutions that are in some way or other vested with certain powers andfunctions. Additionally, some of the functions of certain institutions are totally contradictoryto the very spirit of the Coast Conservation Act. It is imperative that conflicting provisionscontained in several laws are harmonized to present a policy acceptable to respectiveinstitutions and ministries.

Under the Urban Development Authority Act, No. 41 of 1978, the entire coastal zone hasbeen gazetted as an Urban Development Area (UDA). This obviously overlaps with CCDresponsibilities. Thus, any development activity under CCD jurisdiction must necessarily bereferred to the development plans of the UDA, as required by law.

Two directly conflicting authorities are the CCD and the Geological Survey and MinesBureau (GSMB). While any development activity within the coastal zone requires a permitfrom the CCD, the GSMB is vested with the authority to issue permits under the sameprovision for its mining activities. Similarly, provision is made for the Board of Investment tobypass the authority of the CCD. Therefore, there should be authority for the CCD tocoordinate activities within the coastal region and to be the facilitator for their agencies withthe mandate to conserve resources for sustainable development.

In order to strengthen the role of the CCD and to minimize conflicts and gaps, the followingamendments have been proposed to the Coast Conservation Act (a final draft is ready forsubmission to parliament):

Redesignation of the post of director to be designated as director-general of coastconservation, to bring it in line with changes made in the designation of other similarposts in public service.

Amendment of Section 5 of the CCA to delegate some powers to officers in thedistrict and divisional administration in order to ensure that the integrity of theregulatory system is maintained.


17/32

183

Amendments to the composition of the Coast Conservation Advisory Council(CCAC) to strengthen the integration and coordination of the activities of agencieswhose activities have a direct bearing on the coastal zone.

Amendments to sections dealing with EIA to provide for the calling of InitialEnvironmental Examination (IEE) reports, where deemed necessary.

Amendments to ensure adequate regulation of activities that impinge on water qualityin the coastal zone.

Amendments to enhance the powers of entry into land and to take punitive action withrespect to violations of the act.

Propose amendments to the GSMB Act to delete the conflicting provisions foundtherein.

Other amendments to facilitate the enforcement of the law and to enhance fines andimprove implementation aspects.

Widening of the definition of the coastal zoneto enable holistic management of thewhole area.

Provision of powers to acquire lands within the coastal zone. Amendments to define coastal resources and authorized structures. Inclusion of the entirety of lagoons within the definition of coastal zone.

4.2 Planning and decision-making process at the local level

In the past, most development and management activities at the village level were governedby the Village Communities Ordinance (VCO) No. 24, of 1889. This ordinance enabled theestablishment of village level committees for the activities of each sector, and functionedalong the lines of community-based systems. Under this ordinance, fisheries committees wereestablished around the country and they operated under the supervision of the governmentagent of the respective areas.

In the fisheries sector at present, cooperative societies are formed by the fisherfolkthemselves in order to upgrade their quality of life. They constitute a three-layered structure primary societies, secondary unions and an apex federation. These societies come underthe supervision of both the Department of Fisheries and Department of Cooperatives.

Many coastal communities have well-established resource-user societies and communitygroups. While some do not function well or are influenced by the local elite and politicalmotivations, others, such as the death societies which raise money for funerals and forbereaved families, are highly effective and involve all community members. These groupscan form the basis around which to build community action plans, such as SAM plans withthe involvement of all the stakeholders in the area.

The SAM process, which is a locally based, geographically specific planning process, wasinitiated in 1993 in Rekawa and Hikkaduwa as pilot projects. It involves the affectedcommunities and provincial agencies in the process of resource management by buildingcommunity level support through a highly participatory process and creating community-based management groups.

The overall SAM process is coordinated by the SAM coordinating committee headed by thedivisional secretary of the area and facilitated by the CCD. The coordinating committee

comprises the main governmental and non-governmental stakeholders including the fisheriescooperative societies in the SAM area.


18/32

184

Coastal 2000 policies highlighted the importance of community involvement in integratedcoastal zone management. The SAM concept, which involves an adaptive and flexibleapproach to resource management within a defined geographic area, is now an integralcomponent of national coastal zone management policy. The SAM process addresses theresultant adverse impacts of increasingly rapid economic growth in environmentally sensitive

areas such as coastal wetlands, which require new management tools and greatercollaborative efforts with other agencies and the public.

SAM sites listed in the national CZMP can be selected by an implementing agency for SAMplanning. A site-specific plan should be prepared by the implementing agency for the selectedsite with active community participation. The facilitating agency is responsible foridentification and prioritizing the site-specific issues and implementation of the SAM processthrough stakeholder consultation. In this process, a coordinating committee (CC) isestablished at the site to function as the SAM planning and implementation body. The CCshould comprise representatives of all resource user groups of the area, resource guardians(NGOs, CBOs) and resource managers (e.g. the government and local government

authorities).

The final SAM plan is submitted to the CCAC for approval; it is envisaged that the revisedCoast Conservation Act will have the provision to declare the sites specified in the CZMP asSAM sites, clearly defining their boundaries. This will confer legal status on the sites andregulations specified in SAM plans.

The revised CZMP (1997) identified 23 sites as potential SAM sites. The SAM process isongoing in nine sites in Colombo, Gampaha, Galle, Hambatota and Puttlam. The revisedCZMP (2004) identified another 57 potential SAM sites for SAM planning andimplementation.

5. Lessons learned and future needs

Measures are required to stop further degradation of the coastal resource base and, wherepossible, reverse the trend by implementing activities designed to regenerate and improve thequality of the natural resources of the coastal zone.For this purpose it is necessary to undertake various activities to be planned and implementedat different levels. These activities should be complementary and mutually re-inforcing.Some activities may be planned at the national level or at the regional level, while otheractivities are more site-specific.

5.1 Survey and research needs

A research agenda should be set up to narrow information gaps and to strengthen thescientific basis for coastal area management. It must be emphasized that the collection andanalysis of environmental and socio-economic data can be very expensive and timeconsuming.

At present, the database for coastal resources is very poor. A nationwide programme of datagathering and research is required to improve access to information needed for soundresource management and decision-making. The programme should be designed to improve

the quality of data and facilitate access to data by scientists, decision-makers and the generalpublic. The programme should be carried out in cooperation with relevant government


19/32

185

research agencies, statistical departments and survey departments. The types of informationto be gathered should include general surveys to monitor the conditions and extent of naturalhabitats and coastal resources, including mapping and GIS. Careful attention needs to be paidto replicability of data and methodology so that comparisons over time can be made toaccurately detect trends and alterations; also to assessments of resource utilization patterns to

evaluate whether or not resource pools are being depleted.

5.2 Strengthening of enforcement

Amendments to the Coast Conservation Act are required for the proper implementation of therevised CZMP. Proposed amendments are to be discussed with government policy-makersand the CCAC and will be submitted to the Legal Draftsmans Department for finalization ofthe procedure.

It is suggested that subjects to study should be laws that inhibit the powers, functions andduties of the CCD, and draft bills which may impede or impose constraints on the CCD;

recommendations should be made to the government.

The CCD has acquired field staff for coastal operations to carry out surveillance andenforcement. For effective enforcement, linkages with enforcement officers who areassociated with the conservation of coastal resources should be strengthened.

5.3 Develop CZM capacity

The capacity of stakeholders should be strengthened to effectively contribute to the CZMP. Amajor constraint is the lack of technical and management capacities at the local level.Education and public awareness on coastal area management should be strengthened at

national and local levels. The CCD organizes and conducts training programmes on coastalzone management at various levels with the assistance of the National Education Institute andthe Sri Lanka Institute for Development Administration (SLIDA). Therefore, an improvedextension service should be established. This extension service could work through theNational Institute of Fisheries and Nautical Engineering under the Ministry of Fisheries andAquatic Resources. Regional training centres under the Fisheries Training Institute can play alead role in planning and conducting regular training and public awareness programmes at thelocal level. For further improvement of public awareness about the critical nature ofenvironmental problems and threats to natural resources, it is essential to have acomprehensive media campaign at the national level. This should include the production anddissemination of materials designed to convey environmental messages and information viatelevision, radio, the Internet and printed media.

5.4 Establish mechanisms for integration and coordination

Institutional mechanisms should be developed to facilitate integration and coordination of theCZMP. Integration brings about the harmonization of policies and legislation among national,provincial and local governments. Coordination plays a central role in fosteringunderstanding and cooperation among all stakeholders. The CCAC plays a major role ininteragency coordination of coastal resource management activities. The proposed CoastConservation Act amendments will strengthen the proper participation of agencies and has a

strong priority for coastal resource management. The other environmental scoping


20/32

186

committees formed for the EIA evaluation process are making interagency coordinationeasier in decision-making.

Certain strategies in the management framework require more formal interagencycoordination mechanisms than those currently in use. Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs)

among agencies and other formal coordination devices should be developed as needed inconsultation with those agencies.

At present, there is sufficient interagency coordination developed for management activitiesamong the agencies. But there should be a proper interagency coordinating mechanismbetween management agencies and research organizations for identification and prioritizationof research needs in coastal area management.

5.5 Monitoring the coastal area management programme

Monitoring provides a powerful tool for assessing the performance of projects and

programmes and gives early warning of adverse effects so that corrective action can be takento modify design and management to avoid irreversible impacts. Due to the complexity anddynamic nature of coastal systems, it is not always feasible to accurately predict economiceffectiveness and environmental performance.

The absence of a properly organized monitoring unit is a matter for further consideration.Universities may be mobilized to set up a monitoring system supported at the field level byfield officers of the related agencies or the officers of the proposed enforcement unit. Themonitoring system should also be capable of collecting and analysing information to givefeedback to decision-makers at various levels of management.

In view of the magnitude of observed issues, and of financial and human capacities,designing and implementing more effective ICZM programmes to sustain coastal ecosystemsas healthy life-support systems for the benefit of future generations is a major challenge forthe country at the moment.


21/32

187

Appendix 1. The maritime zones of Sri Lanka


22/32

188


23/32

189

Appendix 2. Extent of coastal habitats, by district (hectares)

District MangrovesSalt

marshesDunes

BeachesBarrier

beaches,

Spits

Lagoons,Basin

estuaries

Otherwaterbodies

Marshes

Colombo

Gampaha

Puttalam

Mannar

Kilinochchi

Jaffna

Mullativu

Trincomalee

Batticaloa

Ampara

Hambantota

Matara

Galle

Kalutara

Total extent

-

122

2 264

1 261

312

260

463

1 491

1 421

292

539

6

187

70

8 687

-

497

3 461

5 179

4 975

4 963

517

1 401

2 196

127

318

-

185

-

23 819

-

-

2 689

1 458

509

2 145

-

-

-

357

444

-

-

4

7 606

112

207

2 772

912

420

1 103

864

671

1 489

1 398

1 099

191

485

77

11 800

-

3 442

39 119

3 828

11 917

45 525

9 233

18 317

13 682

7 235

4 488

-

1 144

87

158 017

412

205

3 428

2 371

1 256

1 862

570

2 180

2 365

1 171

1 526

234

783

476

18 839

15

1 604

2 515

308

1 046

149

194

1 126

968

894

200

80

561

91

9 754


24/32

190

Appendix 3. National fish production (19852004, in tonnes)

1985 1990 1995 2000 2003 2004 2005

Coastal 140 270 134 130 157 500 175 280 163 850 154 470 63 690

Offshore 2 400 11 670 60 000 84 400 90 830 98 720 66 710Marinefishery

Total 142 670 145 800 217 500 259 680 254 680 253 190 130 400

Inland fishery 32 740 38 190 18 250 36 700 30 280 33 180 32 830

Total production 175 410 183 990 235 250 296 380 284 960 286 370 163 230


25/32

191

Appendix 4. Locations of well-known basin estuaries and lagoons in Sri Lanka

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S #S#S#S#S

#S#S#S#S#S

#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S

#S

#S

#S

#S

#S#S

#S

#S Lagoon & Estuaries

Thondaimannar Lagoon

Jaffna Lagoon

Munadal Lake

Lunawa Lagoon

Bolgoda Lake

Kalutara Lagoon

Dedduwa Lake

Madampe Lake

Ratgama Lake

Koggala Lake

Mawella LagoonDodra Lagoon

Nanthi Kadal

Nayaru

Kokkilai

Kuchchaveli

Periyakarachchi

Sinnakarachchi

UppuweliThambalagam Bay

Koddiya Bay Ilakkanthi

ullakkalie Lagoon

Uppar Lagoon

Vandeloos Bay

Batticaloa Lagoon

Periya Lagoon

Arugam Bay

Kandawara Bay

Okandawara Bay

# Rekawa Lagoon

# Kahanda Lagoon#

Kalametiya Lagoon

# Lunama Lagoon#

Karagan Saltern

# Maha Saltern# Koholankola Saltern

#

Malala Saltren

# Embilikala Saltern# Bundala Saltern

NLocation of well Known Basin Estuaries and Lagoons in Sri Lanka

Puttlam Lagoon

Chilaw Lagoon

Negombo Lagoon

Thandiadi Lagoon

Komari Lagoon


26/32

192

Appendix 5. Tourist growth trend in Sri Lanka

Year Tourist arrivals Tourist receipts, million Rs.

1993 392 250 10 036.80

1994 407 511 11 401.60

1995 403 101 11 551.60

1996 302 265 9 559.10

1997 366 165 12 980.30

1998 381 063 14 868.00

1999 436 440 19 297.30

2000 400 414 19 162.20

2001 336 794 18 863.30

2002 393 171 24 202.00

2003 500 642 32 810.00

2004 566 202 42 058.60

2005 549 308 36 377.00


27/32

193

Appendix 6. Distribution of coral reefs in coastal waters of Sri Lanka

Coaral Reef

River

Colombo

Kalutara

Akurala

Ambalangoda

Hikkaduwa

Galle

Weligama

#

HikkaduwaMarine Sanctuary

Polhena Reef

Matara

Tangalle

Unawatuna

Ruhuna (Yala)National Park

Great Basses Reef

Little Basses Reef

Kalmunai

Batticaloa

Kalkudah

Vakarai

Pigon Island

Trincomalee

Nilaveli

Jaffna

Mannar

Vakarai

Silavaturai

Wilpattu National Park

Puttlam Lagoon

Gulf ofMannar

Bar ReefMarine Sanctuary

Chilaw

Sri Lanka

Matara

JaffnaIndia

Colombo

Trincomalee

NDistribution of Coral Reefs in

Coastal Waters of Sri Lanka


28/32

194

Appendix 7. Some of the major human, economic and social impacts of the tsunami

Human People killed

People injured

Internally displaced

35 322

21 441

516 150

Economic Value of lost assets

Lost livelihoods

Houses damaged

Proportion of fishing fleet destroyed

Extended salinized agricultural land

Damage to tourism infrastructure

Large hotels

Small hotels

Related small enterprises

US$900 million

150 000

98 000

75%

23 449 acres

53 out of 242

248

210

Social Widowed, orphaned/affected elderly anddisabled

Health facilities damaged

Education facilities damaged

Universities

Vocational training centres

Schoolchildren affected

40 000

97

182

4

15

200 000


29/32

195

Appendix 8. Institutional structure of the Ministry of Fisheries and AquaticResources


30/32

196

Appendix 9. The Department of Coast Conservation


31/32

197

Appendix 10. The coastal zone (Coastal Conservation Act No. 57, 1981)


32/32

Bibliography

Coast Conservation Department (CCD).1990. Coastal Zone Management Plan, Sri Lanka.Colombo, CCD.

CCD.1997. Revised Coastal Zone Management Plan, Sri Lanka. Colombo, CCD.

CCD.2004. Revised Coastal Zone Management Plan, Sri Lanka. Colombo, CCD.Coastal Resource Management Project (TA No.3034-Sri).1998. Interim report. December

1998.Government of Sri Lanka (GOSL).1981. Coast Conservation Act No.57 of 1981.GOSL. 1988. Coast Conservation (Amendment) Act No. 64 of 1988.GOSL & Development Partners. 2005. Post tsunami recovery and reconstruction. Joint

report of the Government of Sri Lanka and development partners.Ministry of Disaster Management.2005. Road map for disaster risk management. Disaster

Management Centre, Ministry of Disaster Management.Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources & FAO. 2006.Strategy and programme for

post tsunami reconstruction and development of the marine fisheries sector.

Niras Port Consult. 2005. Tsunami damage assessment report break waters of fisheryharbours, coastal structures from Hambantota to Colombo.

Olsen, S., Sadacharan, D., Samarakoon, J.I., White, A.T. & W. Wickramaratne. 1992.Coastal 2000: recommendations for a resources management strategy for Sri

Lankas coastal region. Vols I and II. CCD.Samaranayake, R.A.D.B.2003. Review of national fisheries situation in Sri Lanka. World

Fisheries Center Publication.Sri Lankan Parliament Select Committee on Natural Disasters.2005. Report 2005.

pre-and post-tsunami coastal planning and land-use policies and issues in sri lanka

Documents