sri lanka report on coastal pollution loading and water ... · sri lanka report on coastal...

BOBLME-2011-Ecology-14

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations concerning the legal and development status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The BOBLME Project encourages the use of this report for study, research, news reporting, criticism or review. Selected passages, tables or diagrams may be reproduced for such purposes provided acknowledgment of the source is included. Major extracts or the entire document may not be reproduced by any process without the written permission of the BOBLME Project Regional Coordinator. BOBLME contract: PSA-GCP 144/07/2010 (Azmy); PSA-RAPRD 17/5/13 (Miththapala); For bibliographic purposes, please reference this publication as: BOBLME (2013) Country report on pollution - Sri Lanka BOBLME-2011-Ecology-14

Sri Lanka report on coastal pollution loading and water

quality criteria

S. A. M. Azmy

Edited by Dr Sriyanie Miththapala

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Table of contents 1 The Bay of Bengal coast of Sri Lanka ............................................................................ 1 1.1 Bio-geographical features .......................................................................................... 1 1.1.1 Climate ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1.2 Rivers ................................................................................................................. 3 1.1.3 Bathymetry ......................................................................................................... 3 1.1.4 Wave climate ...................................................................................................... 4 1.1.5 Surface winds ..................................................................................................... 5 1.1.6 Surface currents ................................................................................................. 5 1.1.7 Primary productivity ............................................................................................ 6 1.1.8 Coastal ecosystems ............................................................................................ 7 1.1.9 Maritime jurisdiction ............................................................................................ 9 1.1.10 The coastal zone .............................................................................................. 10 1.1.11 Coastal administrative divisions ........................................................................ 11 1.2 Coastal activities of high economic value ................................................................. 11 1.2.1 Urbanization ..................................................................................................... 12 1.2.2 Tourism ............................................................................................................. 12 1.2.3 Industries .......................................................................................................... 14 1.2.4 Ports and harbours ........................................................................................... 16 1.2.5 Oil exploration ................................................................................................... 17 1.2.6 Coal power plants ............................................................................................. 18 1.3 Coastal activities important for livelihoods and human well-being ............................ 19 1.3.1 Fisheries ........................................................................................................... 19 1.3.2 Aquaculture ...................................................................................................... 21 1.3.3 Agriculture ........................................................................................................ 22 2 Overview of sources of pollution ................................................................................... 24 2.1 Land-based pollution (point and non-point source) .................................................. 25 2.1.1 Sewage discharge ............................................................................................ 25 2.1.2 Agricultural and aquaculture residues ............................................................... 26 2.1.3 Accumulation of solid waste .............................................................................. 28 2.1.4 Sedimentation ................................................................................................... 30 2.1.5 Industrial effluents ............................................................................................. 31 2.1.6 Fish waste ........................................................................................................ 32 2.1.7 Thermal pollution .............................................................................................. 33 2.2 Sea/marine-based pollution ..................................................................................... 33 2.2.1 Marine litter ....................................................................................................... 33 2.2.2 Minor oil discharges and ballast water .............................................................. 36 2.2.3 Oil spills ............................................................................................................ 36

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2.2.4 Priority categories of parameters ...................................................................... 37 3 Existing water and sediment quality objectives and targets .......................................... 37 4 The National Programme — Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction System ........... 45 4.1 Mapping hotspots along the coast ........................................................................... 45 4.2 Time series analysis and significant findings ........................................................... 46 4.3 The role of Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Fisheries .................................. 46 4.4 National Laboratories ............................................................................................... 47 4.5 Marine and coastal protected areas ......................................................................... 49 5 Present status of marine pollution: contaminant levels in water, sediments, fish and

other biological resources ............................................................................................ 51 5.1 Eutrophication and nutrient dynamics; Chlorophyll; Chemical oxygen demand;

Suspended substances ........................................................................................... 51 5.2 Oil pollution, oil spills and ecological impacts of oil pollution .................................... 52 5.3 Heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs) .......................................... 53 5.4 General status and trends of marine pollution .......................................................... 55 6 Transboundary coastal pollution issues and concerns.................................................. 56 6.1 Ballast water ............................................................................................................ 56 6.2 Oil spills ................................................................................................................... 57 7 International instruments, conventions, protocols and programmes adopted and relevant

to coastal and marine pollution ..................................................................................... 57 8 Policy, economic instruments and legal mechanisms for pollution control .................... 68 8.1 Policies .................................................................................................................... 68 8.2 Laws related to the coast and prevention of pollution ............................................... 70 8.2.1 Laws related to the prevention and control of water pollution ............................ 70 8.2.2 National Environmental Act (NEA) No. 47 of 1980 ............................................ 71 8.2.3 Marine Pollution Prevention Act No. 59 of 1981 and its amendment No.35 of

2008 ................................................................................................................. 73 8.2.4 Coast Conservation Act No. 57 of 1981 and amendment of 1988 ..................... 73 8.2.5 Other laws that have a bearing on the coastal zone .......................................... 73 8.3 Water quality standards ........................................................................................... 77 8.4 EIA for projects that have potential impacts on the water quality and coastal and

marine environment in general ................................................................................ 78 8.5 Other instruments and key sectoral policies ............................................................. 79 8.5.1 Agricultural policy ............................................................................................. 79 8.5.2 Integrated Coastal Zone Management ............................................................. 79 8.5.3 Organic farming ................................................................................................ 80 8.6 Market-based instruments ....................................................................................... 80 8.6.1 Fertiliser subsidies ............................................................................................ 80 8.6.2 Environmental conservation levy act no. 26 of 2008 ......................................... 80 8.6.3 Tax incentives ................................................................................................... 81

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9 Institutional mechanisms for pollution control and enforcement of existing policies and legislations ................................................................................................................... 81

9.1 The Central Environmental Authority (CEA) ............................................................. 81 9.2 Coast Conservation and Coastal Management Department (CCD) ......................... 81 9.3 Marine Environment Protection Agency (MEPA) ...................................................... 82 9.4 Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy ...................................................... 82 9.5 National Solid Waste Management Support Centre (NSWMSC).............................. 82 9.6 The Ministry of Local Government and Provincial Councils...................................... 82 9.7 Provincial councils ................................................................................................... 83 9.8 Local authorities ...................................................................................................... 83 9.9 National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency (NARA) .............. 83 9.10 Northwestern Provincial Environmental Authority .................................................... 84 9.11 Other agencies indirectly involved in pollution control in the coastal zone ................ 84 10 Gaps ............................................................................................................................ 85 10.1 Information/Data ...................................................................................................... 85 10.2 Policies and legislation ............................................................................................ 85 10.3 Overlapping mandates ............................................................................................. 85 10.4 Implementation issues ............................................................................................. 86 10.5 Report card of pollution status to public ................................................................... 87 11 Priority actions and Remedial measures required at .................................................... 87 11.1 At the national level ................................................................................................. 87 11.2 At the provincial level ............................................................................................... 87 11.3 At the local level ...................................................................................................... 87 12 Summary and conclusions ........................................................................................... 88 13 Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... 88 14 References ................................................................................................................... 89

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List of figures Figure 1 Sri Lanka’s HDI ranking compared to South Asia .................................................... ix Figure 2 Simplified peneplain map of Sri Lanka .................................................................... 1 Figure 3 Simplified climatic zones of Sri Lanka ..................................................................... 2 Figure 4 Sri Lanka: rivers ...................................................................................................... 3 Figure 5 Sri Lanka: bathymetry and continental shelf ............................................................ 4 Figure 6 Sri Lanka’s coastal wave climate ............................................................................. 4 Figure 7 Summer and winter currents in the Indian Ocean .................................................... 6 Figure 8 Average surface concentration of chlorophyll in Sri Lanka’s coastal waters ............ 7 Figure 9 Selected coastal ecosystems of Sri Lanka ............................................................. 8 Figure 10 Diagram illustrating the definition of the maritime zone ......................................... 9 Figure 11 Legal boundaries of the coastal zone .................................................................. 10 Figure 12 Coastal districts of Sri Lanka ............................................................................... 11 Figure 13 Concentration of population on the coastline and proposed metro regions .......... 12 Figure 14 Sri Lanka tourist arrivals 2009-2012 .................................................................... 13 Figure 15 Occupancy Rates by Resort Region.................................................................... 13 Figure 16 Accommodation (rooms) per region .................................................................... 13 Figure 17 Planned tourism zones ........................................................................................ 14 Figure 18 Distribution of large industries (left) and small and medium industries (right) ...... 15 Figure 19 Ports in Sri Lanka ................................................................................................ 16 Figure 20 Oil exploration areas and bulk storages .............................................................. 18 Figure 21 Coal power plants in Sri Lanka ............................................................................ 19 Figure 22 Fisheries harbours and fish landing sites ............................................................ 21 Figure 23 Land use in Sri Lanka ......................................................................................... 23 Figure 24 The increase in use of synthetic fertilisers in Sri Lanka ....................................... 26 Figure 25 Irresponsible solid waste disposal dumped near Puttalam Lagoon, ..................... 29 Figure 26 Irresponsible solid waste disposal on the banks of the Bentota Ganga ............... 30 Figure 27 Trash fish at a fish landing site ............................................................................ 33 Figure 28 Highly polluted East-West shipping lane ............................................................. 37 Figure 29 Sri Lanka’s maritime boundary with India ............................................................ 56

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List of tables Table 1.Human Development Indices (HDI) for Sri Lanka ................................................... ix Table 2 Coastal wave climate through the year .................................................................... 5 Table 3 Pressure gradients across the island in selected months ........................................ 5 Table 4 Extent of coastal habitats ........................................................................................ 8 Table 5 Number of establishments and persons engaged by district, 2003 ........................ 15 Table 6 Performance of port services Sri Lanka ................................................................. 17 Table 7 Number of fish landing sites per fisheries district ................................................... 17 Table 8 Number of boats .................................................................................................... 20 Table 9 Export quantity and value of shrimp ...................................................................... 22 Table 10 Land cultivated under various crops .................................................................... 23 Table 11 Type of pollution, sources and main adverse impacts ......................................... 25 Table 12 Extent of synthetic pesticides used in Sri Lanka .................................................. 26 Table 13 Water quality and impact on fish and fisheries in selected rivers and estuaries ... 28 Table 14 Municipal solid waste collection by the local authorities in coastal districts .......... 29 Table 15 Solid waste dumped in selected areas of four coastal districts ............................ 29 Table 16 Waste loads from industries located in coastal areas with high or medium pollution ............................................................................................................................. 31 Table 17 Selected water quality parameters of Lunawa lagoon .......................................... 32 Table 18 Types of marine litter ........................................................................................... 34 Table 19 General inventory of marine and beach litter observed in Sri Lanka .................... 36 Table 20 Tolerance limits for industrial/ domestic waste discharged into marine coastal areas .................................................................................................................................. 38 Table 21 Tolerance limits for industrial/ domestic discharged into inland surface waters .... 39 Table 22 Tolerance limits for industrial waste discharged on land for irrigation purposes ... 40 Table 23 Tolerance limits for waste from rubber factories discharged to inland surface waters ................................................................................................................................ 41 Table 24 Tolerance limits for waste from textile factories discharged into inland surface waters ................................................................................................................................ 42 Table 25 Tolerance limits for waste from being discharged from tanning industries ........... 42 Table 26 Drinking water standards (Sri Lanka Standards for potable water – SLS 614, 1983) ................................................................................................................................. 44 Table 27 Coastal water pollution at selected sites (Jayaweera, 2003) ................................ 45 Table 28 Coastal and Marine Protected Areas in Sri Lanka ............................................... 50 Table 29 Oil and chemical spills in Sri Lankan waters ........................................................ 53 Table 30 Mean Trace metal concentration in Negombo Lagoon ........................................ 54 Table 31 Coastal and marine pollution related treaties and conventions ratified by Sri Lanka ................................................................................................................................. 65 Table 32 Regional programmes ......................................................................................... 66 Table 33 Ongoing major projects ....................................................................................... 67 Table 34 List of policies relevant to water pollution ............................................................ 69 Table 35 List of regulations made under the National Environmental Act ........................... 72 Table 36 List of laws which have a bearing on the coastal zone of Sri Lanka ..................... 76 Table 37 Proposed ambient water quality standards for different use classes .................... 78 Table 38 Agencies indirectly involved in pollution control in the coastal zone ..................... 84

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List of acronyms ADB Asian Development Bank BCAP Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan BOBLME Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem BOD Biological Oxygen Demand BOI Board of Investment BUNKER International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage BWM International Convention for the Control and Management of ships' Ballast

Water and Sediments CBD International Convention on Biological Diversity CCD Coast Conservation and Coastal Management Department (formerly Coast

Conservation Department) CEA Central Environmental Authority CISIR Ceylon Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research CLC International Convention on Civil Liberty for Oil Pollution Damage CMS Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals COD Chemical Oxygen Demand COP Conference of Parties CRMP Coastal Resources Management Project CZMP Coastal Zone Management Plan DDT Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane DECOM Delimitation of the Outer Edge of the Continental Margin of Sri Lanka DFAR Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources DO Dissolved Oxygen DWC Department of Wildlife Conservation EC Equatorial current EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EICC East India coastal current ELCS Environmental Laboratory and Consultancy Services EPL Environmental Protection Licence EPZ Export processing zone EU European Union FAO Food and Agricultural Organization FD Forest Department FFPO Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance FMA Fisheries Management Area GCOS Global Climate Observing System GDP Gross Domestic Product GEF Global Environmental Facility GOOS Global Ocean Observing System GPA Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from

Land-based Activities HDI Human Development Index IAS Invasive alien species ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management IDAY One-day boats IEE Initial Environmental Examination IMUL In-board multi-day boats IOGOOS Global Ocean Observing System in the Indian Ocean IP Industrial park IPM Insect Pest Management IPNM Insect Plant Nutrition Management

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ITI Industrial Technology Institute IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature JICA Japan International Corporation Agency LKR Sri Lankan rupees MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution From Ships MEPA Marine Environmental Protection Agency MoE Ministry of Environment now Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy MOENR Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources now Ministry of Environment

and Renewable Energy MOFE Ministry of Forests and Environment now Ministry of Environment and

Renewable Energy MOH Medical of Health MoU Memorandum of Understanding MPPA Marine Pollution Protection Agency now MEPA MTRB Mechanised traditional boats NAQDA National Aquaculture Development Authority NARA National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NBSB Non-mechanised beach seine boats NEA National Environmental Act NGO Non-governmental organization NOSCOP National Oil Spill Contingency Plan NPA National Programme of Action NSWMCSC National Solid Waste Management Support Centre NTRB Non-mechanised traditional boats NTU Nephelometric turbidity units OFRP Out-board reinforced plastic boats OPRC-HNS

Protocol on Preparedness, Response and Co-operation to pollution Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious Substances

PA Protected area PAA Project Approving Agency PCB Polychlorinated Biphenyls PIC Prior informed consent POP Persistent Organic Pollutants PPP Purchasing power parity SAARC South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation SACEP South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme SAM Special Area Management SAS South Asian Seas SASP South Asian Seas Programme SEA Strategic Environment Assessment SLTDA Sri Lanka Tourist Development Authority SMC Summer monsoon current SOFA Small Organic Farmers’ Association STP Sewage treatment plant SWM Solid waste management TEU Twenty-foot equivalent UDA Urban Development Authority UN United Nations UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNCLOS United Nations Convention of the Law of the Sea UNEP United Nations Environment Programme USD United States dollars WHO World Health Organization WMC Winter monsoon current

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Preamble Sri Lanka is an island located in the Bay of Bengal, off the southern coast of India, between latitudes 5°55’ and 9°51’ N, and longitudes 79°41’ and 81°53’ E. Extending over approximately 65,610 km2., Sri Lanka has a coastline about 1,620 km (CZMP, 2006). The population in 1981 was 14.8 million and is now estimated to be around 20.3 million (Dept. of Census and Statistics, 2011 and 2012). It is projected to increase to 21-23 million by 2020-2030 (http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSRILANKA/Resources/LKAgingChapI.pdf). Sri Lanka’s human development indices are among the best in South Asia (ADB, 2012).

Table 1.Human Development Indices (HDI) for Sri Lanka

(Source: http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/LKA.html)

Figure 1 Sri Lanka’s HDI ranking compared to South Asia

(Source: http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/LKA.html)

Indicator Value HDI (2012) 0.72 HDI Ranking 92.00 Life expectancy at birth (years) 75.10 Mean years of schooling (of adults) (years) 9.30 Adult literacy rate, both sexes (% aged 15 and above) 91.2 GDP per capita (2005 PPP $) 4,929.00 Poverty (population living below 1.25$ PPP per day (%) 7.00 Maternal mortality ratio (deaths of women per 100,000 live births) 35.00 Carbon dioxide emissions per capita (tonnes) 0.60

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSRILANKA/Resources/LKAgingChapI.pdf

http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/LKA.html


Country report on pollution - Sri Lanka

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1 The Bay of Bengal coast of Sri Lanka 1.1 Bio-geographical features 1.1.1 Climate

A central mountainous massif (comprising the third peneplain) and two other peneplains surrounding it, define the topography of the Island.

There is significant spatial variation in the Island’s climate. As a tropical island there is little temporal variation in temperature within each peneplain, although there are substantial differences in temperatures between peneplains. In the first peneplain, in which the coastal belt is found, the average annual temperature is about 26-27 ⁰C whereas in the third peneplain, temperatures can be as low as 15.9 ⁰C (Survey Dept., 2007).

Figure 2 Simplified peneplain map of Sri Lanka

(Source: Adapted from the Survey Dept., 2007, map by D. Weragodatenna)

The annual weather cycle is divided into four climatic seasons, determined by rainfall (Survey Dept., 2007).

• The first intermonsoonal season from March to April; • The southwest monsoon from May to September; • The second intermonsonal season from October to November; and • The northeast monsoon from December to February.


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The moisture-laden southwest monsoon blows over the Arabian Sea, but the direction and the speed of the winds are such that they cannot circumvent the hills, with the result that this monsoon is restricted to the southwest quarter of the island, leaving much of the island dry for these months. The weaker and more short-lived northeast monsoon passes the central hills and rains on the entire country.

In combination, the climate and topography of the island have shaped several bioclimatic zones in the island: the wet zone, in the southwest quarter of the island, receives an average of 2,000-5,000mm of rain per year, throughout the year; the dry zone, extending over about 75% of the land area, receiving 1,000mm of rain per annum in a sharply seasonal pattern that leaves the area dry for four months; the arid zone — in the northwest, in the district of Mannar and the southeast in the district of Hambantota, receiving less that 600mm per year; and in between the wet and the dry zones, the intermediate zone, receiving more rain than the dry zone, but less than the wet zone —1,100-2,000 mm of rain per year (Survey Dept., 2007). (Figure 3.)

Figure 3 Simplified climatic zones of Sri Lanka

(Source: Survey Dept., 2007)

These climatic features have consequences for fisheries and marine resources. The seasonality of many resources is markedly different on the eastern and western sides of the island.


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1.1.2 Rivers

The island has 103 rivers, nearly all of which radiate from the central hill massif and with their river basins, cover almost 90% of the land area. In the wet zone of the island, are seven major river basins with large catchment areas, ranging in extent from 629-2,719 km2. In the dry zone is Sri Lanka’s longest river, the Mahaweli Ganga, with a catchment area of 10,488km2, equivalent to one sixth of the island’s land area (FAO undated). (Figure 4.)

These rivers are extremely relevant in the context of non-point source pollution in coastal waters.

Figure 4 Sri Lanka: rivers

(Source: Jayasuriya et al., 2006)

1.1.3 Bathymetry

The continental shelf is contiguous with the southern tip of India in the north and northwest, but narrower in the south and east. Southern India and Sri Lanka are separated by the shallow Palk Strait, just 30 m deep (Joseph, 2003). The continental shelf is estimated to be about 30,000 km2, with an average width of 20 km and depth of 20-65 m (narrower and shallower than the world average of 75 km and 120 m) (Survey Dept., 2007). The shelf is narrowest (2.8 km) at Kalpitiya in the northwestern coastline, and between Matara and Dondra in the southern coast (6 km). It is widest from beyond Kalpitiya and the Palk Strait (Survey Dept., 2007). (Figure 5.)

At the edge of the shelf, the depth falls steeply from 20-65 m to 1,500-3,500 m (Survey Dept., 2007). The slope averages about 7°-12° but can be as much as 28°-


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42°, one of the steepest in the world. This steep drop is characteristic of much of the shelf (Survey Dept., 2007).

Figure 5 Sri Lanka: bathymetry and continental shelf


1.1.4 Wave climate

Both monsoons affect the wave climate around Sri Lanka. The stronger southwest monsoon generates a moderate energy zone from April to July along the coastal stretch from Kalpitiya in the northwest to Panama in the east (Survey Dept., 2007). In contrast, the weaker northeast monsoon creates a low energy zone from Matara in the south to Kalpitiya in the northwest during the northeast monsoon. The Matara-Panama stretch forms a high energy zone throughout the year as it is affected by both monsoons (Survey Dept., 2007). (Figure 6.)

Figure 6 Sri Lanka’s coastal wave climate



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Wave heights are higher, in general, during the monsoons, and lower during the intermonsoonal period. The wave period is low during monsoon (8 s) but it higher during the intermonsoons (18 s). (Survey Dept., 2007) (Table 2)

Duration Zone High Moderate Low

Wave height (m)

Wave period (s)

Wave height (m)

Wave period (s)

Wave height (m)

Wave period (s)

Southwest monsoon

1.3-3.5 6-8 1.2-3.3 7-11 0.4-2.0 9-12

Northeast monsoon

1.1-3.0 7-10 0.5-2.2 9-13 1.5-2.7 7-10

Inter-monsoon

0.6-2.5 8-18 0.3-1.8 10-16 0.4-1.5 12-20

Table 2 Coastal wave climate through the year


1.1.5 Surface winds

Surface winds are related to pressure gradients created over the island.

Month Pressure gradient January Mild, northerly April Evenly distributed July Moderate, southwesterly to westerly October Evenly distributed

Table 3 Pressure gradients across the island in selected months


During the northern winter, the pressure gradient drives the winds north to the west across the island, slowed down by the central hills. In contrast, during the southwest monsoon, the winds are southwesterly across the island, but again, retarded by the central hill massif.

Like rainfall patterns, seasonal wind patterns also profoundly affect fisheries. Previously, these wind patterns resulted in the mass relocation of west coast fishermen to fishing camps on the east for part of the year, where the waters were calmer. This pattern of migration has been severely restricted in recent years because of the armed conflict, which extended into areas of the east coast. After the cessation of the war, this relocation is re-emerging.

1.1.6 Surface currents

Surface currents around the waters of Sri Lanka are driven by the greater Indian Ocean currents, as well as locally by the moosoon winds and tides (Galappatti, pers. comm.). During the southwest monsoon the currents along both coasts move mainly northwards and they reverse completely during the northeast monsoon, forming two opposing gyres (Joseph, 2003).


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Figure 7 Summer and winter currents in the Indian Ocean

(Source: Adapted from Suwannathatsa et al., 2012’ EC= Equatorial current; EICC=East India coastal current; SMC=Summer monsoon current; WMC= Winter monsoon current)

In general the currents off the east coast are stronger than those off the west coast, while those off the southern coast are among the strongest of all, with velocities of around 1 m/sec (De Bruin, Russell and Bogusch, 1994 in litt. Joseph, 2003).

The seas around Sri Lanka are micro-tidal and therefore, monsoon currents are stronger. Tides in Sri Lanka are predominantly semi-diurnal. The rise and fall of the tides is within 0.7 m at spring tides and 0.05 m at neap tides. The highest tidal range is generally around Colombo (west coast), while the lowest is around Delft and Trincomalee (east coast) (Joseph, 2003).

Adam’s Bridge, although small, plays a very important role in controlling the amount of water that moves between the Bay of Bengal (east of India) and the Arabian Sea (west of India). Because Adam’s Bridge is small, the tides do not move across it. As a result, the tides in the Gulf of Mannar and the tides in Palk Bay are very different: there is almost a twelve-hour difference in the tides, although they are close together. Because of this, there are huge differences in the water levels on either side of Adam’s Bridge, driving strong currents through the gaps between the islands. These currents change direction as the tide changes. During the southwest monsoon, strong winds blow large quantities of water from the Gulf of Mannar to Palk Bay, sending warmer, more saline water into Palk Bay and on into the Bay of Bengal. During the northeast monsoon, the opposite happens: cool, less saline water from the Bay of Bengal is moved to the Gulf of Mannar. (Galappatti, pers.comm.).

1.1.7 Primary productivity

About 70% of the animal protein diet of Sri Lankans comes from fisheries resources. The ocean fishery industry locates good fishing grounds by examining the colour of


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the ocean, which reflects areas rich in phytoplankton (that contain chlorophyll), the source of primary productivity in oceans (Survey Dept., 2007).

Satellite imagery reveals that the coastal waters of Sri Lanka are more productive than the open ocean because of the supply of nutrients and surface runoff brought from inland by Sri Lanka’s many rivers.

Figure 8 Average surface concentration of chlorophyll in Sri Lanka’s coastal waters


The winds of the southwest monsoon blow parallel to along the southern coast, with the result that there is high primary productivity in this area from May to July (Survey Dept., 2007) (Figure 8). It has been reported that the concentration of chlorophyll of Hambantota in the southeast is about 10 mg/m3 comparable to the highest concentration of chlorophyll in the Peru upwelling area (Carr et al., 2002, in litt. Survey Dept., 2007).

1.1.8 Coastal ecosystems

Along the coastline of Sri Lanka is a variety of coastal ecosystems: estuaries and lagoons (extending over 126,989 ha), mangroves (6,083 ha), seagrass meadows, salt marshes (23,797 ha), tidal flats, coral reefs (68,000 ha) and large strips of beaches that include barrier beaches, spits (5,621 ha) and dunes (15,546 ha) (Joseph, 2003, Spalding et al., 2001). These ecosystems are important constituents of the country’s biological wealth, but many species are yet to be documented (CZMP, 2006).


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(a) (b)

( c) (d)

( e) (f)

Figure 9 Selected coastal ecosystems of Sri Lanka

a) a barrier-built estuary (© Sriyanie Miththapala;) b) mangroves (© Luxshmanan Nadaraja; c) Seagrass meadows (© Luxshmanan Nadaraja; d) salt marshes (Naalin Perera © IUCN; e) tidal flats (Naalin Perera © IUCN); and f) coral reefs (© Arjan Rajasuriya )

Habitat Extent (ha) Mangroves 6,083 Salt marshes 23,797 Dunes 15,546 Beaches, barrier beaches and spits 5,621 Lagoons 36,178 Estuaries 90,811 Coral reefs* 68,000 Other water bodies 2,350 Fresh water marshes 6,555

Table 4 Extent of coastal habitats

(Source: Joseph, 2003; * Spalding et al., 2001)


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There are some 1,800 species of fish in Sri Lanka’s coastal and marine waters, five species of marine turtles who nest on beaches along the coast, 30 species of marine mammals including threatened species such as the dugong (Dugong dugon); sea snakes and many corals and other marine invertebrates (CZMP, 2006; MoE, 2012).

1.1.9 Maritime jurisdiction

The Maritime Zones Law No 22 of 1976, a national legislation to provide for the declaration of the territorial sea and other maritime zones of Sri Lanka, proclaims several zones for national use. These are historic waters, territorial waters, contiguous zone, exclusive economic zone (EEZ), bilateral boundaries, continental margin, continental shelf (Survey Dept., 2007). The Palk Bay, Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar are proclaimed as historic waters on the basis of traditional use by Sri Lankans.

The territorial sea extends for 12 nautical miles from the baseline and 21,500 km2

and is the area over which Sri Lanka asserts its sovereign rights (UN, 2002 in litt. Survey Dept., 2007; Joseph, 2003).

The contiguous zone extends to a distance of 24 nautical miles (Joseph, 2003).

The Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extends to a distance of 200 nautical miles from the baseline (except at the maritime boundary with India) and is 517,000 km2 in extent, 7.8 times the total area of the country (Joseph, 2003). Within the EEZ, Sri Lanka ‘asserts, among others, sovereign rights to explore, exploit, conserve and manage natural resources, both living and non-living and, exclusive rights to authorize regulate and control scientific research’ (Joseph, 2003). A pollution prevention zone coincides with the EEZ as laid out in the Maritime Zones Law No 22 of 1976 and the Marine Pollution Prevention Law No. 59 of 1981. The continental shelf area is 44,250 km2. The only bilateral boundary is with India (Joseph, 2003).

Figure 10 Diagram illustrating the definition of the maritime zone

(Source: CZMP, 2006)


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Under the United Nations Convention of Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), Sri Lanka is also making preparations to claim additional extent of sea bed area, which is expected to be nearly 23 times larger than the total land area, which can be used for exploration and exploitation of minerals and hydrocarbons resources in future. In this regard, the Delimitation of the Outer Edge of the Continental Margin of Sri Lanka (DEOCOM) project of Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources is making necessary technical and other preparations (http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/lka43_09/lka2009executivesummary.pdf).

1.1.10 The coastal zone

In Sri Lanka the coastal area is defined under the Coast Conservation Act No. 57 of 1981 for coastal resources management purposes. The Act defines the coastal zone as:

‘that area lying within a limit of three hundred metres landwards of the Mean High Water line and a limit of two kilometres seawards of the Mean Low water line and in the case of rivers, streams, lagoons, or any other body of water connected to the sea either permanently or periodically, the landward boundary shall extend to a limit of two kilometres measured perpendicularly to the straight baseline drawn between the natural entrance points thereof and shall include the waters of such rivers, streams and lagoons or any other body of water so connected to the sea’

Figure 11 Legal boundaries of the coastal zone


Typical characteristics of the shoreline of the island is given below. This is extracted directly from the Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP, 2006):

• Beach or Shore: comprises unconsolidated material and extends from the Mean

Low Water Line to the place where there is a marked change in material or physiographic form, or the line of permanent vegetation (i.e. the coastline).

• Shoreline: The intersection between the Mean High Water Line and the shore.

http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/lka43_09/lka2009executivesummary.pdf



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• Coastline: Technically the boundary between the coast and the shore; it is also the foot of the dune, or the line of permanent vegetation, or the effective limit of storm waves and storm surges. The coastline is the reference for setback lines.

• Coast: The strip of land that extends from the coastline inland to the first major change in terrain features, which are not influenced by coastal processes.

• The Coastal Waters of Sri Lanka extend from the shore to the edge of the continental shelf.

• The Offshore Waters of Sri Lanka extend from the continental shelf to the outer limits of the EEZ.

• The Mean High Water Level is defined as 0.6 m above Mean Sea Level. • The Mean Low Water Level is defined as 0.6 m below Mean Sea Level.

1.1.11 Coastal administrative divisions

Administratively, Sri Lanka is divided into 25 administrative districts, grouped into nine provinces. Fourteen of the 25 administrative districts are coastal districts and cover approximately 23% of the total land area of the country (CZMP, 2006). Within these fourteen administrative districts are 74 Divisional Secretaries Divisions with a coastal boundary. Historically, the population density has been and is weighted heavily towards the coastal region, particularly along the southern, western and north-western coastal areas.

Figure 12 Coastal districts of Sri Lanka

(Source: Adapted from Department of Census and Statistics 2011) 1.2 Coastal activities of high economic value

The coastal area of Sri Lanka represents about 24% of the island’s land area and is home to 25% of Sri Lanka’s population (CZMP, 2006), with a range of activities.


12

1.2.1 Urbanization

Urbanization is not an activity but a result of activities listed below. Because of its importance, it is included in this discussion. The coastal areas under municipal and urban councils extend over some 285 km2 comprising nearly half of such lands in the island. This has resulted in the concentration of a large share of urban growth and development activities within this region, as reflected by a high rate of construction activity — particularly in the Western Province (CZMP, 2006). It is estimated that 285 km2 of land is gazetted as municipal and urban land (CZMP, 2006).

Urbanization in Sri Lanka is characterized by a ‘low density sprawl and ribbon development’ along main roads and the coastal belt. There is a preponderance of small city centres. The highest concentration of urban population is along the western coast, where there is a contiguous urban belt north and south of Colombo, the capital (World Bank, 2012). All of six proposed metro regions lie on the coast.

The Colombo Metropolitan Region on the western coast has the highest rate of urbanization in the country, growing from 3.9 million in 1981 to 5.8 million in 2012 (35% of the national increase). This region extends over about 6% of the land area of the island, but has 28% of its population, accounts for 45% of GDP and 73% of industrial value added (World Bank. 2012).

Figure 13 Concentration of population on the coastline and proposed metro

regions

(Source: World Bank, 2012)

1.2.2 Tourism

Sri Lanka has a growing tourism industry. Since ancient times, Sri Lanka has had visitors to the island. For decades during the civil war, the tourist industry struggled to


13

keep afloat. However, since the civil war in Sri Lanka ended, there has been a robust growth in the number of tourists.

Figure 14 Sri Lanka tourist arrivals 2009-2012

(Source: Based on SLTDA statistics, Miththapala pers. comm.)

Tourism in Sri Lanka has focused primarily on scenic sandy beaches and coastal lagoons. The southern coast (southwest and south), greater Colombo (northwest) and Colombo city provides the highest room capacity (SLTDA, 2011). In Sri Lanka, coastal tourism accounts for 70% percent of the total tourism infrastructure in the country and a significant portion of the national economy.

. Figure 15 Occupancy Rates by Resort Region

(SLTDA, 2013; Black dots show coastal regions)

Figure 16 Accommodation (rooms) per region


14

(SLTDA, 2013)

Tourism ranks as the sixth largest foreign exchange earner in Sri Lanka (SLTDA, 2011). In 2011, foreign exchange earnings amounted to LKR 91,926.00 million (USD 838.9 million), an increase of 41.4% from the previous year (SLTDA, 2011). A plan of focussed development in certain tourism zones is being implemented. Five out of seven of these zones lie in coastal areas. (Figure 17). Kalpitiya, also on the coast (in the northwestern coastline), is also an area where rapid tourism development is ongoing.

Figure 17 Planned tourism zones

(Survey Dept. 2007)

1.2.3 Industries

It is estimated that 61.6 % of industrial units in Sri Lanka are found in the coastal zone (CZMP, 2006). There are over 30 coastal Divisional Secretaries divisions with industrial units; most of these units are clustered in the districts of Colombo and Gampaha, both coastal districts. District Small Industries

(Persons engaged less than 10) Medium & Large Industries

(Persons engaged 10 and more) No. of

establishments Persons engaged

No. of establishments

Persons engaged

Colombo 12,089 34,146 1,996 169,366 Gampaha 15,516 40,339 1,818 213,754 Kalutara 6,454 15,732 611 52,593 Galle 5,682 13,504 444 35,052 Matara 5,033 10,455 273 18,416


15

Table 5 Number of establishments and persons engaged by district, 2003

(Source: http://www.statistics.gov.lkindustryIndustryCensus0304tables-%20Listing%20Industrial.pdf)

Figure 18 Distribution of large industries (left) and small and medium industries (right)

(Left: Adapted from Survey Dept. 2007; right Survey Dept.)

The Board of Investment (BOI) of Sri Lanka is a central point of facilitation for investors. BOI companies employ some 451,000 people and its companies bring in 1,032.6 billion rupees worth of investments (http://www.investsrilanka.com/welcome_to_boi/about_us.html).

Also operating under the BOI are nine Export Processing Zones (EPZ) and two large scale Industrial Parks (IP) (Joseph, 2003). Two of these EPZs — in Katunayake and Koggala — and one IP —in Mirijawilla are coastal. There are also four IPs managed by the Ministry of Enterprise Development, Industrial Policy and Investment Promotion — Beliatta, Bata-atha, Ratmalana and Udukawa —in the coastal region (Joseph, 2003).

Hambantota 3,893 7,318 84 12,674 Jaffna 2,684 6,933 113 2,224 Mannar 413 1,083 20 336 Mullativu 492 1,456 36 630 Kilinochchi 441 1,188 25 732 Batticaloa 1,898 4,764 120 2,752 Amparai 3,682 8,627 174 5,297 Trincomalee 1,487 3,254 38 2,998 Puttalam 5,930 16,451 737 25,491

http://www.investsrilanka.com/welcome_to_boi/about_us.html


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There are serious economic implications from the release of untreated industrial effluents and other wastes, which affect the quality of coastal waters and the status of coastal habitats and the resources they contain.

1.2.4 Ports and harbours

Sri Lanka has six ports scattered around the coastline.

Figure 19 Ports in Sri Lanka

(Source: Compiled from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ports_in_Sri_Lanka)

The newest is Hambantota Port opened in 2010, and a seventh is planned is the east, in Oluvil. Colombo is the largest and busiest port in Sri Lanka, and is strategically placed in the Indian Ocean With a depth of about 15 m and a capacity of 4.1 million TEUs, Colombo is a busy port (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Colombo).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Colombo


17

2011 Vehicles arrived (numbers) Colombo 4,124 Galle 73 Trincomalee 126 Total cargo handled (MT’000) Colombo 62,016 Galle 464 Trincomalee 2,574 Total container traffic (TEUs ‘000) 4,263 Transhipment container (TEUs ‘000) 3,216

Table 6 Performance of port services Sri Lanka

(Source: http://www.shipperscouncil.lk/archives/articles/2011/annual-report-and-accounts-2011-2012.htm)

The net profits earned by the Sri Lankan Ports Authority in 2010 were 3,890 million LKR (30.7 million USD) (http://www.parliament.lk/papers_presented/11102012/annual_report_srilanka_ports_authority_2010.pdf).

There are small harbours — for anchoring boats — in many lagoons and estuaries. In addition, there are numerous fish landing sites dotted along the coastline.

Fisheries district Number of fish

landing sites Mannar 50 Puttalam 67 Chilaw 60 Negombo 112 Colombo 26 Kalutara 37 Galle 92 Matara 29 Tangalle 44 Kalmunai 121 Batticaloa 188 Trincomallee 81

Table 7 Number of fish landing sites per fisheries district

(Source: http://www.fisheries.gov.lk/Landing_Sites.html)

All ports, harbours and fish landing sites are possible sources of coastal and marine pollution.

1.2.5 Oil exploration

Oil exploration in Sri Lanka was commenced in the 1950s, but ceased till the 2000, when initially a Norwegian company and then in 2007, an Indian company were given licenses to drill in the Gulf of Mannar, south of Adam’s Bridge (Premarathne et al., 2013). There are several oil depots or tank farms scattered around the coast, including one just north of a popular coastal wetland, Muthurajawela marsh, which supports a lagoon and coastal fishery valued at 69,556 USD per year (Emerton, 2005).

http://www.shipperscouncil.lk/archives/articles/2011/annual-report-and-accounts-2011-2012.htm

http://www.parliament.lk/papers_presented/11102012/annual_report_srilanka_ports_authority_2010.pdf


http://www.fisheries.gov.lk/Landing_Sites.html


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Figure 20 Oil exploration areas and bulk storages


The income from export of petroleum products in 2012 was 395.1 million USD (http://www.ips.lk/staff/ed/news/2013/10_01_2013_annual_general_meeting/xeport_nce.pdf)

1.2.6 Coal power plants

Historically, Sri Lanka has relied on hydropower for the generation of electricity. When there was inadequate rain in 2001, daily power cuts — increasing up to eight hours a day — were imposed, seriously disrupting public life and the economy. Since 2011, a switch to percentage of coal power has been operational. A thermal coal-fired power plant, with infrastructure for 900 MW was constructed in Narakaliya, 2 km from the coastal Norochcholai village, in the Kalpitiya peninsula in the northwestern coast, and became operational in 2011. The plant which has a total allocated area of 250 ha, is currently operating at 300 MW of electricity. The power plant was constructed to meet shortfalls of electricity generation from hydropower, outside the monsoon season.

http://www.ips.lk/staff/ed/news/2013/10_01_2013_annual_general_meeting/xeport_nce.pdf



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Another power plant is under construction in Sampur, Trincomallee in the east coast, and another is planned in the south coast.

Figure 21 Coal power plants in Sri Lanka

(Source: Compiled from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Sri_Lanka#Coal; http://www.lankabusinessonline.com/news/Sri_Lanka_plans_500MW_coal_plant_in_South_West/92596143)

1.3 Coastal activities important for livelihoods and human well-being 1.3.1 Fisheries

Fisheries in Sri Lanka contributes about 2.7% to the GDP (Joseph, 2003), with fish and fishery products providing about 70% of the animal protein consumed in the country (Ceylon Chamber of Commerce, undated).

There are three main sub-sectors within the fisheries sector: coastal fisheries; offshore/ deep sea fisheries; and inland fisheries and aquaculture.

Coastal fisheries (those fisheries that take place within the continental shelf and are single day operations) continue to be the dominant sub-sector in terms of its contribution to production and employment.

Offshore/High seas fisheries (occurring outside the continental shelf, extending up to the edge of the EEZ and even in the high seas, by multi-day boats) has been the fastest growing sub-sector.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Sri_Lanka#Coal


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Freshwater capture fishing in irrigation tanks and reservoirs is an expanding economic activity which provides cheap protein, income and employment for rural people. Aquaculture is still in its infant stages and is limited to coastal shrimp culture and the production of fish seed for stocking; farming of food fish in seasonal tanks and ornamental fish for export are other coastal activities. The current contribution of ornamental fish to total production is quite modest (12% in 2004), yet it has potential for a fairly large increase in production.

Marine fisheries (coastal and deep sea) comprise a bulk of Sri Lanka’s fisheries (86%). Coastal fisheries accounts for more than half of the fisheries sector (53%) with deep-sea fisheries and inland fisheries contributing 33% and 14% respectively (Ceylon Chamber of Commerce, undated).

The fisheries sector is associated with 50% of the coastal population (Ceylon Chamber of Commerce, undated). There are over 180,000 fishermen (http://www.fisheriesdept.gov.lk/fisheries_beta/index.php/fisheries-statistics); 100,000 in associated service activities and 400,000 in the fish trade. There are nearly 50,000 boats plying coastal and marine waters.

IMUL: In-board multi-day boats

IDAY: One-day boats (3 ½ tonners) OFRP: Out-board fibre-reinforced plastic boats MTRB: Mechanised traditional boats NTRB: Non-mechanised traditional boats NBSB: Non-mechanised beach seine boats

Table 8 Number of boats

(Source: http://www.fisheriesdept.gov.lk/fisheries_beta/index.php/fisheries-statistics)

There are 15 fisheries harbours (12 operational), 19 anchorages and 600 minor fish landing sites along the coastline (Survey Dept., 2007).

District Number of boats No. of active

fishermen

No. of fishing

families IMUL IDAY OFRP MTRB NTRB NBSB

Colombo 59 28 260 0 311 20 1,711 1,442 Kalutara 375 5 403 0 418 26 5,366 3,477 Galle 408 38 539 382 399 59 10,956 6,980 Matara 1,026 118 742 228 767 10 13,950 13,600 Tangalle 535 31 929 131 920 124 9,435 7,899 Kalmunai 40 184 651 222 1,027 161 18,324 17,316 Batticaloa 328 88 997 3 3,430 164 25,726 2,076 Trincomallee

154 65 3,230 4 3,000 166 25,905 17,861

Mullathivu 0 0 490 1 34 4 2,327 1,821 Killinochchi 0 0 507 15 206 0 4,210 4,200 Jaffna 22 183 2,926 500 3,559 97 21,243 20,221 Mannar 9 87 1,717 185 580 28 10,650 8,282 Puttalam 85 0 2,626 164 1,536 222 11,514 9,467 Mahawewa 414 0 1,950 2 1,525 29 10,803 7,186 Negombo 403 126 1,742 5 1,773 32 8,573 7,918 Total 3,858 953 19,709 1,842 19,485 1,142 180,693 129,746

http://www.fisheriesdept.gov.lk/fisheries_beta/index.php/fisheries-statistics



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Figure 22 Fisheries harbours and fish landing sites


1.3.2 Aquaculture

Aquaculture, concentrated in the northwestern coastal belt, is also an important livelihood for coastal population. In Sri Lanka, aquaculture focuses on shrimp culture, extending over some 4,500 ha and some 1,344 farms (FAO, 2005-2013). Of these establishments, 47.7% are reported to be operating without proper licences (Siriwardena, 2001 in litt. FAO, 2005-2013). In 1998, 8,000 persons were engaged in shrimp culture, 6,388 in farms, 652 in hatcheries and 1,010 in processing factories (Hettiarachchi, 2000 in litt. Joseph, 2003).

In recent years, the export of farmed shrimp has contributed over 50% of the total export earnings from the fisheries sector (FAO, 2005-2013).


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Table 9 Export quantity and value of shrimp

(Source: http://www.naqda.gov.lk/export_quantity.php)

Shrimp aquaculture in the northwest is now declining as a consequence of pollution and the spread of disease (Joseph, 2003). It is reported that the area under farming halved in one year from 2002 to 2003 (Siriwardene, pers. comm. in litt. Joseph, 2003) and only 25% are currently operational (Perera, 2003, in litt. Joseph. 2002).

1.3.3 Agriculture

At the last national census, it was estimated that 33% of the island’s population (both men and women) were engaged in agriculture (Dept. of Census and Statistics 2010). A large area of land — a little over a third of the total land extent — is still under different forms of cultivation in Sri Lanka (Survey Department 2007). In 1995, the total cultivated land was estimated at 1,887,000ha. Of the cultivated area, 1,000,000ha were under permanent crops such as tea, rubber, and coconut. Annual crops — such as paddy, sugar cane, kurrakkan, maize, manioc, green gram, green chilies, and cowpea — covered a total area of 887,000 ha. About 17% of the coastal zone is under cultivation.

http://www.naqda.gov.lk/export_quantity.php


23

Figure 23 Land use in Sri Lanka

(Source: Survey Dept. 2007)

hectares Rice Major irrigation schemes

321,114

Minor schemes 187,935 Rain fed 263,550 Tea 210,621 Rubber 114,678 Coconut 443,951 Cinnamon 25,294 Pepper 31,378 Clove 10,690 Cardamom 4713 Nutmeg 999 Total (including others) 1,614,923

Table 10 Land cultivated under various crops

(Source: Survey Department, 2007)


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Agriculture contributed 11.2% of GDP in 2011, and agricultural exports earned 279.5 billion LKR (2.2 billion USD) in 2011 (Central Bank, 2012).

Agricultural practices are still heavily dependent on the use of pesticides, fungicides and chemical fertilisers. Tea is mostly grown in the second and third peneplain, while coconut and paddy are grown on the first peneplain, often on the coast. Given the network of rivers that flow down from the hills to the coast, much of the excessive nutrients from cultivation, as well as insecticidal and fungicidal pollutants, are washed down to the coast.

2 Overview of sources of pollution

The coastal region in Sri Lanka has been increasingly subject to pollution during the last few decades (CZMP, 2006). The underlying drivers for pollution in the coastal region are a population concentrated on the coast, and increased development activities such as tourism and industries (CZMP, 2006).

There are various types of pollutants that affect the coastal region.

Type of pollution

Key sources Adverse impacts

Faecal pollution • Municipal sewage; • Industries; • Tourist sector; • Aquaculture; • Squatter

settlements.

• Water related diseases; • Affects the growth of marine flora and fauna; • Foul odours, spoils scenic value; • May lead to anaerobic environments.

Visual pollution • Industries; • Tourist sector; • Agriculture and

aquaculture; • Squatter

settlements; • Municipal and

domestic solid waste.

• Spoils scenic value; • Affects habitats and breeding grounds of

fauna; • Affects growth of marine vegetation such as

sea grass by reducing light penetration.

Enrichment with nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus

• Municipal sewage; • Industries; • Tourist sector; • Agriculture and




• Municipal sewage; • Industries; • Tourist sector; • Agriculture and aquaculture; • Squatter settlements; • Municipal and domestic solid waste.

Organic (non-toxic and toxic) and heavy metal pollution

• Industries; • Tourist sector; • Agriculture and



• Bio-accumulation of substances that are carcinogenic or causes health hazards in marine fauna;

• Decline of biodiversity; • Persistence in the marine or coastal

environment for long periods; • Affects growth and reproduction of marine


25


fauna.

Oil pollution • Industries • Boats, ships, oil

spills and service stations

• Spoils scenic value; • Destroys marine fauna and flora.

Thermal pollution

• Power sector • Industries

• Affects benthic fauna with the formation of oil slicks and tar balls;

• Affects migration patterns of fauna; • Affects the growth of marine flora and fauna; • Causes changes in ecosystems; • Stimulates algal growth.

Table 11 Type of pollution, sources and main adverse impacts

(Source: Extracted directly from CZMP, 2006) 2.1 Land-based pollution (point and non-point source) 2.1.1 Sewage discharge

This is both a point and non-point source of pollution. Although Colombo, the capital, has a sewage system, many other cities do not (CZMP, 2006). However, even Colombo’s sewage system is about 100 years old, with one long sea outfall sited at Mutuwal and another at Wellawatte, both needing repeated repairs (CZMP, 2006, Jayaweera, Gunasekera, pers. comm.). In addition, the capacity for which it was installed has long since been exceeded and ‘the existing system is grossly inadequate to counter water pollution’ (Mubarak, 2000). In 1992, 59% of the population of Greater Colombo had on-site facilities; 19% were served by sewers and 22% had inadequate facilities (Mubarak, 2000).

The census of 2011 shows that the Colombo district has a population of 5.8 million persons, a density of 3,488 persons/km2 (the national average is 323) and 558,755 households (Dept. of Census and Statistics, 2012). Of these households, 0.1% do not use a toilet (Dept. of Census and Statistics, 2012). The CZMP (2006) deriving its information from the Central Bank Annual report of 2000, reported that ‘at the turn of the last century there were about 1,500 shanty settlements in the [Colombo] city, comprising around 66,000 households sheltering about 51% of the population’. This sector of the population is ‘under-served in respect to sanitation, safe water and waste disposal facilities’ (CZMP, 2006). Mubarak (2000) notes that there were some 300,000 persons living in slums, shanties and other semi-permanent dwellings with inadequate sanitation and another 340,000 with no sanitation facilities at all.

Using data from the MOFE (2001), Joseph (2003) reported that ‘out of a total of 370,000 m3 of wastewater generated in the Greater Colombo Area per day, 90,000 m3/day is discharged through ocean outfalls and the remaining 280,000 m3 /day re-enters the environment as wastewater’.

In rural areas, 3% of the population lacks sanitation facilities (Central Bank of Sri Lanka, 2012). Rivers can also carry sewage pollution, from non-point sources, into coastal areas.

A study by the Greening Sri Lanka Hotels project, under the aegis of the European Commission Switch Asia Program, sampling 276 hotels (61 large= ≥ 50 rooms;


26

medium and small= <50 rooms) in Sri Lanka reveals that while 92% of the large hotels had sewage treatment plants (STP), only 17% of the medium and small hotels had STPs (Switch Asia, Greening Sri Lanka Hotels Project, 2013).

The CZMP (2004) notes that

‘the adverse aspects of uncontrolled mass tourism at the start of the tourist boom are now becoming apparent in many coastal resorts where there are clusters of restaurants and guesthouses, and other major tourist centres. The near shore waters receive untreated sewage, sullage in the form of kitchen and laundry wastewater, and solid waste including plastics. This causes pollution problems, as apparent in most major tourist centres along the south and southwest coasts. Tourism expansion in Hikkaduwa, Beruwela and Unawatuna areas has led to the water quality degradation as well as visual pollution of beaches and near shore waters. The problem of sullage is particularly perceived as problem associated with large hotels. Squatter settlements connected with tourism development is another cause of concern as it contributes to faecal pollution which is a severe threat to recreational activities such as contact sports in coastal waters.’

2.1.2 Agricultural and aquaculture residues

Although traditionally, agriculture in Sri Lanka used organic practices, since independence, the use of synthetic fertilisers to increase crop production has increased steadily.

Figure 24 The increase in use of synthetic fertilisers in Sri Lanka

(Source: http://www.afaci.org/file/anboard2/2012%20Sri%20Lanka%20ppt%20Gwangju.pdf)

It is estimated that the annual average use of synthetic fertiliser in Sri Lanka is 77 kg/ha, which is 2-8 higher than the average for other Asian countries (CZMP, 2006).

Synthetic pesticides are also used heavily.

Type of chemical Volume (kl) Insecticide 624.99 Fungicide 344.98 Herbicide 11441.7 Total 12411.67

Table 12 Extent of synthetic pesticides used in Sri Lanka

(Source: http://www.afaci.org/file/anboard2/2012%20Sri%20Lanka%20ppt%20Gwangju.pdf)

http://www.afaci.org/file/anboard2/2012%20Sri%20Lanka%20ppt%20Gwangju.pdf



27

Excessive use of agrochemicals both inland and in coastal areas affect inland water courses and coastal waters, as well as ground water, resulting in both point and non-point source pollution.

Aquaculture, concentrated in the northwestern coastal belt, focuses on shrimp culture, extending over some 4,500 ha and some 1,344 farms (FAO, 2005-2013). Shrimp farms discharge polluting effluents, rich in both nutrients and sediments, into the environment. Shrimp farms take in water from, and discharge effluents to, the same water source. In order to grow as much shrimp as possible, shrimp farmers add artificial feeds with chemical additives (including chlorine) and pesticides (such as organochlorides — which persist in the environment), as well as antibiotics, to prevent shrimp disease. Most shrimp farms have no effective effluent treatment procedures and discharge their usually untreated effluent into surrounding land and/or downstream waterways. This negatively impacts on water quality and aquatic life, upon which many poorer households in particular, depend for wild fish catch, nutrition and income (IUCN, 2011). Shrimp farms also release effluents with high suspended solids (200-600 mg/l) and high BOD levels (60-180 mg/l) (Dayaratne et al., 1997). Suspended solids in water can obstruct respiration of aquatic organisms and smother eggs of aquatic fish species. In addition, suspended solids become deposited as silt and heavy siltation has already been observed in the Dutch Canal in the area. Apart from turbidity, high sulphide, nitrite and ammonia levels have been recorded. Scientists believe that these high levels of nutrients are the cause of eutrophication resulting in substantial fish deaths in the Dutch Canal (Corea et al., 1995 in litt. Dayaratne et al., 1997). It is also reported that all the canals that drain into to the Puttalam Lagoon in the northwest, are becoming eutrophic, overly-nitrified, and de-oxygenated. Water body Parameter monitored Causes of

pollution Impact

Kalu ganga (Kalutara district) (Sources: - de Alwis, 1998 - Abeynayake & Nissanka, 1992 in litt. Joseph, 2003)

• BOD upstream 6.7-7.8 mg/l;

• BOD downstream 6.2-7.1 mg/l;

• High Ammonia/ Nitrate levels;

• High E. coli counts; • BOD of 9.9 -11.5 mg/l

and 820- 1040 mg/l suspended solids in waste water from distilleries.

• Excessive nutrients from domestic sewage/ fertilizer run off.

• Increased nutrients due to upland tea/ rubber plantations.

• In sand mining areas.

Heavy mortality of fish eggs/larvae in polluted tributaries. Decreased abundance of snakehead, Olive barb, Stinging catfish, Climbing perch.

Kelani river (Sources: - de Alwis, 1991 - de Alwis, 1998 - Silva, 1996 - Dissanayake, 1988 in litt. Joseph, 2003)

• BOD 53.2 mg/l in estuary, increasing trend in downstream BOD values (4.29- 7.65 mg/l);

• Upstream BOD 7.29-7.48 mg/l at Dick Oya, Maussakelle and Karawanella;

• Very high total coliform

• Excess fertilizer run off from tea estates.

Fish kills.


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and E. coli counts and ammonia concentrations;

• High DO values (6.75-7.59 mg/l) in both upstream and downstream areas

• High nitrate and phosphates upstream.

Bolgoda Lake estuary (Sources: - Dassanayake, et al , 1991 in litt. Joseph, 2003)

• BOD values vary by tide and depth –4.46 mg/l at surface and 17.8 mg/l at the bottom.

• Organic pollution due to chemicals and pesticides from the Ratmalana industrial zone;

• Effluents from garment factories

• Decline in fish catches and skin lacerations in some species (Gobies, snakehead, Etroplus);

• Fish unfit for sale/consumption due to smell of kerosene.

Negombo estuary (Sources: - Silva, 1996 in litt. Joseph, 2003)

• Surface water DO varies from 5.54 mg/l to 9.24 mg/l;

• High BOD and Coliform counts

High organic pollution

Skin ulcerations in chromides and rabbit fish.

Table 13 Water quality and impact on fish and fisheries in selected rivers and estuaries

(Source: Extracted directly from Joseph, 2003)

2.1.3 Accumulation of solid waste

Solid waste pollution is another unsightly and unhealthy issue affecting coastal areas and coastal waters. It was estimated in 2005, that the total solid waste collected in Sri Lanka was about 2,840 tons per day, 58% of which was collected in Western Province (NSWMSC, 2007).

Province District Gross

weight of

waste collected

per day (ton)

District Percentage

(%)

Provincial total (ton)

Provincial percentage all

Island (%)

Western Colombo 1,257 44.3 1,663 58.6 Gampaha 313 11 Kalutara 93 3.3 Southern Galle 103 3.6 198 7.0 Matara 68 2.4 Hambantota 28 1.0 Northwestern Puttalam 97 3.4 170* 6.0* Eastern Amparai 57 2.0 233 8.2


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Batticaloa 119 4.2 Trincomalee 56 2.0 Northern Jaffna 71 2.5 93 3.3 Mannar 4 0.1 Kilinochchi 1 0.0 Mullaitivu 9 0.3 Total 2,276 2,187

*This figure includes tonnage from an inland district.

Table 14 Municipal solid waste collection by the local authorities in coastal districts

(Source: Adapted from NSWMSC, 2007)

Although, local authorities are now receiving technical and financial assistance from the National Solid Waste Management Support Centre (NSWMSC) of the Ministry of Local Government and Provincial Councils, many local authorities still lack adequate facilities for safe disposal of solid waste (CZMP, 2006). Dumping sites are usually open sites, and sometimes in low-lying marshes in the coastal area (CZMP, 2006).

District Less than 3 (m3) Between 3 and

10 (m3 ) Greater than 10 (m3)

Colombo (from Wellawatta to Panadura)

03 15 13

Kalutara 08 11 08 Matara 04 05 04 Gampaha 00 03 05

Table 15 Solid waste dumped in selected areas of four coastal districts

(Source: Extracted directly from CZMP, 2006)

Figure 25 Irresponsible solid waste disposal dumped near Puttalam Lagoon,

in the northwest coast


30

(Source: (Dilhari Weragodatenna © IUCN)

Figure 26 Irresponsible solid waste disposal on the banks of the Bentota Ganga

(near its mouth), southwest coast

(Source: © Sriyanie Miththapala)

Lack of sites for use for waste disposal has been a major impediment in resolving the issue of solid waste management. Numerous impacts of waste disposal that have been identified as: reduction in flood retention areas; pollution of wetland habitats, pollution of surface and ground water, creation of malodorous environments facilitating insect/mosquito breeding and other impacts on health.

Some local authorities, NGOs and the private sector have initiated waste treatment practices — such as composting of waste at household level, recycling of waste materials, incineration and landfills.

2.1.4 Sedimentation

The greatest source of increased sedimentation is from earthworks, where large quantities of earth are cleared of protecting vegetation and bare surfaces left open (Galappatti, pers. comm.). With the first rains, massive quantities of mud are washed into rivers and are carried into estuaries and lagoons (IUCN, 2011b). In addition, development activities — such as building construction and road development — increase impermeable surfaces and enhance the flow of water and sediment into the coastal zone following rainfall. With the current thrust of accelerated development after the cessation of the civil war, infrastructure development has increased greatly.


31

Another major source of increased sedimentation is deforestation in catchment areas, where, again, tracts of bare earth are left to the elements, unprotected (IUCN, 2011b). Increased sedimentation also increases the extent of suspended material in water bodies so that the turbidity increases. Increased turbidity decreases the sunlight reaching the water column below the surface. This profoundly affects the bottom water layers, as well as the benthic organisms and coastal habitats such as seagrass meadows and coral reefs. As a result, entire food webs in coastal waters can become negatively impacted by sedimentation (Kennish and Paerl, 2010).

2.1.5 Industrial effluents

Although there are standards for discharge of industrial effluents, discharges to near shore waters, lagoons and estuaries are often made with little or no treatment (CZMP, 2006). Most of the industries located in the coastal region are either medium or low polluting industries; in 1994, there were 336 industries with high or medium potential in the coastal zone (CZMP, 2006). Textile, paper, tanning, metal finishing and engineering, paint, chemical, food and beverage, distillery industries contribute most to water pollution (CZMP, 2006). Many industries do not have the capacity for waste treatment: only the two Export Processing Zones at Katunayake and Biyagama have central wastewater treatment facilities (CZMP, 2006).

Type of industry or process

No. of units

Total waste water

load (m3/day)

Estimated pollution load (kg/day) BOD5 COD Total toxic

metals

Textiles 41 7,100 4,970 11,360 — Food and beverages

47 4,111 6,166 12,333 —

desiccated coconut

53 1,200 4,200 7,200 —

Rubber processing

229 4,840 9,670 29,040 —

Tanning 15 750 2,000 5,200 — Metal finishing and preparation

76 6,692 — — 669*

Paints and chemicals

33 928 — — 92.8*

— Not measured; * based on assumed average concentration of 100 mg/l

Table 16 Waste loads from industries located in coastal areas with high or medium pollution



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Lunawa lagoon, just south of Colombo on the western coast, has been ruined by industrial pollution (Mubarak, 2000). There are about seven large and 14 small industries (for dyeing and finishing textiles and garments, washing plants and manufacturing footwear) directly discharging their effluents into the lagoon. This lagoon once supported a fishery industry (with > 100 brush piles, fish catch 50 kg/boat/day) but is too highly polluted now to do so.

Parameter Unit Range Turbidity NTU 7.9-19.5 Conductivity ms/cm 0.9-17.4 Salinity ppt 0-7.5 pH 6.7-8.3 DO mg/l 0.5-18 Nitrate N mg/l 0.11-5.7* Phosphate mg/l 0.11-0.78* Ammoniacal N mg/l 0.38-26.0 BOD mg/l 1.3-82 Organic matter mg/l 14-62 Oil and grease mg/l 696-2,804** Lead mg/l 0.002-0.005+ Zinc mg/l 0.016-0.1+ Manganese mg/l 0.019-0.34+ Copper mg/l 0.01-0.06+

*far in excess of acceptable levels leading to eutrophication. **considered extremely high +concentrations estimated to be high.

Table 17 Selected water quality parameters of Lunawa lagoon

(Source: Extracted directly from Mubarak, 2000)

2.1.6 Fish waste

Careless disposal of fish waste and discards of by-catch results in accumulation of fish waste in fisheries harbours and fish landing sites throughout the coast. This can cause high COD levels in associated coastal waters (CZMP, 2006).


33

Figure 27 Trash fish at a fish landing site

(Source: © Terney Pradeep Kumara)

2.1.7 Thermal pollution

Sri Lanka has relied on hydropower but in recent times, has augmented power generation from coal. In the last few years, the ratio of hydropower to thermal power has been 33.6: 60.4 (2009); 46.2: 46.8 (2010); 36.6: 63.4 (2012), showing an increasing reliance on thermal power (http://www.info.energy.gov.lk/)

There are concerns from environmental groups that hot water discharged from the operational coal power plant at Norochchalai will damage and destroy marine organisms. However no data is currently available to assess the likely impacts (IUCN, 2011).

2.2 Sea/marine-based pollution

Sea/marine-based pollution can ensue from several sources. 2.2.1 Marine litter

Marine and beach litter in Sri Lanka are found along the beaches and shores, on the water surface, in the water column and on the seabed, along the shores of lagoons and estuaries. They can be found near the source of input but also can be transported over a long distances with sea currents and winds. The shorelands where river or canals discharge are locations where marine litter is seen in significant quantities. This phenomenon is very evident around Kelani Ganga river mouth, and Wellawatte and Dehiwala canal outlets in Colombo.


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Main sea-based

sources

Coastal-based sources Inland-based sources

Merchant shipping, ferries and cruise liners;

Tourist resorts and hotels Discharge of untreated municipal sewage and storm water (including occasional overflows)

Fishing

vessels Restaurants and boutiques found along the coastal belt

Riverine transport of waste from landfill sites (authorised), waste dumps (unauthorized) or other sources along rivers and other inland waterways (canals).

Recreational activities (such as diving, boating and other water sports)

Domestic waste From indiscriminate dumping sites in marsh lands and other low lying wetlands areas.

Military fleets and research vessels

Fishery harbours, fish anchorages, and fish landing sites

Offshore oil and gas platforms

Urban centres bordering the coast

Coastal aquaculture

Illegal dumping of domestic and industrial waste along the shore

Table 18 Types of marine litter

(Source: Adapted from UNEP, 2009) A general inventory of the types of marine litter was attempted using personal experiences, information from relevant organisations through personal contacts, information obtained from other researchers, environmentalists and other personnel, through informal procedures. Marine litter observed along the coastline on beaches, fishery harbours and the port environment in Sri Lanka include vast category of items. They are classified as follows:

Category of litter

General inventory of marine and beach litter found in Sri Lanka

Polythene Shopping bags and their fragments; Packaging bags; Wrappers of soap, butter, toffee, chocolates.

Plastics

Drinking water bottles; Juice bottles; Shampoo bottles; Yogurt and ice cream cups; Small and medium sized sachet packs of milk powder, milk, shampoo, hair gel, washing powder; Small plastic spoons; Broken pieces of containers; Pieces of plastic sheets; Parts of plastic story books; Torn Rexene covers; Tooth paste tubes; Medicine tubes; Toys of various kinds; Broken plastic buckets;


35

Cargo strap bands. Polystyrene

Cups and plates; Discarded food packaging boxes; Regifoam pieces; Sponges.

Rubber

Used garden gloves; Disposable medical gloves; Damaged boots; Used tyres of various kinds including car, bicycle and motor cycle.

Wood

Waste from construction timber, pieces of plywood; Small decayed logs; Broken pieces of chairs, tables and other furniture.

Metals Drink cans; Used perfume aerosol containers; Small pieces of scrap metal; Old and corroded vehicle parts of various nature; Old car/lorry frames.

Discarded medical and sanitary equipment

Sanitary napkins; Tampons; Baby and adult diapers; Condoms; Baby soothers.

Sewage-related debris

Faeces deposited by people living in squatter and shanty settlements adjacent to shores, visitors and domestic animals.

Paper and cardboard

Discarded exercise books; Parts of school text and story books; Packaging boxes of various products like milk food packs, perfume bottles etc.

Glass Empty/broken beer bottles and other liquor (mainly arrack) bottles; Medicine bottles; Light bulbs and tubelights; Discarded / broken jam bottles and cordial bottles.

Tins Empty canned fish tins; Parts of drums from tar and chemical containers; Engine oil containers.

Fishery sector Fish offal from landing sites and wayside fish markets; Discarded and torn fishing nets; Fishing boxes; Ropes; Discarded buoys and other floating devices used in fishing craft; Fibre glass pieces.

Tetra packs Waxed milk cartons; Fruit juice cartons.

Discarded biodegradable waste

Fruit peel; Coconut husks and shells; Cut tree branches; Old banana trees; Dried coconut leaves.

Waste from households

Used torn cloth; Hats and caps; Cut pieces from garment factories and tailoring places; Pieces of old PVC pipes and connections; Parts of toilet cisterns; Discarded brooms and brushes; Broken/ damage footwear; Cigarettes butts; Discarded cigarette lighters; Packaging/ wrappers of cigarettes; Discarded aluminium cooking utensils.


36

Building materials

Discarded/demolished building materials – broken cement blocks and bricks, parts of brick and cement block walls.

Pottery/Ceramic

Broken sanitary ware and wash basins, flower vases, old pottery items.

Used batteries

Pen torch batteries (AA and AAA size); Broken pieces of car battery.

Table 19 General inventory of marine and beach litter observed in Sri Lanka

(Source: Amzy 2002) 2.2.2 Minor oil discharges and ballast water

There are daily minor oil discharges and slicks from the discharge of oil in bilge and ballast waters, cleaning and maintenance of ship near ports and boats near fishing harbours (CZMP, 2006; Pradeep Kumara, Gunasekera, pers. comm.). Waste oil released from ships in the Colombo harbour has increased from 879 tonnes in 1997 to 1,258 tonnes in 1998 (Joseph, 2003). Boats with two-stroke outboard engines are common in Sri Lanka and 35% of unburned oil is discharged from these engines into the sea (Gunasekera, pers. comm.). While these often do not cause major impacts, there is visual pollution and this reduces the scenic value of Sri Lanka’s beaches (CZMP, 2006).

Ballast water is also known to be a major pathway for marine invasive alien species (http://globallast.imo.org/). There is no control yet of ships’ ballast water, although Sri Lanka is a signatory to MARPOL (Gunasekera, pers. comm.).

2.2.3 Oil spills

Sri Lanka’s position in the Indian Ocean and its proximity to the main East-West shipping route, used by ships trading to and from the industrial centres of the Far East and the West, makes it vulnerable to oil spills (MEPA, 2008). In itself, this shipping route has been found to be highly polluted. Data from NASA’s Aura satellite show routes of elevated nitrogen dioxide (NO2) levels along certain shipping routes, and this signal is most prominent in the East-West shipping route between Sri Lanka and Singapore, appearing as a distinct orange line against (lighter) background levels of NO2 (http://climate.nasa.gov/news/860).

http://globallast.imo.org/

http://climate.nasa.gov/news/860


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Figure 28 Highly polluted East-West shipping lane

(Source: http://climate.nasa.gov/news/860)

With the commencement of oil exploration in the Gulf of Mannar (See section on Oil exploration), there is now a potential for pollution from the process of extraction (Pradeep Kumara, pers. comm.).

There have been several oil spills in the recent past and they are dealt with in a later section. (See under Oil pollution, oil spills and ecological impacts of oil pollution).

2.2.4 Priority categories of parameters

The CZMP of 2006 lists six categories of pollutants as being important in coastal zone pollution. The first three categories listed are faecal pollution, visual pollution and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus (See section called Overview of sources of pollution).

3 Existing water and sediment quality objectives and targets

Water quality standards are laid out by the Central Environmental Authority (CEA) under the National Environmental Act (NEA) and its regulations.

Water quality standards for tolerance limits for industrial and domestic waste discharge into marine and coastal areas are given in List III of the NEA (Gazette Notification No.



38

1534/18 dated 01.02.2008) (http://www.cea.lk/pdf/G%201534_18.pdf) and are listed in Table 20.

No. Parameter Unit

type of limit Tolerance Limit

values 1 Total suspended solids mg/l, max 150 2 Particle size of

a. Floatable solids, max b. Settable solids, max

mm,max µm, max

3 mm

850 3 pH range at ambient temperature - 5.5-9.0 4 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 in five days

at 200C or BOD3 in three days at 270C, mg/l, max 100

5 Temperature 0Cmax 450C at the point of discharge

6 Oils and grease mg/l, max 20 7 Phenolic compounds (as Phenolic OH) mg/l, max 5.0 8 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), mg/l max 250 9 Total residual Chlorine mg/l, max 1.0 10 Ammoniacal Nitrogen (as N) mg/l max 50.0 11 Cyanide (as CN) mg/l, max 0.2 12 Sulphides (as S) mg/l, max 5.0 13 Fluorides (as F) mg/l, max 15 14 Arsenic (as As) mg/l, max 0.2 15 Cadmium (as Cd) mg/l, max 2.0 16 Chromium total (as Cr) mg/l, max 2.0 17 Chromium, Hexavalent (as Cr6+) mg/l, max 1.0 18 Copper (as Cu) mg/l, max 3.0 19 Lead (as Pb) mg/l, max 1.0 20 Mercury (as Hg) mg/l, max 0.01 21 Nickel (as Ni) mg/l, max 5.0 22 Selenium (as Se) mg/l, max 0.1 23 Zinc (as Zn) mg/l, max 5.0 24 Pesticides mg/l, max 0.005 25 Organo-phosphorous compounds mg/l, max 1.0 26 Chlorinated hyrocarbons (as Cl) mg/l, max 0.02 27 Faecal coliform MPN/100ml, max 60 28 Radioactive material

(a) Alpha emitters (b) Beta emitters

µ curie/ml, max µ curie/ml, max

10-8 10-7

Note 1: All efforts should be made to remove unpleasant odour and colour as far as practicable. Note 2: These values are based on dilution of effluents by at least 8 volumes of clean receiving water. If the dilution is below 8 times, the permissible limits are multiplied by the 1/8 of the actual dilution.

Table 20 Tolerance limits for industrial/ domestic waste discharged into marine coastal areas

(Source: http://www.cea.lk/pdf/G%201534_18.pdf)

Water quality standards for tolerance limits for industrial and domestic waste discharge into inland surface waters (which have a bearing on marine and coastal areas as rivers flow into the sea) are given in Schedule I of the NEA (Gazette Notification No. 1534/18 dated 01.02.2008) (http://www.cea.lk/pdf/G%201534_18.pdf) and are in Table 21.

http://www.cea.lk/pdf/G%201534_18.pdf




39

No. Parameter Unit type of limit

Tolerance Limit values

1 Total suspended solids mg/l, max 50 2 Particle size of total suspended solids µm, less than 850 3 pH range at ambient temperature - 6.0-8.5 4 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 in five days

at 200C or BOD3 in three days at 270C mg/l, max 30

5 Temperature of dishcarge 0Cmax Shall not exceed 400C in any section of the

stream within 15 m downstream from the

effluent outlet 6 Oils and grease mg/l, max 10 7 Phenolic compounds (as C6H5OH) mg/l, max 1.0 8 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), mg/l max 250 9 Colour wavelength range

436 nm (yellow range)

525 nm (red range)

620 nm (blue range)

maximum spectral absorption coefficient

7m-1

5m-1

3m-1

10 Dissolved phosphates (as P) mg/l max 5 11 Total Kjeldahl nitirogen (as N) mg/l max 150 12 Ammoniacal Nitrogen (as N) mg/l max 50.0 13 Cyanide (as CN) mg/l, max 0.2 14 Total residual chlorine mg/l, max 1.0 15 Fluorides (as F) mg/l, max 2.0 16 Sulphides (as S) mg/l, max 2.0 17 Arsenic (as As) mg/l, max 0.2 18 Cadmium (as Cd) mg/l, max 0.1 19 Chromium total (as Cr) mg/l, max 0.5 20 Chromium, Hexavalent (as Cr6+) mg/l, max 0.1 21 Copper (as Cu) mg/l, max 3.0 22 Iron (as Fe) mg/l, max 3.0 23 Lead (as Pb) mg/l, max 0.1 24 Mercury (as Hg) mg/l, max 0.0005 25 Nickel (as Ni) mg/l, max 3.0 26 Selenium (as Se) mg/l, max 0.05 27 Zinc (as Zn) mg/l, max 2.0 28 Pesticides mg/l, max 0.005 29 Detergents/surfactants mg/l, max 5 30 Faecal coliform MPN/100ml, max 40 28 Radioactive material

(c) Alpha emitters (d) Beta emitters


10-8 10-7

Note 1: All efforts should be made to remove unpleasant odour as much as possible. Note 2: These values are based on dilution of effluents by at least 8 volumes of clean receiving water. If the dilution is below 8 times, the permissible limits are multiplied by the 1/8 of the actual dilution. Note 3: The above mentioned standards shall cease to apply with regard to a particular industry when industry specific standards are notified for that industry. Note 4: Pesticides as per World Health Organization (WHO) and Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) requirements.

Table 21 Tolerance limits for industrial/ domestic discharged into inland surface waters




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Water quality standards for tolerance limits for industrial waste discharged on land for irrigation purposes (important as nutrients from agriculture have been identified as a coastal pollutant) are given in List II of the NEA (Gazette Notification No. 1534/18 dated 01.02.2008) (http://www.cea.lk/pdf/G%201534_18.pdf) and are listed below. No. Parameter Unit


values 1 Total dissolved solids mg/l, max

2100

2 pH range at ambient temperature - 5.5-9.0 3 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 in

five days at 200C or BOD3 in three days at 270C

mg/l, max 250

4 Oils and grease mg/l, max 10 5 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), mg/l, max 400 6 Chlorides (as Cl) mg/l, max 600 7 Sulphates (as SO4) mg/l, max 1000 8 Boron (as B) mg/l, max 2.0 9 Arsenic (as As) mg/l, max 0.2 10 Cadmium (as Cd) mg/l, max 2.0 11 Chromium total (as Cr) mg/l, max 1 12 Lead (as Pb) mg/l, max 1.0 13 Mercury (as Hg) mg/l, max 0.01 14 Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) 10-15 15 Residual sodium carbonate (RSC) mol/l,max 2.5 16 Electrical conductivity µS/cm, max 2250 17 Faecal coliform MPN/100ml, max 40 18 Copper (as Cu) mg/l, max 1.0 19 Cyanide (as CN) mg/l, max 0.2 20 Radioactive material



10-8 10-7

Soil texture class

Recommended dosage of settled industrial effluents (m3/ha,day)

1 Sandy 225-280 2 Sandy loam 170-225 3 Loam 110-170 4 Clay loam 55-110 5 Clay 35-55

Table 22 Tolerance limits for industrial waste discharged on land for irrigation purposes


Water quality standards for tolerance limits for waste from rubber factories discharged into inland surface waters (which wend their way to the coast) are given in List IV of the NEA (Gazette Notification No. 1534/18 dated 01.02.2008) (http://www.cea.lk/pdf/G%201534_18.pdf) and are listed in Table 23.





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No. Parameter Unit


values Type I*

factories Type II** factories

1 pH range at ambient temperature

- 6.5-8.5 6.5-8.5

2 Total suspended solids mg/l, max 100 100 3 Total solids mg/l, max 1500 1000 4 Biochemical oxygen demand

(BOD5 in five days at 200C or BOD3 in three days at 270C

mg/l, max 60 50

5 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD),

mg/l, max 400 400

6 Total Nitrogen (as N) mg/l, max 300 60 7 Ammoniacal Nitrogen (as N) mg/l max 300 40 8 Sulphides (as S) mg/l, max 2.0 2.0

*Type I factories – Latex concentrate **Type II factories – Standard Lanka rubber; crepe rubber and ribbed smoked sheets Note 1: All efforts should be made to remove unpleasant odour and colour as far as practicable. Note 2: These values are based on dilution of effluents by at least 8 volumes of clean receiving water. If the dilution is below 8 times, the permissible limits are multiplied by the 1/8 of the actual dilution.

Table 23 Tolerance limits for waste from rubber factories discharged to inland surface waters


Water quality standards for tolerance limits for waste from textiles industries being discharged into inland surface waters (which wend their way to the coast) are given in List V of the NEA (Gazette Notification No. 1534/18 dated 01.02.2008) (http://www.cea.lk/pdf/G%201534_18.pdf) and are listed below

No. Parameter Unit


values 1 pH range at ambient

temperature - 6.5-8.5

2 Temperature °C, max 40° measured at the site of sampling

3 Total suspended solids mg/l, max

50

4 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 in five days at 200C or BOD3 in three days at 270C

mg/l, max 60

5 Colour wavelength range


525 nm (red range)

620 nm (blue range)


7m-1

5m-1

3m-1

6 Oils and grease mg/l, max 10 7 Phenolic compounds (a Phenolic

OH) mg/l, max 1.0

8 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD),

mg/l, max 250

9 Sulphides (as S) mg/l, max 2.0




42

10 Chromium total (as Cr) mg/l, max 2.0 11 Hexavalent Chromium (Cr+6) mg/l, max 0.5 12 Copper (as Cu) mg/l, max 3.0 13 Zinc (as Zn) mg/l, max 5.0 14 Ammoniacal Nitrogen (as N) mg/l, max 60 15 Chlorides (as Cl) mg/l, max 70

Note 1: All efforts should be made to remove unpleasant odour as much as possible. Note 2: These values are based on dilution of effluents by at least 8 volumes of clean receiving water. If the dilution is below 8 times, the permissible limits are multiplied by the 1/8 of the actual dilution.

Table 24 Tolerance limits for waste from textile factories discharged into inland surface

waters


Water quality standards for tolerance limits for waste being discharged from tanning industries are given in List VI of the NEA (Gazette Notification No. 1534/18 dated 01.02.2008) (http://www.cea.lk/pdf/G%201534_18.pdf) and are listed below

No. Parameter Unit type of limit

Tolerance Limit Values for

effluents discharged into

inland waters

Tolerance Limit Values for effluents

discharged into marine coastal

areas 1 pH range at ambient

temperature - 5.5-9.0 5.5-9.0

2 Total suspended solids

mg/l, max

100 150

3 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 in five days at 200C or BOD3 in three days at 270C

mg/l, max 60 100

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD),

mg/l, max 250 300

5 Colour wavelength range


525 nm (red range)

620 nm (blue range)


7m-1

5m-1

3m-1

-

-

- 6 Alkalinity (as CaCO3) mg/l, max 750 - 7 Chlorides (as Cl) mg/l, max 1000 - 8 Hexavalent Chromium

(Cr+6) mg/l, max 0.5 0.5

9 Chromium total (as Cr) mg/l, max 2.0 2.0 10 Oils and grease mg/l, max 10 20 11 Phenolic compounds

(a Phenolic OH) mg/l, max 1.0 5.0

12 Sulphides (as S) mg/l, max 2.0 5.0

Note 1: All efforts should be made to remove unpleasant odour as much as possible. Note 2: These values are based on dilution of effluents by at least 8 volumes of clean receiving water. If the dilution is below 8 times, the permissible limits are multiplied by the 1/8 of the actual dilution.

Table 25 Tolerance limits for waste from being discharged from tanning industries






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Water quality standards for tolerance limits for discharge of effluents into public sewers with central treatment plants are given in List VII of the NEA (Gazette Notification No. 1534/18 dated 01.02.2008) (http://www.cea.lk/pdf/G%201534_18.pdf) and are listed below

No. Parameter Unit


values 1 Total suspended solids mg/l, max

500

2 pH range at ambient temperature - 5.5-10.0 3 Temperature 0Cmax 45 4 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5 in

five days at 200C or BOD3 in three days at 270C

mg/l, max 350

5 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), mg/l max 850 6 Total Kjedahl Nitrogen (as N) mg/l max 500 7 Free Ammonia (as N) mg/l max 50 8 Ammoniacal Nitrogen (as N) mg/l max 50 9 Cyanide (as CN) mg/l, max 2 10 Total residual chlorine mg/l, max 3.0 11 Chlorides (as Cl) mg/l, max 900 12 Fluorides (as F) mg/l, max 20 13 Sulphides (as S) mg/l, max 5.0 14 Sulphates (as SO4) mg/l, max 1000 15 Arsenic (as As) mg/l, max 0.2 16 Cadmium (as Cd) mg/l, max 1.0 17 Chromium total (as Cr) mg/l, max 2.0 18 Copper (as Cu) mg/l, max 3.0 19 Lead (as Pb) mg/l, max 1 20 Mercury (as Hg) mg/l, max 0.005 21 Nickel (as Ni) mg/l, max 0.05 22 Selenium (as Se) mg/l, max 0.05 23 Zinc (as Zn) mg/l, max 5.0 24 Pesticides mg/l, max 0.2 25 Detergents/surfactants mg/l, max 50 26 Phenolic compounds (as phenolic OH) mg/l, max 5.0 27 Oil and grease l mg/l, max 30 28 Radioactive material


micro curie/ml,

max micro curie/ml,

max

10-8 10-7

Notes: The following conditions should be met:

o Discharge of high viscous material should be prohibited. o Calcium Carbide sludge should not be discharged. o Substances producing inflammable vapours should be absent.

There are also drinking water standards laid down by the Sri Lanka Standards institute (www.investsrilanka.com/pdf/environmental_norms.pdf (.

Parameter Highest Desirable level Maximum

permissible level A. Physico-Chemical Electrical conductivity at 250C μs/cm 750 3500 Total solids (mg/l) 500 2000 Colour (Hazen Units) 5 30



44

Taste Unobjectionable - Odour Unobjectionable - Turbidity (NTU) 2 8 Chloride (Cl-) (mg/l) 200 1200 Fluoride (F-) (mg/l) - 1.5 Iron (Fe) (mg/l) 0.3 1 Manganese (Mn) (mg/l) 0.05 0.5 Copper (Cu) (mg. I) 0.05 1.5 Zinc (Zn) (mg/l) 5 15 Calcium (Ca) (mg/l) 100 240 Magnesium (Mg) (mg/l) 30 150 Total Phosphates (PO4) (mg/l) - 2.0 Sulphate (SO4) (mg/l) 200 400 Total Alkalinity (as CaC03) (mg/l) 200 400 Total Hardness (as CaC03) (mg/l) 250 600 Free Ammonia (as NH3) (mg/l) - 0.06 Nitrate (NO3) (mg/l) - 45 Nitrite (NO2) (mg/l) - 0.01 pH 7.0 – 8.5 6.5 – 9.0 Arsenic (As) (mg/l) - 0.05 Cadmium (Cd) (mg/l) - 0.005 Chromium (Cr) (mg/l) - 0.05 Cyanide (Cn-) (mg/l) - 0.05 Lead (Pb) (mg/l) - 0.05 Mercury (Hg) (mg/l) - Mercury 0.001 Selenium (Se) (mg/l) - 0.01 Free Residual Chlorine (as Chlorine) (mg/l)

- 0.2

Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (mg/l)

- 0.0002

Phenolic compounds (as phenolic OH) (mg/l)

0.001 0.002

Grease and Oil (mg/l) - 1.0 COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) (mg/l)

- 10

Radioactive materials Gross alpha radioactivity (pC/I) - 3 Gross beta radioactivity (pC/I) - 30 B. Bacteriological Total Coliforms / 100 ml Absent in

(i) 95% of the samples in a year and (ii) in any two consecutive samples

10

E.coli/100ml Absent Absent

Table 26 Drinking water standards (Sri Lanka Standards for potable water – SLS 614, 1983)

(Source: www.investsrilanka.com/pdf/environmental_norms.pdf (


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4 The National Programme — Coastal Ocean Monitoring and Prediction System

4.1 Mapping hotspots along the coast

The Coast Conservation Department (CCD) in its coastal zone management plan of 2006, identified coastal pollution as an issue that needed focussed attention (CZMP, 2006). A proposed action in the CZMP is the ‘initiation of a water quality monitoring programme to check ambient water quality in the coastal waters to capture high incidence of pollution and help identify polluting industries in the area; Identify low and high polluting development activities in the coastal region and prepare a database in collaboration with the CEA.’

Table 27 Coastal water pollution at selected sites (Jayaweera, 2003)

(Source: Extracted directly from Joseph, 2003)

Under the aegis of the then the Ministry of Fisheries and Ocean Resources, the University of Moratuwa, conducted a one-year study water quality monitoring study for

Parameter Marawila Beruwala Unawatuna Total suspended solids (mg/l)

High levels during rains and low levels during dry periods

High during southwest monsoon due to accumulation of pollutants along the shore by wave and current action

Dissolved Oxygen DO (mg/l)

Above permissible levels

High for all beneficial uses all year

High for all beneficial uses all year

Chemical Oxygen Demand COD (mg/l)

High in April-May due to release of pesticides and fertilizer

Similar pattern all year High in southwest monsoon due to trapping by wave and current actions

Biochemical Oxygen Demand BOD (mg/l)

High mainly due to run off from catchment area

High in both monsoons and due to tourism in November-December

High in southwest monsoon due to trapping by wave and current actions

Total Nitrogen (N-mg/l)

Mostly within limits High on occasions due to fertilizer

Within permissible limits High values in September-October period

Within permissible limits

Total phosphorus (P- mg/l)




Oil & grease (mg/l) High during northeast monsoon

Slight pollution from August to January

High levels during certain periods

Total and faecal coliform

High in November- December due to enhanced tourism

Faecal pollution apparent in December- January due to tourism

High. Water unsuitable for contact sports.

Heavy metals and organochlorine

Low and no threat Low and no threat Low and no threat


46

the Coastal Resources Management Project (CRMP) (Joseph, 2003). This study covered 13 sites from Norachcholai (in the Puttalam district, northwestern province) to Mirijjawila (in the Hambantota district, southern province). Their results are summarised below for three locations: Marawila (northwest), Beruwela and Unawatuna (southwest). Listed in Joseph (2003) are several lagoons and estuaries subjected to water quality studies. These are: Kelaniya estuary, Negombo estuary, Bolgoda lake estuary, Koggala lagoon, Rekawa lagoon, Malala lagoon, Embilikala lagoon, Batticaloa lagoon and Puttalam lagoon (Joseph, 2003). Under the actions proposed in the CZMP (2006), the University of Moratuwa and the CCD have completed a study of water quality parameters in Nilaweli (Trincomalee District, eastern coast), Arugam Bay (Amparai District, eastern coast), Polhena (Matara District, southern coast), Unawatuna (Galle District, southwestern coast), Hikkaduwa (Galle District, southwestern coast), and Mt. Lavinia (Colombo District, western coast) (Perera, Jayaweera, pers. comm.). These data are currently being analysed and the final report is not yet available.

4.2 Time series analysis and significant findings

Studies on water quality in Sri Lanka have largely been isolated, single-effort projects. It is only now that the CCD, in collaboration with other agencies, is beginning to analyse coastal areas around the island to identify hotspots. (See Mapping hotspots along the coast.) Therefore, there are no long-term data for analysis over time.

4.3 The role of Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Fisheries

The Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy, previously called by various names such as the Ministry of Environment and the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, was established in 1990. It remains ‘committed to the management of the environment and natural resources of the country, maintaining the equilibrium between the trends in rapid economic development and use of natural resource base’ (http://www.environmentmin.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=125&Itemid=27&lang=en). It is the prime policy-making entity with regard to any matters related to environment in the country. It is responsible for the ‘National Environment Policy and Strategy’, ‘Caring for the Environment’, ‘Greening Lanka’ and the ‘National Strategy for the Solid Waste Management’. Principles detailed in the National Environmental Policy and Strategies advocate ‘the polluter pays’ concept and encourage reduction of consumption, recycling and reusing of materials to the maximum extent. Further it elaborates environmental strategies for key economic sectors including fisheries, coastal and marine area management. The National Strategy for the Solid Waste Management includes waste avoidance, reusing and recycling of waste and energy recovery. The Marine Environmental Protection Agency (MEPA), the apex body entrusted with preventing marine pollution in Sri Lankan waters, comes under the purview of the Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy. The Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources is responsible for formulating the national fisheries and aquatic resources policy. One of its policy objectives is to conserve the aquatic environment. Under the aegis of the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources comes the Department of the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (DFAR), responsible for implementing the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act, No. 2


47

of 1996. This act provides for the management, regulation, conservation and development of fisheries and aquatic resources in Sri Lanka. One of its provisions is the declaration of fisheries reserves and provisions to manage designated fisheries through stakeholder committees. Four fisheries management areas have been designated and these areas may be managed, in the future to prevent pollution. Also under the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, is the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency (NARA) mandated to conduct research in aquatic resources. For several years now, NARA has been conducting research on water quality of coast areas.

4.4 National Laboratories

There are several major laboratories that carry out research at a national level (http://www.cea.lk/pdf/lablist2013.pdf). Those registered with the CEA for water quality monitoring are:

• The CEA laboratory itself (main and a branch in Polgolla): carries out analyses on

water, wastewater, noise and air quality. • Anala Laboratory Services (Pvt) Ltd; carries out analyses on water, wastewater

and soil. • Aqua Technologies (Pvt) Ltd: carries out analyses on water and wastewater. • Bamber and Bruce (Pvt) Ltd: carries out analyses on water, wastewater, microbial

and soil. • Board of Investment of Sri Lanka: carries out analyses on water, wastewater and

noise. • Centre for Scientific and Industrial Research (Pvt ) Ltd: carries out analyses on

water, wastewater and soil. • Coconut Development Authority: carries out analyses on water, wastewater and

microbial. • Environmental Engineering Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, University

of Moratuwa, has been working closely with the Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy, the Central Environmental Authority, CCD and other universities in water, wastewater and soil quality monitoring.

• Environmental Engineering Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Peradeniya: carries out analyses on water and wastewater.

• Environmental Laboratory and Consultancy Services (ELCS): carries out analyses on water, wastewater, noise and air quality.

• Geocycle Analytical Laboratory: carries out analyses on water, wastewater, hazardous waste and alternative fuels.

• Geological Survey and Mines Bureau: carries out analyses on noise, ground vibration and air blast over pressure.

• Global Scientific Laboratories (Pvt) Ltd: carries out analyses on water and wastewater.

• Industrial Services Bureau: carries out analyses on water and wastewater, air quality, noise and stack emission.

• Industrial Solutions Lanka (Pvt.) Ltd: carries out analyses on water and wastewater, air quality and noise.

• The Industrial Technology Institute (ITI), the pioneer Scientific Research and Development organization in Sri Lanka; successor to the Ceylon Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research (CISIR), coming under the purview of the


48

Ministry of Technology and Research, carries out analyses of water, wastewater, air quality, noise, solid waste and hazardous waste.

• Intertek Lanka (Pvt.) Ltd: carries out analyses of water and wastewater. • Lalanka Laboratory Services (Pvt) Ltd.: carries out analyses of water and

wastewater. • Lindel Industrial Laboratories Limited: carries out analyses of water, wastewater

and air quality. • Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka: carries out analyses of water and wastewater. • Microchem Laboratories (Pvt) Ltd.: carries out analyses on water, wastewater and

microbiology. • The National Building Research Organisation carries out analyses on water,

wastewater, soil, air quality, noise and vibration. • National Engineering Research and Development Centre: carries out analyses on

water, wastewater, air quality, noise and vibration. • National Water Supply and Drainage Board: carries out analyses on water and

wastewater. • Puritas (Pvt.) Ltd.: carries out analyses on water and wastewater. • Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka (Laboratory): carries out analyses on water

and wastewater. • SGS Lanka (Pvt) Ltd.: carries out analyses on water, wastewater, soil, air, noise

and hazardous waste. • Tech Water Laboratories (Pvt.) Ltd.: carries out analyses on water and wastewater. • University of Ruhuna.: carries out analyses on water, wastewater and microbiology

Other national laboratories include:

• National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency (NARA), the principal national institute charged with the responsibility of carrying out and coordinating research, development and management activities on the subject of aquatic resources in Sri Lanka;

• The Department of the Government Analyst, established in 1904 and the central government laboratory. The department consists of two divisions, the Food Science and the Forensic Science. The food science division provides services towards public health in the areas of food, liquor, milk and water. Each section analyze samples and issue scientific reports to protect the public under various acts, including the NEA.

• Tea Research Institute, responsible for research on tea. Their research will be critical in reducing dependence on agrochemicals.

• Institute of Fundamental Studies is now a basic research institute for national development. The projects are planned and executed scientifically in order to provide the basic research that ultimately leads to useful applications.

• The University of Peradeniya hosts an active Department of Agriculture, which is promoting studies in organic gardening.

• The Zoology Department of University of Colombo has been conducting research in environmental pollution for several years now.

• The Control of Pesticides act provided for the appointment of a Registrar of Pesticides to regulate the importation, formulation, packing, labeling storage, transportation, sale and use of pesticides. Within the Registrar of Pesticides is an analytical laboratory and a maximum residue level analytical laboratory, for testing pesticides.

• The Laboratory Services Division of the Sri Lanka Standards Institution has six laboratories i.e. chemical, electrical, food, materials, microbiology and textile


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where testing is facilitated on many products and materials according to national and/or international standards.

• The Atomic Energy Authority has laboratories which test for radioactivity and heavy metals in food, environmental samples of soil, sediment and water as well as water pollution monitoring.

• The National and other various teaching hospitals have labs relating to human health

• All the above are government or government related organisations. Other privately owned laboratories include SGS and few accredited labs and private hospital and company laboratories.

4.5 Marine and coastal protected areas

Given that there is some level of protection or management in coastal and marine protected areas, they are, ultimately, important, at a national level, in the prevention of coastal and marine pollution.

Coastal and marine protected area are managed by a) the Department of Wildlife; b) the Forest Department (for mangroves); c) the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Department for Special Area Management Sites (SAM sites) ; and d) the Department of Fisheries for Fisheries Management Areas (FMA). Listed below are these sites except for b) which were not readily accessible.

Name of protected area (PA) Area of coast Designation PAs under the jurisdiction of the Department of Wildlife* Ruhuna (Yala ) south National park Kumana (Yala east) southeast National park Ussangoda south National park Bundala south National park Hikkaduwa southwest National park Wilpattu northwest National park Pigeon Island east National park Chundikulam northeast Sanctuary Kokkilai northeast Sanctuary Great Sober Island east Sanctuary Small Sober island east Sanctuary Seruwila Allai east Sanctuary Pigeon Island east Sanctuary Kudumbigala-Panama east Sanctuary Kalametiya south Sanctuary Nimalawa south Sanctuary Bundala-Wilmanna south Sanctuary Godawaya south Sanctuary Rekawa south Sanctuary Madinduwa south Sanctuary Rumassala southwest Sanctuary Parapaduwa Nun’s island southwest Sanctuary Honduwa Island southwest Sanctuary Telwatte southwest Sanctuary Rock Islets, Ambalangoda southwest Sanctuary Maduganga southwest Sanctuary Muthurajawela I northwest Sanctuary Muthurajawela II northwest Sanctuary

http://www.dwc.gov.lk/library/Np_bundala.html


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Annaiwilundawa northwest Sanctuary Bar Reef northwest Sanctuary Willpattu north northwest Sanctuary Vankalai northwest Sanctuary Paraitivu Island north Sanctuary PAs under the jurisdiction of the Forest Department - N/A Active Special area management sites (SAM) under the jurisdiction of the Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Department** Bar Reef northwest SAM site Negombo Estuary/ Muthurajawela marsh northwest SAM site Lunawa Lagoon west SAM site Madu Ganga Estuary southwest SAM site Hikkaduwa Nature Reserve and environs southwest SAM site Unawatuna Bay including Koggala Estuary southwest SAM site Mawella and Kalametiya Lagoons south SAM site coastal stretch in Hambantota south SAM site Areas under management by the Department of Fisheries+ Bolgoda Reservoir west FMA Negombo Lagoon west FMA Chilaw Lagoon west FMA Puttalam lagoon northwest FMA sea area from Puttalam to Mannar northwest FMA Batticaloa Lagoon east FMA Panama Lagoon east FMA Periyakalapu east FMA sea area from Thimitta lagoon, Komari, Murukandan lagoon

east FMA

East Coast (Batticaloa District) east FMA Off Yala Fisheries Management southeast FMA Rekawa Lagoon south FMA Madiha Polhena Coral Reef Ecosystem south FMA sea area from Galle to Matara southwest-south FMA Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar sites)++ Bundala south Ramsar site Maduganga southwest Ramsar site Annaiwilundawa northwest Ramsar site Wilpattu northwest Ramsar site Vankalai northwest Ramsar site Kumana east Ramsar site

Table 28 Coastal and Marine Protected Areas in Sri Lanka

(Sources: * Dept. of Wildlife Conservation, 2013; **CZMP, 2006; + Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act No. 2 of 1996; ++ http://www.ramsar.org/pdf/sitelist.pdf)


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5 Present status of marine pollution: contaminant levels in water, sediments, fish and other biological resources

5.1 Eutrophication and nutrient dynamics; Chlorophyll; Chemical

oxygen demand; Suspended substances

Large quantities of nitrogen and phosphorous are added through non-point source pollution with agricultural runoff which leads to eutrophication (Gamito et al., 2005). Given Sri Lanka’s reliance on the use of agrochemicals in agriculture (See section on Agricultural and aquaculture residues), several rivers and coastal water bodies contain excessive nitrogen and phosphorous levels. Sewage is also a problem (See section Sewage discharge). Many inland water bodies are known to be eutrophied with algal blooms (Mubarak, 2000). A prime example of this is the repeated eutrophication of Beira Lake in the heart of the capital. Surrounded by businesses, this man-made lake receives sewage, garbage and effluents from various parts of the city. It has an outlet to the sea, but limited ability to self-cleanse. In 1985, NARA reported that the Beira Lake was a highly eutrophied body, with excessive populations of cyanobacteria, high turbidity, and elevated COD and BOD. There was also very high faecal contamination. Mubarak (2000) reported a dark green bloom of Spirulina sp. and Microcystis aeruginosa. The NARA study identified over 1,000 outfalls discharging effluents into the sea. This water contamination resulted in periodic fish kills (Dissanayake and Pereira, 1996). A clean-up in the last two years — as part of Metro Colombo Urban Development Project — has significantly improved the condition of the lake. The Kelani Ganga, flowing out to the western coastline just north of Colombo, has a total length of 145 km and a river basin of 2,292 km2 (MoE, 2011). It supplies about 80% of the drinking water to Colombo, and its water is used to generate electricity. Along most of its length are industries, low-income settlements (without proper sanitation), and sand mining. It is considered the most polluted river in Sri Lanka (MoE, 2011). The main sources of water pollution in the Kelani river are land-based — such as treated and untreated industrial effluents, agricultural runoff, domestic and municipal effluents and sewage. In addition to organic waste, the river is also polluted with heavy metals. Because of extensive sand mining in the lower reaches, the river bed is now below sea level, allowing saline intrusion, with a salt wedge extending inwards to Ambatale, where a water treatment plant for drinking water is situated (MoE, 2011). The impacts of faecal pollution in water can be linked to the incidence of diarrhoea (Mubarak, 2000). Diarrhoeal diseases are still a major public health problem in Sri Lanka. It was the 5th leading cause of hospitalization in year 2000 although the mortality has been reduced drastically. According to the latest WHO data published in April 2011 death from diarrhoeal diseases in Sri Lanka reached 1,069 or 0.78% of total deaths (http://www.worldlifeexpectancy.com/sri-lanka-diarrhoeal-diseases). The heavy use of agrochemicals has resulted in nitrate pollution of ground water. Studies have shown that there is a high level of nitrate pollution in the ground water of Kalpitiya in the northwestern coast. In the 225 drinking wells tested, they found 31% of the wells had nitrate concentrations between 50-100 mg/l and in 17.4% of the wells, very high concentrations of nitrates ranging from 101-300 mg/l. Examination of the cultivated vegetables showed that they too contained high concentrations of nitrates


52

ranging from 2.79-3.25 g/kg. The high concentrations of nitrates can result in the development of toxic Methemoglobinaemia1 in human beings (IUCN, 2011).

A study carried out in Batticaloa lagoon (technically a barrier-built estuary) showed significant seasonal variation in DO, salinity, nitrate and pH. Analyses showed that there were higher number of fish species during the dry season compared to the wet season (Harris and Vinobaba, 2012). Coastal and marine waters have not shown high trophic status from available data. Major changes in chlorophyll have not been recorded (Azmy, pers. comm.). Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) has not been a major issue in recent times (Azmy, pers. comm.). However, sedimentation from river flows and other land based sources have been highlighted as a continuing problem. In the upper Mahaweli catchment, the rate of soil loss from agricultural plots on the hill slopes is as high as 7,000 t/km2/yr which increases silt loads in streams and rivers (Hewawasam, 2003, in litt. IUCN & MOENR, 2007). Degradation of land due to soil is of much concern because of its consequences on agriculture, which is a major contributor to the country's GDP. The process of soil erosion commenced in the 19th century with the expansion of human settlement and cultivation of upland rain fed crops. This was aggravated by the changes in land use patterns during the British administration, when upper catchments of major rivers located in the central highlands were stripped of natural vegetation to make way for plantation agriculture such as coffee and tea. Land clearing continued even after independence primarily for the establishment of human settlements. Currently, however, earthworks — road and infrastructure building — are the greatest source of sedimentation. (See section on Sedimentation.) Comparative studies of erosion by zone have shown that the 2nd peneplain is the most prone to soil erosion. Out of 25 administrative districts of the country, in seven, estimated land area under erosion is over 40% (Kandy — 41%; Ratnapura — 42%; Moneragala — 42.5%; Hambantota — 42.8%; Badulla — 54.8%; Trincomalee —55%; and Nuwara Eliya —58%) both on site and off site impacts occur due to erosion (Azmy pers. comm.).

5.2 Oil pollution, oil spills and ecological impacts of oil pollution

Oil pollution sources are from potential spills from tankers and accidents at sea. The potential for accidental spills is quite high as the major multi million barrel-capacity super tankers ply close to the shores of Sri Lanka en route from the Middle East to East Asia. In the last two decades, there have been several oil and chemical spills in Sri Lankan waters. These are listed in Table 29.

1 This is a disorder characterised by the presence of a higher than normal level of methemoglobin in the blood. Methemoglobin is a form of haemoglobin that does not bind oxygen. When its concentration is elevated in red blood cells, tissues are deprived of oxygen.

Date and name of ship

Location Volume spilt Impact

1994 M/V Komsomolets Azerbaydzhana**

Outside Galle harbour, southern coast

100 tonnes of fuel oil No oil reached the coastline

1998** Bunkering 595 ppm near the vicinity These values were very


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Table 29 Oil and chemical spills in Sri Lankan waters

(Sources: * http://www.mepa.gov.lk/web/ **Joseph, 2003; *** Gunasekera, pers. comm.;

++http://www.colombopage.com/archive_12A/Aug24_1345815995CH.php) A National Oil Spill Contingency Plan (NOSCOP) has been prepared by MEPA and provides guidance for management and control in the case of a contingency (http://www.mepa.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=49&Itemid=50&lang=en). Land based sources of oil pollution are minimal other than during transfers at single point mooring systems. There was an incident in 1998, when the floating hose burst at the sea terminal and there was 90 MT of crude oil leakage (Gunasekera, pers. comm.). Only one refinery is currently in operation in Sri Lanka and waste is minimal and controlled (Azmy, pers. comm.). There is concern about oil pollution from recent oil explorations commenced in the Gulf of Mannar in Sri Lanka. New petroleum exploration regulations are to be gazetted, and a regulatory body established (http://www.prds-srilanka.com/).

5.3 Heavy metals and persistent organic pollutants (POPs)

Heavy metals are known to be persistent in the environment, they bio-accumulate and are toxic (Wickramasinghe, 2012). Studies in several coastal water bodies have shown heavy metal accumulation in some edible fin fish and shellfish. Briefly described below are results from two of these studies.

terminal, Colombo

of the spill (bunkering terminal) and 991 pm opposite the bunkering terminal

much in excess of the Sri Lanka standards for oil (20 ppm) in marine coastal waters.

1999 M/V Meliksha*

Off Bundala, southern coast

16 500 MT fertilizer and about 200 MT of heavy fuel oil.

The oil slick lasted about 10 weeks; 40-50 km of the beach was polluted with oil and tar balls. Oil also moved about 100 m up Kirindi Oya and had a concentration of 4.2 mg/l, about one month after the accident.

2006 MV Amanat shah*

Koggola, southern coast

25-50 MT heavy fuel oil About 13 km of Koggala, Ahangama beach (southern) was polluted. Cleaned.

2007 Marina Sedna*

Near Galle Port, southern coast

4 t heavy fuel oil*** Oil was removed without a spill

2009 M/T Granba Chemical tanker*

Off Trincomallee

6,250 MT of Sulphuric Acid

No explosion or fire.

2012 MV Thermopylae Sierra++

Off Panadura, western coast

20-40 MT*** 10 km long oil slick that reached to Negombo.

http://www.mepa.gov.lk/web/


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Negombo ‘Lagoon’, on the northwestern coastline is technically a barrier-built estuary receiving freshwaters from Dandugam Oya and Ja-ela. The estuary is connected to the sea by a single, narrow opening. It is a major sink for anthropogenic pollutants, as well as sewage. The Ja-Ela carries industrial effluents from Katunayake Free Trade Zone and Ekala industries, and discharges at the southernmost tip of the estuary. At the northern end are the town of Negombo and the highly populated fishing village of Munnakara, which releases untreated sewage into the estuary. Comparative accumulation of essential heavy metals by different species of fishes, prawns and crabs, simple and multiple metal correlations among the fishes and the bioavailable fractions of trace metals in the water and surface sediments have been analysed (Bhuvendralingam and Azmy 1995). The data reflected a considerable spread in the levels of various trace metals in the water samples. The greatest metal concentration in water was for iron (Fe), followed by zinc (Zn). In the case of sediments also, the highest concentrations were for Fe and Zn. The levels of all five elements studied remained unaltered throughout the period of investigation. Lead (Pb) levels in the water were higher than permissible standards for coastal waters (See Table 30).

Stations Metal Medium 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mn Water 1.40 2.10 1.30 1.56 1.48 1.50

Sediment 1.78 5.02 12.80 6.68 6.90 10.12 Zn Water 2.80 2.90 3.40 3.35 2.92 1.52

Sediment 72.00 48.80 66.10 65.56 86.63 53.60 Fe Water 49.20 41.60 40.80 52.00 59.81 15.00

Sediment* 31.70 30.63 32.75 28.80 29.28 28.66 Pb Water 1.84 1.82 1.20 1.34 1.44 1.48

Sediment 46.90 30.20 29.32 20.70 33.80 16.35 Cu Water 1.78 2.16 1.30 1.92 1.66 1.72

Sediment 45.05 39.65 60.10 54.25 35.25 39.77

Table 30 Mean Trace metal concentration in Negombo Lagoon

(Source: Bhuvendralingam and Azmy 1995. * Fe Sediment concentrations are in mg g-1)

Analyses of fish tissues indicated that bio-accumulation of Fe was highest, followed by Zn (Bhuvendralingam and Azmy 1995). Species Mn Fe Zn Cu Pb Arius maculatus 3.533 70.583 35.907 1.84 3.316 Etroplus suratensis 3.16 58.23 26.379 2.570 3.680 Liza vaigiensis 3.11 56.490 16.191 2.940 8.110 Terapon sp. 4.27 58.41 31.480 2.410 6.160 Lutjanus fulviflamma 6.620 58.090 35.883 3.220 6.340 Siganus canaliculatus

3.866 61.316 17.680 3.900 5.533

Hyporhamphus dussumieri

3.575 56.125 27.225 3.450 7.3250

Penaeus monodon 3.23 65.550 34.88 2.5166 3.650 Penaeus indicus 3.5875 62.450 36.578 7.775 4.0125 Scylla serrata 4.9625 77.735 48.56687 6.9125 4.6250

Among the fish species spotted catfish Arius maculatus and dory snapper Lutjanus fulviflamma showed the maximum accumulation of almost all the metals. Mud crab


55

Scylla serrata also had high concentrations of metals while Penaeus indicus shrimps had accumulated copper (Cu) (Bhuvendralingam and Azmy 1995).

. The Bolgoda Lake, comprising two water bodies (the North Lake and the South Lake), is fed by the Weras Ganga that feeds in to the North Lake and Panape Ela feeds into the South Lake. The Bolgoda Ganga connects the two. The North Lake discharges to the sea through the Panadura estuary and the South Lake is connected to the sea via Thalpitiya Ela. Bolgoda Lake is used by local communities for various purposes including fishery (Senarathne et al., 2006). The Lake is polluted by industrial and municipal effluents. Senarathne et al. (2006) studied the levels of five heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Cr, Cu and Zn) in various tissues of green chromide Etroplus suratensis, an edible fish widely distributed in Bolgoda Lake. Locations of collection were Weras Ganga, North Lake, Bolgoda Ganga and South Lake.

The maximum allowable levels of lead and cadmium in the fish for human consumption specified by the European Union are 0.2 and 0.05 µg g-1 wet weight respectively (EU 2002 in litt. Senarathne et al., 2006). Pb levels in the muscle tissue of 67 % of the fish collected from Weras Ganga and 27 % of the fish from Bolgoda Ganga exceeded this international standard for lead. Cadmium levels in the 13% of the fish from Bolgoda Ganga exceeded the international standard for cadmium in food, indicating a serious health risk for consumers of fish caught in this lake (Senarathne et al., 2006). Heavy metals (Pb and Ni) have also been documented in the sediment of Galle harbour (Malavipathirana et al., 2012). Studies on levels of organic pollutants (POPs) and their toxic effects on aquatic life are scarce in Sri Lanka (Ranatunga, 2012).

5.4 General status and trends of marine pollution

Recent studies show 26 previously unrecorded species of phytoplankton and dinoflagellates from the inner harbour area of Colombo (Siyambalapitiya et al., 2010). Among these were Microsetella sp. and Prorocentrum sp. which are found in the ballast water of ships (Siyambalapitiya et al., 2010). Another study has recorded Ceratium furca, Ceratium fusus, Peridinium sp., Protoperidinium grande, Protoperidinium obtusum and Protoperidinium robustum from coastal waters next to the Colombo port (Senanayaka and Ranatunga 2010 in litt. Ranatunga, 2012). These are potentially harmful red tide-forming dinoflagllates. A similar study of coastal waters of Sri Lanka’s newest port, Hambantota, has recorded Ceratium furca, Chaetoceros sp., Thalassiosira sp., Rhizosolenia sp. and Protoperidinium sp., some of which are potentially harmful, and known for red-tide formation (Wijetunga and Ranatunga 2012 in litt. Ranatunga, 2012). A study of the Batticaloa lagoon on the eastern coast, showed that certain shallow areas of the lagoon were seasonally covered with dense algal blooms (Harris and Vinobaba, 2012). During the wet season however, the flushing of the lagoon to the sea, reduces phytoplankton diversity. Anabaena, Microcystis and Oscillatoria, known to produce toxins have been recorded in Batticaloa Lagoon (Harris and Vinobaba, 2012). In addition, Amphidinium sp. was also observed in the lagoon, whose toxins may cause ciguatera (Harris and Vinobaba, 2012).


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About 40 species of cyanobacteria have been reported from Sri Lanka’s inland reservoirs (Silva, 1999 in litt. Perera et al., 2012). Of these, it is recognised that Anabaena, Aphanizomenon, Cylindrospermopsis, Lyngbya, Microcystis, Nostoc, Nodularia and Oscillatoria are recognised as the genera with the most toxigenic species (Perera et. al. 2011 in litt. Perera et al., 2012). Studies in inland reservoirs have shown that most common toxin producing cyanobacterial species are Microcystis sp. in the wet zone and Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii in the dry zone (Perera et al. 2012). Sri Lanka has so far been spared the large and extensive fish kills frequently reported from East Asia in particular (Azmy, pers. comm.). However, fish kills have been reported from the Kelani River and Maha Oya in the 1990s (Joseph, 2003).

6 Transboundary coastal pollution issues and concerns

Sri Lanka has a bilateral maritime boundary only with India. The prominent transboundary issue with respect to India relates to the delimitation of the EEZ. ‘Transboundary implications from this activity is expected to be more political — if and when the area claimed by Sri Lanka outside its EEZ overlap with a similar claim by India’ (Joseph, 2003).

Figure 29 Sri Lanka’s maritime boundary with India


6.1 Ballast water

With over 4,000 ships coming into the ports of Sri Lanka (see Table 6) ballast water is a major problem. It has already been identified that known invasive alien species (IAS)


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have been found in Colombo harbour (See section on General status and trends of marine pollution).

Sri Lanka has plans to become a party to International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments (BWM Convention) and MEPA has an ongoing project to manage the introduction of IAS into Sri Lankan waters through ships’ ballast water (Gunasekera, pers. comm.).

There is an issue (contentious for both Sri Lanka and India) relating to Indian fishermen fishing in Sri Lanka’s territorial waters of the Palk Bay. It has been reported that this year, some 125 Indian fishermen were arrested in Sri Lankan waters, with a concurrent reduction in poaching (http://www.lankabusinessonline.com/news/indian-poaching-in-sri-lanka-waters-reduced:-fisheries-minister/659668733). The impacts of bilge water from these boats have not been examined.).

6.2 Oil spills

In recent years, there have been several marine accidents. (See section Oil pollution, oil spills and ecological impacts of oil pollution.) The expansion and development of the marine services industry and construction of ports and harbours will only increase marine traffic, in turn, increasing the risk of oil spills with transboundary impact potential (Joseph, 2003). Oil exploration within Sri Lanka’s maritime boundaries has only just commenced, but carries with it a risk of pollution from oil spills and discharge. Sri Lanka is already a party, inter alia, to the Stockholm, Basel and MARPOL Conventions. (See section below.) A National Oil Spill Contingency Management Plan was drafted, amended and accepted. An operation response team, regional beach cleaning committee and damage assessment group, with necessary training, have been established and trained to respond to oil spill contingencies. In addition, MEPA is proceeding with legal action, and liabilities due according to these Conventions.

7 International instruments, conventions, protocols and programmes adopted and relevant to coastal and marine pollution

Sri Lanka is party to several international conventions, protocols and treaties. These are listed in Table 31.

Treaty/ Convention

Obligations Implementing agency

Status

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

One of the most important achievements of UNCLOS is the successful formulation of a set of criteria that determines the

Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

The government of Sri Lanka set up a special project — Delimitation of the Outer Edge of the

http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/ListOfConventions/Pages/International-Convention-for-the-Control-and-Management-of-Ships%27-Ballast-Water-and-Sediments-(BWM).aspx


http://www.lankabusinessonline.com/news/indian-poaching-in-sri-lanka-waters-reduced:-fisheries-minister/659668733



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(UNCLOS) 1982 (ratified July 1995)

extent of sea area that a maritime country can claim under its jurisdiction. Among other things, this convention aims to protect and preserve the marine environment. It obliges states to formulate and preserve international standards of practice for the above. In addition, there are obligations related to formulating regulations related to controlling land-based, sea-bed based, and open sea-based pollution*.

Continental Margin of Sri Lanka (DEOCOM project) under the purview of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources to carry out scientific surveys related to the demarcation of maritime boundaries of Sri Lanka. Submissions have been made related to the revision of the extent of the EEZ (Tantrigoda, 2010).

Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 2001 (Ratified Dec. 2005)

The Stockholm Convention is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic pollutants (POPs). The Stockholm Convention established an initial list of 12 key POPs chemicals for which signatories are required to reduce the risks to human health and the environment arising from their release. Enlisted parties are required to take measures (legal and/ or administrative) to eliminate or heavily restrict the production and use of POP pesticides and PCBs, and to minimise the unintentional production and release of POPs. The 12 key POPs that are targeted by the Convention include Aldrin, Chlordane, DDT, Dieldrin, Dioxins, Endrin, Furans, Hexachlorobenzene, Heptachlor, Mirex, PCBs and Toxaphene.

Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy

In order to meet the obligations towards the Convention, the Ministry of Environment (with funding from the Global Environment Facility (GEF)) has prepared, in a participatory manner, a national implementation plan (NIP) for the control of POPs. Sri Lanka is also a party to the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Waste and their Disposal and is obliged to find environmentally sound solutions for all POPs chemicals as wastes. Hence this project is also instrumental in implementing provisions under the Basel Convention as well. Eight of the twelve banned chemicals in the Stockholm Convention had been banned before Sri Lanka ratified the Convention (Ministry of Environment, undated).

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) 1973 (Ratified June 1997)

The Convention includes regulations aimed at preventing and minimizing pollution from ships — both accidental pollution and that from routine operations — and currently includes six technical Annexes: Regulations for the Prevention of Pollution by Oil; Regulations for the Control of Pollution by Noxious Liquid Substances in Bulk; Prevention of Pollution by

Marine Environmental Protection Agency (MEPA)

From the year 1996 MEPA has been registering suitable service providers for the above service. Regulations on ship generated waste reception will be gazetted shortly. The process of handling waste by each service provider has been


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Harmful Substances Carried by Sea in Packaged Form; Prevention of Pollution by Sewage from Ships; Prevention of Pollution by Garbage from Ships; and Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships*.

streamlined by updating the terms and conditions of the service with related parties. Establishment of a major facility is underway. The facilities of MEPA to communicate with ships have been strengthened. A database is being maintained on ship generated waste oil collected by MEPA service providers (Gunasekera, pers. comm.).

Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal 1992 (Ratified Aug. 1992)

This treaty was designed to reduce the movements of hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries. It does not, however, address the movement of radioactive waste. In addition to conditions on the import and export of the above wastes, there are stringent requirements for notice, consent and tracking for movement of wastes across national boundaries*.

Central Environmental Authority

The amendment to the Basel Convention (Decision III/1) has been implemented in Sri Lanka. A Cabinet decision was obtained to prohibit import of Annex VIII List A hazardous waste from all countries (not restricting to Annex VII countries); and to keep the list B as the controlled list, to take decisions on case by case basis. Regulations are being prepared. Sri Lanka restricts the import of hazardous wastes and other wastes for final disposal. Regulations are being formulated. The Department of Export and Import Control is in the process of drafting regulations under the directions of the National Coordinating Committee. A National Strategy for Solid Waste Management has been formulated, The National Cleaner Production Policy and Strategy and the sectoral Cleaner Production Policies which cover major economic sectors (health, agriculture, fisheries, tourism) of the country have been prepared. A National Industrial Pollution Management Policy is in place. A National Cleaner Production Centre has


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been established under the Ministry of Industries. A National Plan for hazardous waste management has been prepared. A National Cleaner Production Policy is in place. A database of Municipal Solid Waste in Sri Lanka has been updated.

International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties 1969 (Ratified April 1983)

This is a convention affirming the right of a coastal State to take such measures on the high seas as may be necessary to prevent, mitigate or eliminate grave and imminent danger to their coastline or related interests from pollution or threat of pollution of the sea by oil, following upon a maritime casualty or acts related to such a casualty*.

MEPA Strategies have been prepared to respond to such events.

Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and other Matters, 1972 (London protocol), came into force in 2006

This protocol prohibits all dumping, except for possibly acceptable wastes on the so-called ‘reverse list’, contained in an annex to the Protocol. It stresses the precautionary approach, which requires that appropriate preventative measures are taken when there is reason to believe that wastes or other matter introduced into the marine environment are likely to cause harm even when there is no conclusive evidence to prove a causal relation between inputs and their effects. It also states that the polluter should pay*.

Not yet a party to this Convention, but it is being considered (Gunasekera, pers.comm.).

International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC) 1969 (Ratified April 1983)

This convention was adopted to ensure that adequate compensation is available to persons who suffer oil pollution damage resulting from maritime casualties involving oil-carrying ships. The Convention places the liability for such damage on the owner of the ship from which the polluting oil escaped or was discharged. The Convention covers pollution damage resulting from spills of persistent oils suffered in the territory (including the territorial sea) of a State Party to the Convention. It is applicable to ships which actually carry oil in bulk as cargo, i.e. generally laden tankers*.

MEPA The Minister has been empowered to take actions to enforce compliance with the provisions of this Convention. A National Oil Spill Contingency Management Plan was drafted, amended and accepted. An operation response team, regional beach cleaning committee and damage assessment group with necessary training have been established and trained to respond to oil spill contingencies.


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International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage (FUND) 1969; (Ratified April 1983);superseded by 1992 Protocol

The purpose of this convention was to provide compensation for pollution damage to the extent that the protection afforded by the Civil Liability Convention is inadequate; to give relief to ship owners in respect of the additional financial burden imposed on them by the 1969 Civil Liability Convention, such relief being subject to conditions designed to ensure compliance with safety at sea and other conventions; and to give effect to the related purposes set out in the Convention*.

MEPA Same as above.

Protocol on Preparedness, Response and Co-operation to pollution Incidents by Hazardous and Noxious Substances, 2000 (OPRC-HNS Protocol)

This protocol aims to establish national systems for preparedness and response and to provide a global framework for international co-operation in combating major incidents or threats of marine pollution. Parties to the OPRC-HNS Protocol are required to establish measures for dealing with pollution incidents, either nationally or in co-operation with other countries. Ships are required to carry a shipboard pollution emergency plan to deal specifically with incidents involving hazardous and noxious substances*.

There are plans to sign this Convention. A cabinet paper has been submitted to the cabinet asking for approval to join the Convention (Gunasekera, pers.comm.).

International Convention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage (BUNKER)

This convention was adopted to ensure that adequate, prompt, and effective compensation is available to persons who suffer damage caused by spills of oil, when carried as fuel in ships' bunkers. The Convention applies to damage caused on the territory, including the territorial sea, and in EEZs state parties. The convention is modelled on the International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, 1969*.

MEPA Not yet a party to this Convention, but planning to seek approval (Gunasekera, pers. comm.).

International Convention on the Control of Harmful Anti-Fouling Systems on Ships, 2001

This convention prohibits the use of harmful organotins in anti-fouling paints used on ships and establishes a mechanism to prevent the potential future use of other harmful substances in anti-fouling systems. Anti-fouling paints are used to coat the bottoms of ships to prevent sea life such as algae and molluscs attaching themselves to the hull



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— thereby slowing down the ship and increasing fuel consumption. Anti-fouling systems to be prohibited or controlled are listed in an annex to the Convention, which will be updated as and when necessary*.

International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships' Ballast Water and Sediments (BWM Convention) 2004

This convention aims to prevent the spread of harmful aquatic organisms from one region to another, by establishing standards and procedures for the management and control of ships' ballast water and sediments. Under the Convention, all ships in international traffic are required to manage their ballast water and sediments to a certain standard, according to a ship-specific ballast water management plan. All ships will also have to carry a ballast water record book and an international ballast water management certificate. The ballast water management standards will be phased in over a period of time. As an intermediate solution, ships should exchange ballast water mid-ocean. However, eventually most ships will need to install an on-board ballast water treatment system*.


Rotterdam Convention 1998 (Ratified Jan. 2006)

The 1998 Rotterdam Convention was established in order to monitor and control the trade in certain hazardous chemicals. The Convention was meant as an instrument that could provide importing parties with the power to make informed decisions on which chemicals they want to receive and to exclude those that cannot be safely managed. A process termed prior informed consent (PIC) is regulated under the Convention. This involves a mutual information exchange of all issues regarding the trade of hazardous chemicals (including POPs).

Ministry of Agriculture

National committee established to implement the Convention.

Convention on the Continental Shelf 1958 (Ratified June

An international treaty created to codify the rules of international law relating to continental shelves. The treaty, after entering into force 10 June

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Superseded by UNCLOS.










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1964) 1964, established the rights of a sovereign state over the continental shelf surrounding it, if there be any. The treaty was one of three agreed upon at the first UNCLOS. It has since been superseded by a new agreement reached in 1982 at UNCLOS III*.

Convention of the High Seas 1948 (Ratified Oct. 1958)

The Convention provided a definition of the "high seas" (meaning all parts of the sea that are not included in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State) and codified the traditional principle of freedom of the high seas, including the freedom of fishing*.

Ministry of Fisheries and Ocean Resources

Global Programme of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA) (Ratified Nov. 1995)

The Programme represents a clear commitment among national governments, international and regional organizations and programmes, non-governmental organizations and major groups to protect and preserve the marine environment from adverse environmental impacts of land based activities. It provides a comprehensive yet flexible framework to assist countries in fulfilling their duty to preserve and protect the marine environment from sewage, physical alterations and the destruction of habitat, nutrients, sediment mobilisation, persistent organic pollutants, oils, litter, heavy metals and radioactive substances.

Ministry of Environment and Renewable Resources (Lead agency)

A National Programme of Action (NPA) was published in December 2003. A regional (South Asia) NPA training workshop was held. An output of this work was the preparation of a Briefing Note for the Cabinet to discuss market based options to raise financing, which then led to the levy of a conservation tax (See section under Environmental conservation levy act no. 26 of 2008.) The GPA is also being supported by BOBLME where the following actions have been taken: • Setting up a BOBLME

Pollution Working Group;

• National consultations and inputs to transboundary pollution issues, causes and priorities identified in a Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis;

• National land-based pollution reports completed for all 8 countries;

• Review of the status of the National plans of Action — Pollution in BOBLME countries, and development of a plan to assist their


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development is proposed***.

Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention) 1971 (Ratified Oct. 1990)

This is an intergovernmental treaty that embodies the commitments of its member countries to maintain the ecological character of their Wetlands of International Importance and to plan for the wise use, or sustainable use, of all of the wetlands in their territories. It could be argued that this treaty indirectly obligates contracting parties to prevent habitat degradation through pollution in the designated sites.

Department of Wildlife Conservation

There are six Ramsar sites in Sri Lanka.

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (also known as CMS or Bonn Convention) 1979 (Ratified June 1990)

This convention aims to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range. It is concerned with the conservation of wildlife and habitats on a global scale. It could be argued that this treaty indirectly obligates contracting parties to prevent habitat degradation through pollution in the sites which contain migratory species.


Largely focussed on actions related to marine turtle conservation.

United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (Ratified March 1994)

The conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources, including appropriate access to genetic resources and by appropriate transfer of relevant technologies and appropriate funds


Through an extensive participatory process, a Biodiversity Conservation Action Plan (BCAP) was prepared, received cabinet approval in 1998 and was adopted in 1999. A later addendum was mooted to update the BCAP to deal with development that arose at various Conferences of Parties (COPs). Sixteen task forces were appointed for preparation of the Addendum to the BCAP. The Addendum and the reports of eight Task Forces have been published; the publication of a further four Task Force reports will be completed shortly. The National Capacity Needs Self-Assessment project of the Ministry has


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examined needs for implementing the CBD in Sri Lanka.

Agenda 21 (1992)

Agenda 21 is a non-binding, voluntarily implemented action plan of the United nations with regard to sustainable development. It is a product of the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil, in 1992. Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 specifically called for the protection of the oceans, all kinds of seas, including enclosed and semi-enclosed seas, and coastal areas; and the protection, rational use and development of their living resources.


Converged under the programmes, policies, and legal instruments of the CCD, MEPA, Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy, DWC, FD, DFAR, CEA and NARA well as local governments.

Table 31 Coastal and marine pollution related treaties and conventions ratified by Sri Lanka

(Sources: Extracted directly (except where cited otherwise) from Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources,2008; http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/Pages/Home.aspx*;

http://www.pops.int/documents/implementation/nips/submissions/NIP_srilanka.pdf**; Anna University, Chennai, undated***).

Regional agreement

Obligations Implementing agency

Status

South Asia Cooperative Environment Programme (SACEP) 1982

South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme (SACEP) is an inter-governmental organization, established in 1982 by the governments of South Asia to promote and support protection, management and enhancement of the environment in the region. SACEP member countries are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka.

SACEP Secretariat

A Regional Oil and Chemical Spill Contingency Plan and associated MoU was developed in association with the International Maritime Organization for enhanced cooperation among five maritime countries of South Asia in the event of an oil spill. The status with respect to the signing of MOU by India and Sri Lanka is at an advanced stage.

South Asian Seas Programme (SASP) 1995

Set up for the protection and management of the shared marine waters and associated coastal ecosystems of five maritime SACEP countries — Bangladesh, India, Maldives, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. SASP focuses on Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), oil-spill contingency planning, human resource development and the environmental effects of land-based activities. Although there is no regional convention yet, SASP follows existing global environmental

SACEP Secretariat

Priority areas include: a) Implementation of an integrated marine litter programme; b) endorsement and formal adoption of the Regional Oil Spill Contingency Plan for South Asia and its follow-up activities; c) other areas of co-operation with the International Maritime Organization (working towards developing a regional strategy and action plan on Ballast Water Management and

http://www.imo.org/About/Conventions/Pages/Home.aspx

http://www.pops.int/documents/implementation/nips/submissions/NIP_srilanka.pdf


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and maritime conventions and considers the UN Law of the Sea as its umbrella convention.

Control in the SAS Region); d) conducting training programmes in collaboration with partner organizations; e) Global Programme of Action (GPA) activities; and setting up Regional Activity Centres.

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) 1985

The governments of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka formally adopted the SAARC its charter providing for the promotion of economic and social progress, cultural development within the South Asia region and also for friendship and cooperation with other developing countries.

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

The SAARC Ministerial Statement on Cooperation in Environment (‘Delhi Statement’), 2009 pledged to develop a Regional Cooperation Plan on environmental management and pollution control.

Table 32 Regional programmes

(Sources: Extracted directly from http://www.sacep.org/html/secretariat.htm; http://saarc-sec.org/sri-lanka/)

Ongoing projects Implementing

agency Brief description

Management of Introduction of Invasive Alien Species into Sri Lankan waters through Ships’ Ballast Water

MEPA Nineteen species of IAS have been identified so far (Guansekera, pers. comm.)

Lunawa Environment Improvement and Community Development Project

Ministry of Water Supply and Drainage

This eight year project has been executed by the Ministry of Water Supply and Drainage with the financial assistance from Japan International Corporation Agency (JICA) with a view to improve living conditions of people in the environs of the Lagoon, alleviating floods, through the improvement of storm water drainage systems, including the rehabilitation of existing canals and streams and creating a hygienic and pleasant environment through improvement of storm water drainage systems. (The status of Lunawa Lagoon in presented in Table 17).

Pilsaru Waste Management Project

Central Environment Authority

This project ran from 2008 to 2011 and has been extended for another three years. The project aim is to address the issue of improper solid waste management in a nationally coordinated approach with the objectives of a) development of a National Policy on Solid Waste Management; b) Development of a National Strategy on SWM; c) Effective education and awareness for all stakeholders on SWM including training and capacity building; d) Facilitation for local authorities to implement SWM projects and e) Legal reforms to strengthen effective law enforcement. By September 2012, the project has been implemented around 80 local authorities with provision of infrastructure, equipment, training and capacity building for SWM for local authorities.

National Green Ministry of The National Green Reporting System comprises 50

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladesh

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhutan

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldives

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sri_Lanka

http://www.sacep.org/html/secretariat.htm

http://saarc-sec.org/sri-lanka/


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Reporting Environment and Renewable Energy

indicators encompassing 24 environmental, 20 social and six economic indicators. There are five reporting tiers/levels for entities who are interested to be committed with the system. The reporting system provides five tiers that the industry/company/entity could select one of those for reporting. Sixty Seven companies have already committed with the National Green Reporting System in Sri Lanka.

Pavithra Ganga CEA A pilot project was implemented for the Kelani River in the Western Province of Sri Lanka. A water quality monitoring committee has been established with the Western Provincial Council, and all other stakeholders including Central Environmental Authority, 13 local authorities in Kelani river basin participated in the programme to achieve the common vision of a ‘clean river’ to keep the downstream Kelani river clean. The above committee with the initiative of the Ministry of Environment has taken steps to put up 24 information boards at selected sites along the river. The boards will indicate the status of the water quality at 12 sensitive locations. The CEA will collect and analyse water samples from the river, and the local authorities will bi-weekly update the information boards. Maintenance of the information boards is carried out by local authorities of the respective location. The boards indicate the water quality using several important water quality parameters which include; pH, conductivity, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, nitrate, chloride, biochemical oxygen demand, heavy metals, chemical oxygen demand, and coliform bacteria. The water quality monitoring committee meets every month and disseminates the water quality monitoring results to relevant stakeholders. Based on the result the stakeholders identify pollution sources and take action for appropriate remedial measures. This is one of the successful transparent environmental management measures taking place in Sri Lanka.

Coastal Water Quality Management Program

CCD This is ongoing*. (See under Mapping hotspots along the coast)

Table 33 Ongoing major projects

(Source: Extracted directly from Ministry of Environment, 2011; * http://www.coastal.gov.lk/fundprojects.php).


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8 Policy, economic instruments and legal mechanisms for pollution control

8.1 Policies

There are several policies that have a bearing on coastal and marine pollution. These are tabulated below.

Policy Related

agency Brief description

National Environment Policy 2003

Ministry of Environment

The policy aims to promote the sound management of the environment while balancing social and economic development needs. It aims to manage the environment by linking together the activities, interests and perspectives of different stakeholders with equitable sharing of benefits and costs. The policy supports securing land tenure rights including use rights on state land and long-term tenure for chena farmers. It is open to alternative mechanisms and policy tools to provide incentives while minimizing compliance costs to benefit the environment, the society and the economy. It emphasizes participation, transparency and public accountability in the management of natural resources (http://www.theredddesk.org/countries/sri_lanka/plans_and_policies/search?filters=type%3Apolicy&retain-filters=1).

National Watershed Management Policy 2004


This policy aims to conserve, protect, rehabilitate, sustainably use and manage the watersheds while managing their environmental characteristics with the involvement of communities (http://www.theredddesk.org/countries/sri_lanka/plans_and_policies/search?filters=type%3Apolicy&retain-filters=1).

National Land Use Policy 2007

Ministry of Land and Land development

The Policy aims to ensure proper land use, food security, economic development and the maintenance of the productivity of the land at a higher level. It also provides a path for the protection, conservation and sustainable use of the land resource of the country and offers an appropriate and ideal framework that will best meet the needs of the present generation while safeguarding the land resource for the future generation as well.

National Policy on Solid Waste Management


In view of various environmental problems arising out of inadequate delivery of waste management services by the relevant agencies, the Ministry recognized the need for a national approach to handle this serious issue. Accordingly, a National Policy for Solid Waste Management has been prepared to ensure integrated, economically feasible and environmentally sound solid waste management practices for the country at national, provincial and Local Authority level. The main objectives of the policy are (a) to ensure environmental accountability and social responsibility of all waste generators, waste managers and service providers (b) to actively involve individuals and all institutions in integrated and environmentally sound solid waste management practices (c) to maximize resource recovery with a view to minimize the amount of waste for disposal and (d) to minimize adverse environmental impacts due to


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waste disposal to ensure health and well-being of the people and on ecosystems.

Cleaner Production Policy 2004


The objective of this policy is to incorporate the cleaner production concept and practices into all development sectors of the country. To implement the policy sectoral policies were developed for health and tourism in collaboration with the Ministry of Health and Ministry of Tourism (http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan042380.pdf).

National Forestry Policy of 1995

Forest Department

This policy aims to protect the remaining natural forests to conserve biodiversity, soil and water resources; to increase tree cover and productivity in other areas to meet the demand for forest products and services; and to enhance the forestry sector’s contribution to rural welfare (http://www.theredddesk.org/countries/sri_lanka/plans_and_policies/search?filters=type%3Apolicy&retain-filters=1). Mangrove ecosystems come under the purview of the Forest Department.

The National Policy on Wildlife Conservation 2000


The policy renews the government’s commitment to conserve wildlife resources through promoting conservation, maintaining ecological processes and life sustaining systems, managing genetic diversity, and ensuring sustainable utilization and sharing of equitable benefits arising from biodiversity. It emphasises the need for effective protected area management with the participation of local communities (-http://www.theredddesk.org/countries/sri_lanka/plans_and_policies/search?filters=type%3Apolicy&retain-filters=1). There are many protected areas in the coastal zone.

National Air Quality Management Policy 2000


The purpose of this policy is to maintain good air quality to reduce morbidity due to air pollution and in turn reduce national health expenditures (http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/apcity/unpan042380.pdf).

National Policy on Wetlands 2005


The main objectives of this policy are to protect and conserve wetland ecosystems, to prevent illegal utilization of wetlands, to restore and maintain the biological diversity and productivity of wetlands, to enhance ecosystem services from wetland habitats, to assure sustainable use of wetlands and traditional practices by local communities, and to meet national commitments as a signatory to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands (http://www.theredddesk.org/countries/sri_lanka/plans_and_policies/search?filters=type%3Apolicy&retain-filters=1).

National Biosafety Policy 2005


The policy on biosafety sets the overall framework in which adequate safety measures will be developed and put into force to minimize possible risks to human health and the environment while extracting maximum benefits from any potential that modern biotechnology may offer.

Table 34 List of policies relevant to water pollution

(Sources: as in body of table)

For several decades, Sri Lanka has attempted unsuccessfully to formulate a national water policy and enact a national water law. Statistically, Sri Lanka has adequate water resources: per capita availability is 2,400m3 per annum and annual rainfall is

http://www.theredddesk.org/countries/sri_lanka/plans_and_policies/search?filters=type%3Apolicy&retain-filters=1



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2000 mm per annum (Ariyabandu, 2008). But these overall statistics disguise the marked spatial and temporal variability of water available for cultivation (Samad, 2005), with much of the dry zone facing water scarcity for several months of the year. It is estimated that by 2025, most of the dry zone will face year-round water scarcity at current levels of use (Samad, 2005). Irrigation dominates water use. But other sectors such as energy and domestic use are also important in Sri Lanka (Samad, 2005). Because of this emerging competition for water resources and the continuing degradation of the quality of water and of critical watersheds, the need for a comprehensive policy for water and water management was recognized more than a decade ago.

8.2 Laws related to the coast and prevention of pollution 8.2.1 Laws related to the prevention and control of water pollution

Water laws in Sri Lanka have focussed on water allocation, supply and management. For these purposes, there is a surfeit (some 40-50) of laws related to water resources and their management in Sri Lanka (Madduma Bandara 2000; Samad 2005).

8.2.1.1 The National Environmental Act (NEA) No. 47 of 1980

With regard to water pollution, the primary control law is the National Environmental Act (NEA) No. 47 of 1980 and its amendments of 1998, 2000 and 2005 (UNEP, 2009). The NEA is administered by the Central Environmental Authority. The NEA uses three primary approaches to conservation and sustainability: i) Environmental protection; ii) Environmental quality; and iii) Environmental assessment and the approval of projects (UNEP, 2009b).

Environmental Protection Licences (EPL) Part IV of the NEA deals with Environmental Protection Licences (EPL). It ‘provides for the regulation of discharge, deposit or emission of waste for certain prescribed activities. The goal of the part of the act is to ensure that the discharge, deposit or emission of waste by industrial, commercial or other undertakings is done according to prescribed standards and procedures’ (UNEP, 2009b). The Minister may decide which are prescribed activities and need an EPL before operation can begin or continue (UNEP, 2009b). [Scheduled waste (hazardous waste) management regulations 2008 - Gazette Notification No. 1534/18 dated 01.02.2008]. The most recent list of such prescribed activities was released in January 2008 (Gazette Notification No. 1533/16 dated 25.01.2008)(UNEP, 2009). The regulations for the procedure for issuing an EPL were prescribed in February 2008 (Gazette Notification No. 1534/18 dated 01.02.2008) (UNEP, 2009b).

These prescribed activities may be carried out only under permit from the CEA or local authority in accordance with the standards laid down in the NEA. Although standards are prescribed in the Act, the CEA has the authority to impose more stringent standards.

Prescribed standards The following standards have been prescribed in the Act (Gazette Notification No. 1534/18 dated 01.02.2008).

a. Tolerance limits for the discharge of industrial waste into inland surface waters. b. Tolerance limits for industrial waste discharged on land for irrigation purpose and

hydraulic loading applicable for different soils.


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c. Tolerance limits for industrial and domestic waste discharged into marine coastal areas.

d. Tolerance limits for waste from rubber factories being discharged into inland surface waters.

e. Tolerance limits for waste from textiles industries being discharged into inland surface waters.

f. Tolerance limits for waste being discharged from tanning industries. g. Tolerance limits for discharge of effluents into public sewers with central

treatment plants.

The primary purpose of these standards is to ensure the quality of surface waters (UNEP, 2009b). These standards are listed under section 8.3.

8.2.2 National Environmental Act (NEA) No. 47 of 1980

The NEA, an umbrella law that deals with a range of environmental matters, is administered by the Central Environmental Authority (CEA). The NEA was enacted to serve as the main legislation for environmental protection and has since been amended by Act No. 56 of 1988, Act No. 53 of 2000 and Act No.12 of 2005 (UNEP, 2009b). This act established the Central Environmental Authority (CEA), defining its powers and reach, and provides overall environmental protection. Under this Act and its amendments and regulations, an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) or Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) is required for every project referred to as prescribed projects. A more complete list of prescribed projects is presented later in this section.

Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) The provision relating to EIA is contained in Part IV C of the National Environmental Act. The procedure stipulated in the Act for the approval of projects provides for the submission of two types of reports: Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) report and Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) report. Such reports are required in respect of ‘prescribed projects’ included in a Schedule in an Order published by the Minister of Environment in terms of section 23 Z of the act in the Gazette Extra Ordinary No. 772/22 dated 24th June 1993. Once an EIA report is submitted, the NEA provides for a public inspection and comment on the report during a mandatory period of 30 days. A public hearing may be held to provide an opportunity to any member of the public (who has submitted his/her comments) to be heard in support of the comments if the project approving agency (PAA) considers it to be in the public interest to do so. A decision whether to approve the project has to be arrived at thereafter. The EIA process is implemented through designated Project Approving Agencies (PAAs) specified under Section 23 Y of the NEA. At present, 22 state agencies have been specified as PAAs by the Minister. The National Environmental Act stipulates that all ‘prescribed projects’ must receive approval from the appropriate project approving agencies (PAAs), which must be those that are ‘concerned with or connected with such prescribed projects. (http://www.cea.lk/national_environmental_act.php). In coastal areas, the PAA is the Coast Conservation and Coastal Management Department. Industrial pollution of coastal waters is controlled through EIAs and the EPL scheme (Joseph, 2003).

http://www.cea.lk/national_environmental_act.php


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With respect to non-hazardous, municipal solid waste, the CEA requires local authorities to obtain site clearance for municipal solid waste facilities including landfills. A facility that receives over 100 tons/day needs EIA approval while one that receives less than 100 tons/day needs an environmental recommendation from the CEA. In order to operate a landfill site, the project is required to obtain Environmental Clearance or Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) or Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) approval. Furthermore, if more than 3.0 m3 of effluent per day is discharged at the landfill site, an Environmental Protection License is required (NSWMSC, 2007).

The specific regulations of the NEA are listed in Table 35. Regulation Date Brief description National Environmental (Procedure for approval of projects) Regulations No. 1 of 1993

Gazette Notification Number 772/22 dated 24.06.1993

List of prescribed projects and procedures

Specifying the State Agencies which are PAAs (EIA)


Lists project approving agencies

EIA amendment - (prescribed activities)


Amendment to prescribed activities.

EIA amendment Gazette Notification Number 1108/1 dated 29.11.1999

Correction of a date

Order made under Section 23Y - Amendments to the Prescribed Activities.


Addition to the list of approving agencies

Scheduled waste (hazardous waste) management regulations 2008

Gazette Notification No. 1534/18 dated 01.02.2008

Procedures for obtaining an EPL and tolerance limits for industrial waste disposal to inland surface waters, land for irrigation, hydraulic loading for soils, into marine coastal waters, waste from rubber factories, textiles and tanning factories to inland waters, and into sewers.

National Environmental (protection and quality) Regulation (EPL) -1990

Gazette Notification Number 595/16 dated 8.01.1990 (rescinded by Gazette Notification Number 1534/18 dated 01.02.2008

Alteration of phrases

Amendment to National Environmental (Protection & Quality) Regulations (EPL) - 1990

Gazette Notification Number 617/7 dated 2.07. 1990

List of activities for which an EPL is needed

Gazette Notification No. 1159/16 dated 22.11.2000 (rescinded by Gazette Notification No. 1533/16 dated 25.01.2008)

Gazette Notification No. 1159/16 dated 22.11.2000 (rescinded by Gazette Notification No. 1533/16 dated 25.01.2008)

Amendment to the above

Amendment Gazette Notification No. 1533/16 dated 25.01.2008

Amendment to the above

Amendment Gazette Notification No. 1534/18 dated 01.02.2008

Amendment to tolerance limits/

Table 35 List of regulations made under the National Environmental Act


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8.2.3 Marine Pollution Prevention Act No. 59 of 1981 and its amendment No.35

of 2008

The Marine Pollution Prevention Act is a law that is implemented by MEPA. This act authorises the Marine Pollution Prevention Agency (MPPA), called the Marine Environment Protection Agency (MEPA) since 2009, to implement and take necessary steps to prevent marine pollution in the territorial waters of Sri Lanka. There is a provision for penal action for any form of marine pollution that damages marine resources and marine biodiversity. The amendment of the act strengthened it to implement the obligations of various multilateral conventions such as MARPOL.

8.2.4 Coast Conservation Act No. 57 of 1981 and amendment of 1988

This is the main legal instrument for the coastal zone, implemented by the CCD. This act and its amendments define the Coastal Zone and set out, in detail, the regulations pertaining to development activities that are permitted and prohibited within this zone. Under this act, the Director of Coast Conservation can ask for an EIA prior to development activities in the coastal zone. A further amendment will be enacted in the near future.

8.2.5 Other laws that have a bearing on the coastal zone

Law Implementing agency Brief description Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act No. 2 of 1996

Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

This act governs fishery resources in the oceans. Inter alia this act specifies areas that are demarcated and protected as Fishery Reserves. Any development activity in a fishery reserve requires the permission and approval of the Director of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.

National Aquaculture Development Authority of Sri Lanka Act No.53 of 1998


This act sets up the National Aquaculture Development Authority (NAQDA) to develop aquaculture and inland fisheries in Sri Lanka.

National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency Act No. 54 of 1981 and its amendment Act No. 32 of 1996


This act established the National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency (NARA) as the apex national institute vested with the responsibility of carrying out and coordinating research, development and management activities on the subject of aquatic resources in Sri Lanka.

13th amendment to the Constitution 1987

Under the 13th amendment to the Constitution, the centralised structure is modified by Provincial Councils that provide for a devolved political system. With devolution functions of government are allocated and shared between the Centre and the Provinces. Devolution introduces a multi-level (three-tiered) system of


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government with Local Government as the third tier. It transfers decision-making powers on service delivery to provincial and local levels. The 13th amendment to the Constitution of 1987 has special relevance to power sharing between the central government and the provincial governments. Under these amendments, subjects and functions for central and provincial governments have been identified in three scheduled lists, (1) the Central Government list, (2) Provincial Government list and, (3) powers concurrent among Central and Provincial Governments.

North Western Province Environmental Statute No. 12 of 1990

North Western Environmental Authority

The North Western Provincial Council enacted a statute for areas coming under the North Western Province. This statute prevails over the NEA in this province.

Forest Ordinance No. 16 of 1907

Forest Department This act and its amendments provide for the declaration of areas of state land as Forest Reserves, Village Forests or Conservation Forests. The felling of trees, cultivation and the construction of buildings and roads are prohibited activities, together with poaching, cattle grazing etc. This has bearing on the protection of mangroves.

Fauna & Flora Protection Ordinance No. 2 of 1937


The Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance No. 2 of 1937 (FFPO) and its amendments specify the areas under the jurisdiction of the Department of Wildlife Conservation in which no construction or developmental activities can occur. It lists different categories of protected areas, and specific activities for which a permit is needed, as well as activities which are prohibited within these protected areas. The FFPO also requires that an EIA or IEE is carried out for development activities within a boundary of one mile from a national reserve. The FFPO also lists animal and plants that are protected nationally. This has bearing on the protection of coastal reserves.

National Heritage Wilderness Areas Act No. 3 of 1988

Forest Department This act provides for the allocation of any area with unique ecosystems, genetic resources or outstanding natural features to be declared as National Heritage Wilderness Areas. This has bearing on the potential declaration of such areas on the coast.

Antiquities Ordinance No 9 of 1940

Department of Archaeology

This ordinance and its amendments provides for the Director General of Archaeology to declare certain areas as Archaeological


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Reserves, where encroachment of any kind is prohibited. It also empowers the Director General of Archaeology to conduct an Archaeological Impact Assessment of areas that may be affected by development, industrial or other projects proposed by anyone and implement any mitigatory measures that may be required.

State Lands Ordinance No. 8 of 1947

District Secretaries, Department of Agrarian Development

This ordinance provides for how state lands and their resources – rivers, streams and reservoirs – should be allocated and managed.

Marine Zones Law No 22 of 1976


A law to provide for the declaration of the territorial sea and other Maritime Zones of Sri Lanka, and all other matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka Act No. 23 of 1979

Mahaweli Authority This act established the Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka and provides for the protection watershed areas and protection of the physical environment of the Mahaweli area. This has bearing on inland water pollution that could, in turn, affect coastal pollution.

Urban Development Authority Law 1978

Urban Development Authority

This law and its amendments promote integrated planning and implementation of economic, social and physical development in areas declared as urban development areas, all development activity within the said areas fall within the purview of the Urban Development Authority.

Water Resources Board Act No. 29 of 1964 and its amendments

Water Resources Board The Act provides for the establishment of the Water Resources Board, whose duty shall be to advise the Minister on the following matters: (a) control, conservation and utilization of water resources; (b) promotion, construction, operation and maintenance of irrigation, drainage, flood control and hydraulic power schemes; (c) promotion of afforestation; (d) control of soil erosion; (e) prevention of freshwater pollution; (f) formulation of national policies relating to the control and use of water resources; (g) analysis of reports on investigation and statistical surveys; (h) any other matter that is referred for advice by the Minister

National Water Supply and Drainage Act No. 2 of 1974 and its amendment No 13 of 1992

Ministry of Water Supply and Drainage

A law to provide for the establishment of a public authority known as the National Water Supply and Drainage Board to develop and operate an efficient water supply, a co-ordinated sewerage system, and supply water in bulk to local authorities.

Control of Pesticides Act No. 33 of 1980 and its amendments

Registrar of pesticides The Act provides for the appointment of the Registrar of Pesticides, who shall be the licensing authority for pesticides, and for the establishment of the Pesticide Formulary Committee, whose functions shall be to advise the Registrar on any important matter relating to the registration of pesticides, approval of containers, storage, formulation,


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import, sale and use of pesticides and any other matters relating thereto.

Municipal Councils Ordinance No, 29 of 1947 and its amendments

Municipal councils Provides for the establishment of municipal councils, establishes their powers, duties and responsibilities in relation to the built environment and matters such as waste disposal and sanitation.

Urban Councils Ordinance No. 61 of 1939 and its amendments

Urban councils Provides for the establishment of urban councils, establishes their powers, duties and responsibilities in relation to the built environment and matters such as waste disposal and sanitation.

Pradeshiya Sabha Act No. 15 of 1987

Pradeshiya sabhas (Village councils)

Provides for the establishment Pradeshiya sabhas, establishes their powers, duties and responsibilities in relation to the built environment and matters such as waste disposal and sanitation.

Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development Corporation Act No. 15 of 1968 and its amendments

Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development Corporation

Empowers the Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development Corporation to reclaim low-lying lands and wetlands.

Agrarian Services Act No. 58 of 1979

This Act provided for the security of tenure to tenant cultivators of paddy lands. Provided for maximum productivity of paddy and other agricultural lands through the proper use and management of agricultural crops and livestock.

Fertilizers Act No. 21 of 1961

An Act to regulate the sale of fertilizers of the soil and to provide against the adulteration thereof.

Table 36 List of laws which have a bearing on the coastal zone of Sri Lanka

(Source: UNEP, 2009b; http://www.ecolex.org/start.php; http://www.srilankalaw.lk/revised-statutes/)

http://www.ecolex.org/start.php


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8.3 Water quality standards

Water Quality Standards for different uses, industrial effluent discharges to inland, coastal and other environments have been established through the various regulations under the NEA (See section on National Environmental Act (NEA) No. 47 of 1980).

There are standards for different use classes proposed by the CEA.

Parameter Unit

Value for different use classes

1 Nature

conservation

2 Fishery

of shell fish

3 Fishery

of Fin fish

4 Non consumption

use

Floatable solids

N N N NO

Oil/grease N N N N NO Suspended solids

N N N N NO

Transparency1 N <10% <10% <50% Colour N NV NV NO Odour N N N NO Temperature 0C <32% <32% <32% Coliform (total)

MPN/ml N N <10 <20

Coliform (faecal)

MPN/ml N N <3 <3

pH N 7.0-8.5 7.0-8.5 6.5-9.0 Salinity g/l N 29-35 <10% <20% Dissolved oxygen

saturation N >80% >70% >0%

BOD mg O2/ml N <5 <5 <10 Phosphate (total)

mg p/ml N NA NA NA

Nitrogen (total)

mg /N/ml NA NA NA NA

Ammonia (free)

mg N/ml N <0.4 <0.4 <1.2

Cyanide µg/l N <10 <10 <20 Sulphide µg/l N <5 <5 <10 Mercury µg/l N <0.1 <0.1 0.2 Cadmium µg/l N <5 <5 <10 Chromium (hex)

µg/l N <25 <25 <50

Lead µg/l N <25 >25 <50 Copper µg/l N <25 <25 <50 Manganese µg/l N <100 <100 <200 Zinc µg/l N <50 <50 <100 Iron µg/l N <300 <300 <600 Arsenic µg/l N <50 <50 <100 Fluoride µg/l N <1.5 <1.5 <3 Phenols µg/l N <30 30 <60 PCB µg/l N <0.03 <0.03 <0.06


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Chlor.Pestic. µg/l N <0.03 0.03 <0.06 (total µg/l N <0.05 0.05 <0.1

1 :% change from natural condition N :Natural condition NO :Not objectionable NV :Not visible NA :Below level causing algae bloom (to be established)

Table 37 Proposed ambient water quality standards for different use classes

(Source: CEA, 2001)

8.4 EIA for projects that have potential impacts on the water quality and coastal and marine environment in general

The following are prescribed projects in the coastal zone as defined by the Coast Conservation Act. No 57 of 1981. • All river basin development and irrigation projects excluding minor irrigation works. • Reclamation of land, wetland area exceeding 4 ha. • Extraction of timber covering land area exceeding 5 ha. • Conversion of forests covering an area exceeding 1 ha into non-forest uses. • Clearing of land areas exceeding 50 ha. • Mining and mineral extraction. • Transportation systems. • Port and harbour development. • Power generation and transmission. • Transmission lines. • Housing and building (construction of dwelling housing units exceeding 1,000

units, construction of all commercial buildings having built up area exceeding 10,000 km2, integrated multi-development activities consisting of housing, industry, commercial infrastructure covering a land area exceeding 10 ha).

• Resettlement (involuntary resettlement exceeding 100 families, other than resettlement effected under emergency situations).

• Water supply (ground water extraction projects of capacity exceeding ½ million m3/ day; construction of water treatment plants of capacity exceeding ½ million m3.

• Pipelines (gas and liquid (excluding water) transfer pipelines of length exceeding 1 km).

• Hotels (exceeding 99 rooms or 40 Hectares, as the case may be). • Fisheries. • All tunneling projects. • Disposal of waste (construction of any solid waste disposal facility having a

capacity exceeding 100 tons per day; construction of waste treatment plants treating toxic or hazardous waste).

• Development of all industrial estates and parks exceeding an area of 10 ha. • Iron and steel industries (production capacity exceeding 100 tons per day using

iron ore as raw material/scrap iron as raw material). • Non-Ferrous basic metal industries (smelting of aluminum or copper or lead of

production capacity exceeding 25 tons per day). • Basic industrial chemicals (formulation of toxic chemicals of production capacity

exceeding 50 tons per day; manufacture of toxic chemicals of production capacity exceeding 25 tons per day).


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• Pesticides and fertilizers (formulation of pesticides of combined production capacity exceeding 50 tons per day; manufacture of pesticides of combined production capacity exceeding 25 tons per day).

• Petroleum and petrochemicals. • Tyre and tube industries (production capacity exceeding 100 tons per day from

natural or synthetic rubber). • Sugar factories (manufacture of refined sugar of combined production capacity

exceeding 50 tons per day). • Cement and lime (manufacture of cement; manufacture of lime employing kiln

capacity exceeding 50 tons per day). • Paper and pulp (manufacture of paper or pulp of combined production capacity

exceeding 50 tons per day). • Spinning, weaving and finishing of textiles (combined production capacity

exceeding 50 tons per day). • Tanneries and leather finishing (chrome tanneries of combined production

capacity exceeding 25 tons per day; vegetable (bark) of combined production capacity exceeding 50 tons per day).

• Industries which involve the manufacture, storage or use of radioactive materials as defined in the Atomic Energy Authority Act No. 19 of 1969 or explosives as defined in the Explosives Act, No. 21 of 1956, excluding for national security reasons.

Although EIAs are effective tools in addressing environmental impacts at a single project level, they often fail to account for the cumulative impacts of several projects. Under such circumstances a Strategic Environment Assessment (SEA) is a more effective tool in identifying the cumulative impacts on the environment of a specific policy or programme of works. At present SEA is still not a mandatory requirement in Sri Lanka (Sri Lanka Sustainable Tourism Development Project, 2009).

8.5 Other instruments and key sectoral policies

8.5.1 Agricultural policy

Nearly 70% of the rural population of Sri Lanka depends on agriculture for their livelihoods (http://www.mimrd.gov.lk/upload/docs/1253183180AgPolicy4.pdf). Sri Lanka’s Agricultural Policy aims to ‘increase local food supply, employment opportunities and agricultural exports by emphasizing. . . [the] cultivation of rice and other field crops, horticultural and floricultural crops, roots and tuberous crops, export agricultural crops, herbal crops, other underutilized crops and bee-keeping as well as supplementary food crops such as sugar cane, cashew and coconut’. It also aims to ‘increase [the] productivity of water and land by enhancing crop production through the application of sustainable cultivation practices [and] promote good agricultural practices such as Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Integrated Plant Nutrition Management (IPNM), for sustainable agricultural development’ (http://www.mimrd.gov.lk/upload/docs/1253183180AgPolicy4.pdf).

. 8.5.2 Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Since the 1990s, several Special Area Management (SAM) sites have been operational around the coast, managed under the aegis of the Coast Conservation

http://www.mimrd.gov.lk/upload/docs/1253183180AgPolicy4.pdf



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and Coastal Management Department. Twenty three SAM sites have been identified in the CZMP of 2006 for proposed action. Special Area Management uses local and geographically specific planning and active stakeholder participation in order to plan for optimal sustainable use of natural resources, ensure economic well-being as well as ecological integrity, and to practise sound natural resource management. Benefits gained from the SAM process include zoning of sites to maximise ecological protection, yet allowing sustainable use, poverty alleviation by provision of facilities for the enhancement of livelihoods, social upliftment through various community-based training programmes and improvement of water quality and waste management (CZMP, 2006).

8.5.3 Organic farming

Traditional agriculture in Sri Lanka was entirely organic. However, the need for increased production in keeping with a burgeoning population after independence, led to the introduction and subsequent vast increase in use of synthetic inorganic agrochemicals (See section below).

Organic farming practices have been introduced by the Department of Agriculture (http://www.afaci.org/file/anboard2/2012%20Sri%20Lanka%20ppt%20Gwangju.pdf). Currently, there is a Small Organic Farmers’ Association (SOFA) operational with 46 branch societies distributed in different districts in Sri Lanka, with more than 2,000 organic farmers. Their products are certified by several international associations, including a fair-trade certification (http://www.sofasl.org/).

8.6 Market-based instruments 8.6.1 Fertiliser subsidies

Since independence in 1948, when the population was increasing, and rice production was decreasing, the use of synthetic fertilisers was introduced in keeping with the Green Revolution practices in the rest of the world. The increase of paddy production has been achieved by successive governments through major irrigation schemes, guaranteed price schemes and fertiliser subsidies (Ekanayake, 2006). In 1962, the subsidy was begun to make fertiliser available as cheaply as possible in order to encourage its wider use thereby increasing agricultural productivity (Ekanayake, 2006). This subsidy is still available and the use of fertiliser has increased steadily (See Figure 24).

The increase in use of fertiliser has had profound effects on both inland and coastal pollution, as the excess is washed off as runoff. Fertiliser subsidies are therefore, classic perverse incentives (Tan, 2006).

8.6.2 Environmental conservation levy act no. 26 of 2008

This act was enacted to impose a levy on certain consumer items (including motor cars and motorcycles, electric bulbs over 40 watts, services supplied by cellular phone operators, users of broadcasting and transmission towers). This tax was challenged in court and the Supreme Court issued a judgement which nullified the levies on motor vehicles, electric bulbs and transmission towers but upheld the levies for cellular phones. The income from taxes was intended for use in setting up a system of safe disposal and recycling of these consumerable items. However, this step has not been implemented (Gunawardena, pers. comm.).

http://www.sofasl.org/


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8.6.3 Tax incentives

Since 2012, a new tax regime was introduced to promote domestic and local private investments for small, medium and large enterprises, project expansions and strategic import replacement enterprises (http://www.investsrilanka.com/setting_up_in_srilanka/investment_with_tax_incentives_17.html). These tax benefits include a minimum tax holiday of four years and a maximum holiday of 12 years for projects including agricultural, fisheries, forestry, manufacturing and services (including tourism), (http://www.investsrilanka.com/setting_up_in_srilanka/investment_with_tax_incentives_17.html) which have a direct bearing on the coastal zone.

9 Institutional mechanisms for pollution control and enforcement of existing policies and legislations

In Sri Lanka, the control of coastal and marine pollution does not lie with one single apex body but among several. A major drawback is that water quality monitoring, which is essential for setting out action to mitigate the impact of coastal and marine pollution, is not mandated legally with a single institution (CZMP, 2006).

9.1 The Central Environmental Authority (CEA)

The Central Environment Authority established and empowered under the National Environment Act is responsible for enforcing the National Environment Act as well as formulating and implementing other environmental policies.

The CEA operates provincial, regional and sub-regional offices that handle most of the compliance and enforcement functions. In the head office, the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) unit and the Environment Pollution Control Unit take care of the EIA and EPL processes respectively (Sri Lanka Sustainable Tourism Development Project, 2009). Its mission is to be the flagship of the nation steering towards protecting and managing the quality of the environment by promoting public participation, enforcement, advanced technological interventions and environmental education (http://www.cea.lk/mission_vision.php).

The CEA comes under the purview of the Ministry of Environment and Renewable Resources.

9.2 Coast Conservation and Coastal Management Department (CCD)

The Coast Conservation and Coastal Management Department (CCD) is the prime agency responsible for coastal issues (CZMP, 2006). The mandate of the CCD is the coastal zone defined in the Section of ‘Other laws that have a bearing on the coastal zone’. The mission of the CCD is the sustainable development of coastal resources and the management of coastal processes to optimise social, economic and environmental status of Sri Lanka (CZMP, 2006). The Coast Conservation Act of 1981 requires that a coastal zone management plan (CZMP) is formulated and periodically updated (CZMP, 2006). The first CZMP formulated in 1990, focussed on coastal erosion, sand and coral mining (CZMP, 2006). A resource management strategy for Sri Lanka’s coastal region, ‘Coastal 2000’, a policy for guiding the direction of coastal

http://www.investsrilanka.com/setting_up_in_srilanka/investment_with_tax_incentives_17.html




http://www.cea.lk/mission_vision.php


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resources management in Sri Lanka, was prepared in 1992. The second, revised CZMP has been implemented since 1997. The CZMP was revised again in 2004 and this included a chapter on coastal pollution and proposed management actions for mitigation(http://www.coastal.gov.lk/about_us_ccd.htm).

According to the Coast Conservation Act, the Director General of the CCD may call for an EIA from private or state agencies, for any development activity that falls within the coastal zone (CZMP, 2006). He is required to call for an EIA for prescribed projects of the NEA.

The CCD comes under the purview of the Ministry of Defence and Urban Development.

9.3 Marine Environment Protection Agency (MEPA)

The Marine Pollution Prevention Authority (MPPA) was established through the Marine Pollution Prevention Act No. 59 of 1981 and authorised to implement it and take necessary steps to prevent marine pollution in the territorial waters of Sri Lanka. There is provision for penal action for any form of marine pollution that damages marine resources and marine biodiversity.

The Act was repealed with the Marine Pollution Prevention Act No.35 of 2008, in order to strengthen its ambit to deal with international conventions for the prevention of marine pollution and the MPPA was replaced with the Marine Environment Protection Agency (MEPA) in 2009. The MEPA is the apex body with the sole responsibility of preventing, controlling and managing the pollution of Sri Lanka's marine environment (MEPA, 2009).

The MEPA comes under the purview of the Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy.

9.4 Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy

(See The role of Ministry of Environment and Ministry of Fisheries in previous sections.)

9.5 National Solid Waste Management Support Centre (NSWMSC)

The National Solid Waste Management Support Centre is responsible for providing technical assistance to provincial councils and local authorities in relation to solid waste management (NSWMSC, 2007).

This centre comes under the purview of the Ministry of Local Government and Provincial Councils.

9.6 The Ministry of Local Government and Provincial Councils

The Ministry of Local Government and Provincial Councils is responsible for the implementation of policies, plans and programmes in respect of provincial councils and local authorities (NSWMSC, 2007).


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9.7 Provincial councils

Under the 13th amendment of the Constitution, considerable powers were devolved from the central government to the provinces, in 1987. Under this amendment, subjects and functions for central and provincial governments have been identified in three scheduled lists, (1) the Central Government list, (2) Provincial Government list and, (3) powers concurrent among Central and Provincial Governments. The central government can set national policies on all subjects and functions, and has the power to approve legislation on the concurrent list of subject areas that have been listed as provincial subjects in the scheduled list.

Environmental management is a devolved subject (IUCN, 2011).

9.8 Local authorities

Waste management comes under the purview of local authorities — municipal councils, urban councils and pradeshiya sabhas (village councils). This is the third tier of government (the first two tiers are the central government and the provincial governments, respectively).

Local authorities are also responsible for and empowered to issue EPLs for 25 types of low polluting activities. However, in general, technical capacity of local authorities is limited, so they rely on the CEA for technical guidance (Sri Lanka Sustainable Tourism Development Project, 2009).

9.9 National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency (NARA)

The National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency (NARA) is the principal national institute charged with the responsibility of carrying out and coordinating research, development and management activities on the subject of aquatic resources in Sri Lanka.

The main foci of NARA activities include: • The application and use of scientific and technological expertise for the

implementation of the national development programmes on the subject of living and non-living aquatic resources;

• Promoting and conducting research activities directed towards identification, assessment, management, conservation and development of aquatic resources in:

– oceanography and hydrography. – fishing gear, fishing craft ,equipment and fishing methods. – socio-economic aspects of the fishing industry and welfare of the fishermen

and their dependents; – processing, preservation and marketing of fish and aquatic products. – development, management, conservation of aquatic resources in the inland

waters, coastal wetlands, coastal and offshore areas. – providing advice and technical background to management measures in

relation to marine, coastal and inland aquatic environmental issues and fishery, oceanographic and hydrographic issues (http://www.nara.ac.lk/12/about%20us/about%20us.html).

NARA is responsible for out research related to pollution. carrying


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NARA comes under the purview of the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.

9.10 Northwestern Provincial Environmental Authority

The North Western Provincial Council enacted a statute (North Western Province Environmental Statute No. 12 of 1990) for areas coming under the North Western Province and established a Northwestern Provincial Environmental Authority. This statute prevails over the NEA in this province.

9.11 Other agencies indirectly involved in pollution control in the coastal

zone

Agency Brief description Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

Operates under the purview of the Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Development. Its mission is to manage fisheries and aquatic resources by adopting new technologies in compliance with the national and international laws and treaties for the productive contribution to the Sri Lankan economy through sustainable development of fishing industry (http://www.fisheriesdept.gov.lk/fisheries_beta/index.php/vision-and-misiion). There are 15 fisheries harbours (12 operational), 19 anchorages, and 600 minor fish landing sites along the coastline (Survey Dept. 2007). These are areas where pollution could occur.


Is a non-ministerial department that has many protected areas in the coastal zone, including lagoons and estuaries, some of which are known to be polluted.

Department of Forests

Operated under the purview of the Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy and is responsible for the conservation of mangroves, which, although they are fond only in the coastal zone, come under the FD’s purview.

Urban Development Authority

The UDA is a national agency responsible for urban development in the country under the UDA Act. The UDA has full authority on all towns declared as UDA areas. There are 150 UDA areas in the country. The UDA provides the following assistances to the local authorities: technical assistance in the development of town planning; enforcement of standards and regulations for development projects; assistance to coordinate with other government authorities; and project planning for small scale projects (even free of charge) and large scale ones (NSWMSC, 2007).

Ministry of Health, Nutrition and Welfare

The Ministry of Health, Nutrition and Welfare is responsible for monitoring and inspection on sanitary aspects in the country and preparation of a legal system including guidelines. For the control and supervision of solid waste management, a Medical Officer of Health (MOH) and Public Health Inspector (PHI) are often assigned to the local authorities (NSWMSC, 2007).

Waste Management Authority in Western Province

The Western Province Provincial Council established the Waste Management Authority in 1999 to assist local authorities in the management and control of all categories (municipal, hazardous and healthcare) of their waste collection, transportation, treatment and disposal needs, as per the Waste Management Statute No. 9 of 1999 of the Western Provincial Council (NSWMSC, 2007).

Table 38 Agencies indirectly involved in pollution control in the coastal zone

Enforcement of policies and regulations are generally carried by the institutions that are designated by acts and regulations. Quality control is usually carried out with assistance

http://www.fisheriesdept.gov.lk/fisheries_beta/index.php/vision-and-misiion


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from public comments, stakeholder discussions through workshops and community group meetings. This finally results in identification of shortcomings in either the legislation or procedures and amendments are made to policies, acts and regulations, usually every few years (Azmy, pers. comm.).

10 Gaps 10.1 Information/Data

While a large amount of information on pollution and environmental quality is available in various institutions and as isolated project outputs (inter alia, many reports from NARA; Bhuvendralingam and Azmy, 1995; Harris and Vinobaba, 2012; Malavipathirana et al., 2012; Perera et al., 2012; Ranatunga, 2012; Senarathne et al., 2006; Siyambalapitiya et al., 2010; Wickramasinghe, 2012), a comprehensive island-wide status report on land based pollution is lacking (Pradeep Kumara, Azmy, Gunasekera, pers. comm.). The last review on water pollution, still cited, is Mubarak’s in 2000.

Particular emphasis should be made to determine the levels of loadings of nutrients, agrochemicals, industrial effluents, organic and inorganic waste including heavy metals (Azmy, pers. comm.).

Further, the extent of marine litter contribution from land-based sources needs to be studied comprehensively (Azmy, pers. comm.). The offshore marine environment has not yet been studied and there are hardly any data available on the quality of deep ocean and areas along the edge of the continental shelf. These areas need to be assessed for water quality, physical and chemical characteristics (Azmy, pers. comm.).

Ambient water quality standards are lacking (Jayaweera, pers. comm.; CZMP, 2006).

10.2 Policies and legislation

Although Sri Lanka has many laws and policies, there are legal gaps and loopholes that need to be reviewed and corrected (Pradeep Kumara, Gunasekera, pers. comm.).

Policy mechanisms that are based on the ‘polluter pays principle’ must be developed (Gunasekera, pers. comm.).

10.3 Overlapping mandates

One of the major issues facing Sri Lanka is the presence of a multiplicity of organizations and institutions related to water, pollution and the coast. (See section on Institutional mechanisms for pollution control and enforcement of existing policies and legislations.) Some of these may have overlapping mandates. For example, in Sri Lanka, four agencies have overlapping jurisdiction over coastal and marine ecosystems. The Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management Department, under the Ministry of Defence, has primary authority over all coastal areas in Sri Lanka. It is responsible for developing national management plans, as well


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as overseeing current management and research. The Department of Wildlife Conservation manages marine and coastal protected areas, while the Forest Department has jurisdiction over mangroves, which are found in coastal areas (Joseph, 2003; IUCN, 2011). The Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources has management jurisdiction over fisheries resources in lagoons. Added to these layers are players from provincial and local governments.

Coordination and holistic management, therefore becomes a considerable challenge.

10.4 Implementation issues

Many of the organizations with some role to play in preventing coastal and marine pollution are constrained by the lack of necessary specialised equipment (Pradeep Kumara, Gunasekera, pers. comm.). For example, MEPA has a small laboratory that is not one of the registered water quality assessment laboratories accepted by the CEA. Many marine and ocean based assessments will need specialised equipment. In general training and career development strategies for staff in key organisations is inadequate (Azmy, pers. comm.). Separate yards for docking of vessels with chemicals and hazardous materials are needed (Gunasekera, pers. comm.).

The problems faced by the State in the implementation of MEAs include: 1) lack of an accepted ratification procedure, 2) lack of coordination among focal points, 3) lack of domestic legislation to implement MEAs, 4) lack of a comprehensive enforcement approach, 5) lack of awareness on MEAs at all levels, 6) inadequate resource allocation for MEAs 7) donor-driven project implementation, 8) lack of systematic participation at MEA negotiations, 9) weak preparation for negotiations, 10) lack of capacities in international negotiation, and 11) lack of access to documents and reference materials (Azmy, pers. comm.). In general, implementation of laws is inadequate (Pradeep Kumara, Azmy pers. comm.). This is exemplified by water quality standards enacted by the NEA and its regulations (see section on Existing water and sediment quality objectives and targets), yet, above permissible levels of various forms of organic and inorganic water pollution have been recorded in several coastal areas, indicating that implementation has been ineffective. A clear example of this lack of implementation is seen in Puttalam Lagoon on the northwestern coast.

‘Since 1962, numerous agencies and scholars have been involved in studying this system (Alwis et al., 1992; Amarasinghe, 1988; Amarasinghe and Perera, 1995; Arulananthan et al., 1995; Corea et al., 1995; Dayaratne et al., 1995 and 1997; Jayasuriya, 1985 and 1991; Jayawardena and Dayaratne, 1995; Suraweera and Jayawickrama, 1989). Many of the recommendations made in their studies [which were repeated in a review by IUCN in 2011] indicating that although issues that damage the Lagoon have been identified for decades, actions to resolve them have not been implemented. This is a general malaise that grips the entire country’ (IUCN, 2011).


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10.5 Report card of pollution status to public

The only mechanism for a report card to the public is through the EIA process where EIA carried out for prescribed projects are open to the public for their comments.

11 Priority actions and Remedial measures required at

11.1 At the national level

1. A national assessment of coastal water quality is essential with particular emphasis made to determine the levels of loadings point and non-point source pollutants such as nutrients, agrochemicals, industrial effluents, organic and inorganic waste, including heavy metals (Pradeep Kumara, Azmy, Gunasekera, pers. comm.).

2. Current studies show contamination from organic and inorganic pollutants in several coastal water bodies. Remedial action has been taken only on a few. Mitigatory/restorative measures must be implemented at a national scale (Jayaweera, pers. comm.).

3. Proper water quality indices should be developed to enable the ranking of coastal water resources, and engineering interventions are required to rectify conditions in coastal water bodies that are of poor quality (CZMP, 2006).

4. Sewage treatment or at least partial sewage treatment for sewage from (at least) the major cities is needed (Gunasekera, Jayaweera, pers. comm.).

5. Institutional mapping (that includes both organizational mapping and a review of the laws) should be carried out to ensure that there are no overlapping mandates, jurisdictions and synergies/contradictions in relevant laws. As the CZMP (2006) notes ‘there is an urgent need for taking cognizance of the large number of institutions and agencies that play a role in coastal pollution control, there is a clear need for integrated coastal zone management based on collaborative arrangements’.

6. Capacity — in terms of human resources, equipment and infrastructure — needs considerable strengthening.

7. Effective policies and implementation mechanisms are needed to address pollution from non-point sources (CZMP, 2006).

11.2 At the provincial level

1. Programmes such as the Pavithra Ganga programme — named as a successful, transparent environmental management programme — can be scaled-up to a provincial level.

2. Considerable strengthening of capacity is needed at the provincial level. 3. Local level organic cultivation exists in the country. These programmes need to

be scaled up to a provincial level to reduce the current dependency on agrochemicals.

11.3 At the local level

1. Creation of awareness among key local stakeholders and their involvement in prevention of pollution is essential. The capacities of local authorities (both technical and financial) to monitor coastal water bodies within their jurisdiction need considerable strengthening (CZMP, 2006).


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2. Promoting mechanisms to enhance active participatory stakeholder engagement in resource use and management decisions is already underway in various fisheries management areas declared under the Fisheries and Aquatic Resources Act. This mechanism includes the establishment of fisheries management authorities, fisheries management committees and gazetted regulations for management of resources. The ambit of these committees could be widened to include prevention of pollution — such as in fish landing sites, dumping of trash and bilge water from boats.

12 Summary and conclusions

Coastal and marine pollution in Sri Lanka has been increasing over the years (CZMP, 2006). The major sources of coastal pollution in Sri Lanka are mostly land-based, mainly from development and human activities outside the coastal zone. There is currently a thrust for infrastructure development that is likely to exacerbate existing issues of pollution. In addition, increasing development in the coastal zone itself — from tourism, industries and settlement — are causing point-source pollution. The sources of marine pollution are ballast and bilge water discharges from ships and boats, as well as oil. There is also the increasing threat of oil spills in the area.

A national assessment on coastal and marine pollution is an immediate need. Also essential is institutional strengthening, both in terms of organizations and laws. Capacity of technical expertise, equipment and infrastructure also needs strengthening. Mitigatory measures for existing polluted coastal water bodies are currently piecemeal and need to be scaled up.

13 Acknowledgements

During the editing of this document, brief, informal discussions were held with the following persons:

1. Mr. A. J. M. Gunasekera, Manager Operations, MEPA. 2. Dr.Mahesh Jayaweera, Senior Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering,

University of Moratuwa. 3. Mr. K. M. S. Perera, CCD 4. The author, Mr. S. A. M. Azmy, Research Director, NARA.

Wider range discussions were not possible because of constraints.

Grateful thanks are extended to Mr. Ajith de Silva, Director Policy Planning, Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy, and Dr Sisira Haputhanthri, focal point for BOBLME in Sri Lanka, for facilitating these discussions; Mr Anura Sathurasinghe, Conservator of Forests; Mr. Manjula Amararathna, Deputy Director, Natural Resources Management, Dept. of Wildlife Conservation; Ms. Kumari Vithana, Legal Officer, Dept. of Fisheries, for sending lists of protected areas under the jurisdictions of the Forest Department, Department of Wildlife Conservation and Department of Fisheries, respectively.


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