pro wrestling & parasocial interaction€¦ · pro wrestling is unlike any other sport or show...

Runninghead:PROWRESTLING&PARASOCIALINTERACTION

ProWrestling&ParasocialInteraction:

AUses&GratificationsStudyintoWhytheWWEisSoPopular

DominicArieno

RochesterInstituteofTechnology


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Abstract

Thisstudylooksatfans’motivationsforwatchingprowrestling.Theusesand

gratificationstheoryofcommunicationisusedtouncoverthesereasonsbehind

theirviewership.Levelsofparasocialinteractionfanshadforwrestlerswere

examined.FanslevelsofparasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarswerecompared

totheirlevelsofempathyandenjoymentforWWEcontent.Theoverallquestion

beingstudiediswhydopeopletuneintoprowrestling?Parasocialinteractionis

foundtobepositivelycorrelatedwithbothempathyandenjoyment.Thefindings

suggestthatprowrestlingorganizationsshouldspendmoretimeenhancingthese

perceivedone-wayrelationshipsiftheywanttomaximizetheirfansenjoyment.


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Introduction

Pro-Wrestlingisanathleticscriptedcompetition.Itpresentsanillusionofa

truecompetitionwhereopponentsoutfightandoutsmartoneanother,andwhere

theresultisofthebattleuncertain.Fansofprowrestlingknowthatthecompetition

isinasense“fake”,butthatdidnotstop78,133peoplefromattending

WrestleMania34inNewOrleansin2018(Dosh,2018a).TheWWEisthepremier

prowrestlingcompanyintheworld,havingrevenueofnearly$800millionin2017

(Dosh,2018b),andhasverylittleseriouscompetition.Forreference,twoprominent

wrestlingpromotions,RingofHonorandNewJapan,alsohadanevent

WrestleManiaweekend,SupercardofHonorXII,andtheyonlygeneratedroughly

6,000fans(Kreikenbohm,2018).ThetermprowrestlingandWWEwillbeused

interchangeablyinthisstudylikeonemightdowiththeNFLandprofootball.

TheWWEoftenreferstoitselfassportsentertainmentbecauseitisscripted,

butstillishighlyphysicalandrequirestrainedathletestobehighlyskilled.Noother

sportintheworldisscripted.Prowrestlingwalksthelineofsoapoperalikedrama

andMixedMartialArts(MMA)stylecombat.Storylinesareusedtoenhancethe

drama,butthefightingtakesyearsofpracticeandskilledtechniquetomaster.To

manythiscrossbetweensportsandentertainmentseemsstrange,butnoteveryone

believesthisbecausetheWWEisathrivingcompanyandhasmanyloyalviewers.It

isitsowngenreandtherehasbeenverylittleacademicresearcharoundit.This

studywillusecommunicationtheorytotryandlearnmoreaboutfansmotivation

forwatchingprowrestling.


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Usesandgratificationstheoryprovidesatheoreticalbasistostudy

motivationsformediausage(Blumler,Katz,&Gurevitch,1974)andisusedherein

theexaminationofprowrestlingpopularity.Parasocialinteractiontheorystates

thatmanyfansofpublicfigures,suchasacelebrityorathlete,formrelationships

withthemthroughmediaoutletsjustastheywouldinreallife(Laken,2009).Itisa

one-wayrelationshiphadbyonlytheviewerwithouttheknowledgeofthepublic

person.ManystudieshavebeendoneonparasocialinteractionwithTVcharacters

suchasLaken’s(2009)studythatlooksattheimpacttheserelationshipshadon

celebrities.Shin’s(2016)studylookedatsocialTV,butnonespecificallylookedat

prowrestling.Asidefromthebuildingoftheseone-wayrelationships,characters

havebeenfoundtoemotionallyimpactviewersthroughempathy.Empathyhasto

dowithbeingabletounderstandanother’sframeofreferenceandexperience

(Bellet,1991).Theculturearoundprowrestlingmakesitsothatwrestlersdonot

breakcharacter.ThiscultureisencompassedbyatermcalledKayfabe.

Kayfabeistheportrayingofastagedevent,suchasarivalry,match,orinjury,

asgenuine(Oz,2017).Wrestlerstaketheircharactershomewiththem.Theillusion

createdbyprofessionalwrestlingissowellkeptthatthecreationofanewtermwas

necessary.TheSapphireWhorfhypothesis(Whorf,1957)statesthatanideathatis

relevanttoaculturewillhavemorewordsforit.ThecreationofKayfabeis

distinctivetoprowrestlingandshowstheuniqueculturesurroundingwrestling.

Prowrestlingisunlikeanyothersportorshowintheworldandthatisevidentin

thiswordKayfabe.Amagicianwillacknowledgethatatrickisindeedanillusion,

butwillnotrevealhowitisdone;butawrestlerwillnotacknowledgetheexistence


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ofatrickandtheaudiencewillnotask.Thisstudywillaimtouncoverifthe

wrestlersbecomemorethanactorsandifthismakefansofwrestlinghaveempathy

towardsthem,aswellasiftherealandhumanisticportrayalsofthesecharacters

allowforrealandhumanisticempathytobeshowntothembytheaudience.

Thisstudyaimstoprovideresearchfortheideathatheightenedlevelsof

parasocialinteractionandempathyisattherootofwhatmakesWWEsopopular.

Levelsofparasocialinteractionandlevelsofempathywillbelookedatinrelationto

enjoymentofprowrestling.Thesevariableswillbecrucialtounderstandingwhy

WWEispopular,whichistheaimofthisstudy.

LiteratureReview

ScriptedTVisariskybusinessandfarmoreexpensivetoproducethanother

genres.Manyscriptedshowsaredoomedtofailduetothesefactors(Chalaby,

2015).SomehowtheWWEhasbeenabletoairtheirflagshipshow,Raw,for25

years.Theirbiggestcompetitor,WCWNitro,onlyranforsixyearsandtheirrun

endedwiththeWWEpurchasingandburyingtheirassets(Greenburg,2017).

AccordingtoChalaby(2015)amajorfactorofhowsuccessfulashowwillbeishow

pureabrandcanbekept.Brandpuritydealswiththeideaofafranchisehavingtoo

manyspinoffsandsequelsthusdilutingandcheapeningitsname.TheWWEhashad

itstwoflagshipshowsRawandSmackdownfor25and19yearsrespectively.There

hasbeencontinuityandlittlechangethatmightdiluteanddistractviewersfromthe

maincontent.Thatcouldgiveusaclueastowhytheyhavebeensuccessful.Brand

purityandcontinuitymightalsoanswerwhysuchdeepparasocialrelationshave


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beenformed.Somecharactershaveremainedconstantfromthestart,suchasThe

Undertaker;someoftheseparasocialinteractionshaveexistedforovertwo

decades.OtherwrestlershavehadlesssuccessintheWWEandhadtoworktheir

buttsoffinTheIndies.TheIndiesisshortforIndependentCircuit,whichrefersto

anyprowrestlingpromotionthatissmallerthanmajortelevisedcompanies.A

washed-upwrestlertryingtomakealivinginTheIndieswasthemainstorylineof

anacademyawardnominatedfilmfrom2008.

TheWrestlerwasafilmstaringMickeyRourke.Itshowshowprowrestlers

become“brokendownpiecesofmeat”justlikeaboxerattheendoftheircareer

(Friedman,2015).Theseveryrealinjuriesandwornoutbodiesfurtherblurthe

linesbetweensportsandentertainment.Distinguishingbetweensportand

entertainmentbecomesdifficultbecausetheathletesaredoingharmtotheirbody

thatisveryreal.Mostactorsdonotinflictphysicaldamagetothemselvesforthe

sakeoftheircharactersandifaroleisthatdemandingastuntdoubleisbroughtin.

Wrestlersdon’thavestuntdoubles.

Asstatedpreviously,usesandgratificationstheorygivesatheoreticalbasis

tostudymotivationsformediause(Blumler,Katz,&Gurevitch,1974).Usesand

gratificationhasbeenusedtolookateverythingrangingfromTwitterandhowit’s

usedtogratifyaneedtoconnectwithothers(Chen,2011)tothefactorsthataffect

advertisementengagementinmagazines(Kim,2015).Thisstudylooksintothe

worldofprowrestlingandhopestodiscoverwhysomanypeoplehavetunedinto

WWEcontentforsolongandwhattheygetfromit.Thisisimportantbecause

monitoringandunderstandinghumanbehaviorallowsaresearchertogainadeeper


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understandingofhumans.Specificallywhypeopleactthewaytheydo.Thisalso

allowsonetoresearchwhatactionsornormativeshiftsmighttakeplaceinthe

future.Understandingtheshiftswillallowprowrestlingorganizationstobeahead

ofthecurveinmarketingefforts.

Parasocialinteractionsareone-wayrelationshipsformedbymanyfansof

publicfigures(Laken,2009).Centeno(2016)foundthat,becauseofparasocial

interactions,celebrity’sendorsementsofpoliticalcandidateswereimpactfulonthe

votinghabitsofindividuals.Parasocialinteractionsareveryseriousandcanhave

realimpactsonpeople’slives.Peoplewhoareinvolvedinparasocialinteractions

oftenattributetheirsuccessingettingthroughatoughtimetotheirfavorite

characters(Shin,2016).ThisisreallyimportantfortheWWE.Theydevelopreally

strongbondswiththeirviewersbecausetheircharacterscanbeseenonTV,butalso

intherealworld!WhatifJonSnowcouldwalkoutofyourTVscreen?JohnCena

can!Notonlydopeopledeveloptheseverytightparasocialrelationshipswiththese

characters,butfor$40thenexttimeRaworSmackdownrolesintotownyoucansee

theminperson.Thesewrestlersexistandtheywillcometoyourtown!Shin’s

findings,thatparasocialrelationshipsaffectpeopleintherealworld,areusedby

WWE.Theycreatewell-developedcharacters,whichfansreallyfeeltheygetto

knowandenjoy.Theseparasocialinteractionsblurthelinesbetweenone-waymass

communicationsaninterpersonalcommunicationforthosefans.JohnCenamightbe

inthesameroomwithafan,butthatdoesn’tmeantheirrelationshipismorethana

one-wayillusion.


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Canella(2016)goesindepthabouthowtheWWEusescurrenteventsinits

storylines.Hemakestheassertionthatthisblursthelinesbetweenwrestlingand

therealworld.TheutilizationofrealworldeventsinthestorylinehasmadeRaw

oneofthelongestrunningshowsontelevision.Ithasbeenonsolongandstayedso

relevantthatfanshavehadthetimeandexposuretodevelopstrongparasocial

interactionswiththecharacters.Thetacticsofmirroringsocialissues,usedbythe

WWE,connectsthesefanstothewrestlerswhoholdsimilarvaluesasthem.Aneasy

waytoillustratethisisthroughJohnCenaandhisrecentfeudwithRusev.Rusevis

BulgarianandhatesAmerica;ontheflipsideCenaisanAmericanicon.Thosewho

expressprideinourcountryalsofeeladeepbondwithCenabecausetheyhold

similarvalues.

PeoplewatchrealityTVbecausewatchingordinarypeopleinthespotlight

makesviewersfeelliketheycouldbetheretoosometime(Reiss&Wiltz,2004).

WWEturnsalotofregularpeopleintosuperstars.SantinoMarellastartedinthe

storylineasanaudiencememberchosenoutofthecrowdtofightthebiggest

meanestsuperstarontheroster,Umaga.Santinomiraculouslywonandbecamethe

intercontinentalchampion.WWEwantspeopletothinkthatifagoofyItalianman

pickedrandomlyoutofthecrowdcanwinthechampionshipitisn’tridiculousto

thinkanyonesitingathomecandothesame.Storylineslikethiselicithighlevelsof

empathyfromfansbecausetheyareputtingthemselvesinthewrestlersshoesand

feelingtheemotionsthattheyfeel.

Whenviolenceispresentinashowtheviewerswatchmoreoftheprogram,

butfeellesssatisfied(Stanca,2013).WhileStanca’sfocuswasagenerallookat


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violencehealsostatedthattheseresultswouldholdupinalldifferenttypesof

violentmedia.TheWWE,likeanyprowrestlingorganization,hasalotofviolence.It

iscommonforonetofeelbadlyforanotherwhentheyarefacedwithaggressionor

threatsofharm.Empathyistheabilitytounderstandanother’sframeofreference

(Bellet,1991).Ifafanisempathetictowardsawrestlerandthatwrestlerendsup

beingthevictimofaviolentwrestlingactitstandstoreasonthatafanmight

experiencedissatisfaction.TheideaproposedbyStanca(2013)thatviolenceand

dissatisfactioncorrelateswithanincreasedviewershipcouldbeseenillustratedin

WWE.Afanfavoritegetshisbuttkickedandeveryoneissad,buttheytuneinnext

weektoseeiftherewillbesomeredemptionorretribution.

ResearchQuestions:

1.Willindividualsexperiencehigherparasocialinteractionforwrestlersthanother

TVcharacters?

2.Whatistherelationshipbetweenempathyandparasocialinteractionamongst

WWEfans?

3.Whatistherelationshipbetweenlevelsofparasocialinteractionsandenjoyment

amongstWWEfans?

Methodology

Toevaluatetheresearchquestionsdatawascollectedthroughonline

surveysdistributedusingFacebook,Reddit,andmTurk.Onlinemethodswere

chosenbecauseoftheglobaloutreachtheyconvenientlysupply.Alinktothesurvey

waspostedoneachoftheplatformswiththemessagethatencouragedpeopleto


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takethesurvey.Whenthelinkwasclickedaconsentformappearedandifaccepted

theyweretakentothesurvey.Thesurveycontained29questions.Prowrestling

sub-redditsweretargetedtoensureenoughwrestlingfanswerereached.Overall

twodemographicsweretargeted:self-identifyingWWEfansandTVviewers.WWE

fanswerechosenbecausetheywillbemostusefultogaugetheusesand

gratificationsofprowrestling.

LevelsofparasocialinteractionindividualshadforWWESuperstarswere

testedusinga5-pointLikertscalewith1beingstronglydisagreeand5being

stronglyagree.Thesamescalewasusedforlevelsofparasocialinteraction

individualshadwithTVcharacters(otherthanprowrestlers).Thesurveyquestions

usedwereadaptedfromthe10-itemversionoftheParasocialInteractionScale

(Rubinetal,1985).Forexample,“Ifindmyfavoritenewscastertobeattractive”

became“IfindmyfavoriteWWEsuperstartobeattractive”and“Ifindmyfavorite

TVcharacter(otherthanprowrester)tobeattractive.”

Totestempathy,participantswereaskedfourquestionsaboutthe

emotionstheyfeelwhilewatchingwrestling.Threeemotionswereconsidered

anger,sadness,andjoybecauseifawrestlingfanisfeelingtheseemotionsthereis

reasontobelievethattheyareabletounderstandthewrestlersframeofexperience.

Participantswerealsoaskediftheyeverputthemselvesinthewrestler’sshoes.

Thesequestionswerealsoonthesame5-pointLikertscale(1=StronglyDisagree;5=

Stronglyagree).Anexampleofasurveyquestionthattestedempathyis“Ifeelsad

whenmyfavoriteWWESuperstarlosesamatch?”

Totestenjoymenttheparticipantswereonlyaskedonequestion.The


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promptwas“IgetenjoymentfromwatchingtheWWE.”Theywereaskedtoanswer

ona5-pointLikertscale(1=StronglyDisagree;5=Stronglyagree).Onlyone

questionwasusedbecauseenjoymentisacommonterm.Parasocialinteractionand

empathyaremorecomplextermsandhavescalestobeabletotestforthem,but

enjoymentisstraightforward.

Results

Atotalof230completedsurveyswerereturnedfromparticipantsofdiverse

backgrounds.Ofthe230,140oftheparticipantsidentifiedasmaleand90identified

asfemale.Withinthesample,152participantsidentifiedaswrestlingfans,while78

didnot.Thevastmajorityofparticipants,at70%,werebetween21-40yearsofage.

Only9%were0-20,17%were41-60,andonly3%were61orolder.

Researchquestiononesoughttofindwhetherindividualswouldhavehigher

levelsofparasocialinteractionforprowrestlersorTVcharacters.Apairedsamples

t-testwasconductedtocomparelevelsofparasocialinteractionforWWE

SuperstarsandTVcharacters.TherewasasignificantdifferencebetweenWWE

Superstars(M=3.36,SD=0.91)andTVcharacters(M=3.64,SD=0.79)andlevelsof

parasocialinteractiont(210)=-4.447,p<.001.ThedatashowsthatthatWrestlers

actuallydon’tcreatestrongerlevelsofparasocialinteractionwithindividualsand

thatTVcharactersseemtohavetheedge.

Basedonthesignificantdifferenceoverallitwasdeterminedimportantto

examinetoseeifthesamedifferencesexistwithineachdistinctgroupof

respondents.Asecondpairedsamplest-testwasconductedtocomparelevelsof

parasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarsandTVcharacters,butthistimeonly


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amongstwrestlingfans.TherewasnotasignificantdifferencebetweenWWE

Superstars(M=3.75,SD=0.55)andTVcharacters(M=3.68,SD=0.72)andwrestling

fanslevelsofparasocialinteractiont(139)=1.49,p=.140.Therewasnosignificant

differencebetweenlevelsofparasocialinteractionwrestlingfanshadwithWWE

SuperstarsandTVcharacters,butforbothgroupswrestingfansreportedhigher

thanneutrallevelsofparasocialinteraction.

AmongstNon-wrestlingfanstherewasasignificantdifferencebetween

WWESuperstars(M=2.59,SD=0.98)andTVcharacters(M=3.55,SD=0.91)and

individualslevelsofparasocialinteractiont(70)=-7.69,p<.001.Non-wrestlingfans

hadsignificantlyhigherlevelsofparasocialinteractionforTVcharactersoverWWE

Superstar,whichiswhatshouldbeexpected.Itstandstoreasonthatnon-wrestling

fansarefairlyneutralwhenitcomestoparasocialinteractionwithprowrestlers.

Therewasnotasignificantdifferencebetweenwrestlingfans(M=3.67,SD=0.71)

andnon-wrestlingfans(M=3.52,SD=0.94)andtheirlevelsofparasocialinteraction

forTVcharacters,t(219)=1.34,p=.183.Thedatashowsthatbothgroupsdevelop

highlevelsofparasocialinteractionforTVcharacters.Wrestlingfansarenotlimited

intheirparasocialinteractionstoonlywrestlers.

Afterthatanindependentt-testwasconductedtocomparelevelsof

parasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarsbetweenwrestlingfansandnon-

wrestlingfans.Thereasignificantdifferencebetweenwrestlingfans(M=3.76,

SD=0.56)andnon-wrestlingfans(M=2.60,SD=0.98)andtheirlevelsofparasocial

interactionforWWESuperstars,t(214)=11.08,p<.001.Wrestlingfanswere

significantlymorelikelytohavehigherlevelsofparasocialinteractionforWWE


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Superstars.Thisstandstoreason,asafanofwrestlingshouldhavestronger

relationshipswithwrestersthannon-fans.

Toseeifgenderplayedarole,anindependentt-testwasconductedto

comparelevelsofparasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarsbetweenmalesand

females.Therewasnotasignificantdifferencebetweenmales(M=3.46,SD=0.79)

andfemales(M=3.23,SD=1.06)andtheirlevelsofparasocialinteractionforWWE

Superstars,t(213)=1.81,p=.071.Genderwasnotasignificantfactorinlevelsof

parasocialinteractionforWWESuperstars,withbothmalesandfemalesreporting

highlevels.

Again,anindependentt-testconductedwastocomparelevelsofparasocial

interactionforTVcharactersbetweenmalesandfemales.Therewasasignificant

differencebetweenmales(M=3.53,SD=0.76)andfemales(M=3.77,SD=0.84)and

theirlevelsofparasocialinteractionforTVcharacters,t(218)=-2.21,p=.028.

GenderdidplayaroleinlevelsofparasocialinteractionforTVcharacterswith

femalesreportinghigherlevels.

Thelasttestwasruntoseeiftheamountofcontentwatchedwouldaffectthe

levelsofparasocialinteraction.Aone-wayanalysisofvariancewasconductedto

examinethedifferencesinlevelsofparasocialinteractionbetweenamountsof

contentwatchedamongstfansofprowrestling.Therewasnotasignificant

differencebetween0-2hours(M=3.72,SD=0.51),3-4hours(M=3.83,SD=0.50),5-6

hours(M=3.68,SD=0.72),or7+hours(M=3.92,SD=0.72),suchthatF(3,140)=0.83,

p=.478.Whilethehighestviewinggrouphadthehighestlevelsofparasocial


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interactionthenon-significantfindingshowsthattheamountofcontentfans

watcheddidnotaffecttheirlevelsofparasocialinteractionfortheWWESuperstars.

Researchquestiontwoexaminesempathy.Theinternalconsistencyofthe

fourquestionsrelatedtoempathyneededtobetestedbecausetheywerenot

adaptedfromapreviousstudy.ACronbach’salphawasruntofindareliability

coefficientof.73,thismeansthereisgoodinternalconsistencyandtherefore

reliability.

ASpearman’srhowasconductedtoexaminetherelationshipbetween

WWEfansparasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarsandEmpathy.Asignificant

relationshipwasfoundsuchthatr(144)=.553,p<.001.Therewasasignificant

positivecorrelationbetweenparasocialinteractionandempathyamongstWWE

fans.

Researchquestionthreelooksatparasocialinteractionandhowitrelatesto

enjoyment.ASpearman’srhowasconductedtoexaminetherelationshipbetween

WWEfansparasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarsandenjoyment.Asignificant

relationshipwasfoundsuchthatr(144)=.316,p<.001.Therewasasignificant

positivecorrelationbetweenparasocialinteractionandenjoymentamongstWWE

fans.

Discussion

Overall,participantshadstrongerlevelsofparasocialinteractionwithTV

charactersthanprowrestlers.Thiswasaninterestingfinding.Noonehad

previouslyrunteststoseethelevelsofparasocialinteractioninwrestlingsothe

resultswereunpredictable.Anothertestwasruntofindoutifthenon-wrestling


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fanswereweighingdownthelevelsofparasocialinteractionfortheWWE

Superstars.ThistestgreatlyshiftedthelevelsofparasocialinteractionfortheWWE

Superstars,butnotenoughtosupporttheideathatwrestlingfanshavestronger

levelsofparasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarsratherotherTVcharacters.

Withthiscomingassomewhatofasurpriseanothertestwasruntoseeifnon-

wrestlingfanshadhigherlevelsofparasocialinteractionforTVcharactersorWWE

superstars.Thiswasmoreofatestofvaliditybecausetheobviousanswerwould

thattheydid.Therewassignificanceinthedatathatshowedthistobetrue.Laken

(2009)definedparasocialinteractionasone-wayrelationshipsformedbymany

fansofpublicfigures.Akeywordinthatdefinitionisfans.Ifanindividualisnotafan

ofafigureoraprogramacharacterisonthentheywillnotformaparasocial

interaction.

Theresultsmentionedaboveraisedthequestionthatmaybewrestingfans

havestrongerlevelsofparasocialinteractionforanyTVcharacters,including

wrestlers.Thedatawasnotsignificantenoughtoprovethisidea.Whilewrestling

fansdohavehighlevelsofparasocialinteractionforallTVcharacters,thedatadoes

notshowthattheyarehigherthannon-wrestlingfans.Anothertestwasdonetosee

ifwrestlingfanshadhigherlevelsofparasocialinteractionwithWWEsuperstars

thannon-wrestlingfans.Thiswasanothertestofvalidityandtheresultswere

significant.GoingbacktoLaken(2009)andtheideathatonemustbeafantohavea

strongparasocialinteraction,itwouldbeconcerningifthedatashowedthatnon-

wrestlingfanshadstrongerrelationshipswithwrestersthanwrestlingfans.


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Inanefforttobethoroughandexpandknowledgetestsonwhetherornot

genderplaysanyroleinparasocialinteractionwithWWEsuperstarswererun.The

resultssuggestedthatgenderplayednorole.Gender,however,didplayaroleinthe

levelsofparasocialinteractionwithTVcharacters,withfemaleshavingthehigher

levels.One-wayrelationshipswithwrestlersarenotconfinedtoanygender

limitations.GenderdifferencesinlevelsofparasocialinteractionforWrestlershave

notbeenlookedatbeforeinotherstudies.Laken(2009)didincludeathletesasa

categoryforcelebritiesthatindividualshadparasocialinteractionswith.Shefound

that30%ofwomenchoseathletes,howeveronly7.5%ofmendid.Thisdiscrepancy

couldbeexplainedbywrestlersnotfallingintoanyonecategory,butinstead

somewhereinbetweenathleteandentertainer.Overall,bothstudiesdidfindthat

womenhavehigherparasocialinteractionlevelsingeneral.Anotherreasonthatthe

WWEmaynotseehigherlevelsofparasocialinteractionamongstwomenwhenthe

generaltrendwouldbetomaybebecauseoftheirunfairandunequaltreatmentof

theirfemalesuperstars.Forexample,atWrestleMania31in2015therewasnine

matches,butonlyonewomen’smatch.Ifthatweren’tenoughitwastheshortest

matchonlylastingfor6minutesand42seconds(Slimmer,2015).IftheWWE

wantedtoraisetheirlevelsofparasocialinteractionamongstwomentheycouldtry

makingtheplayingfieldmorelevel.

ThelasttestforthefirstresearchquestiondealtwiththeamountofWWE

contentwatchedonaverageeachweek.Thiswouldanswerthequestionofwhether

ornotamountofcontentconsumedreallymatteredwhenitcametoparasocial

interactions.Atestwasruntoseeiftheamountofcontentfanswatchedwould


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affecttheirlevelsofparasocialinteraction.Thisalsowasfoundtohaveno

significancemeaningthatamountofcontentconsumeddidn’tmatter.Intermsof

establishingtheseparasocialrelations,consuminganycontentatallismore

importantthantryingtogetfanstoconsumelargeramountsofcontent.Previous

studiesdidnotlookatlevelsofexposure,butjustthefactthatviewerswere

exposed.Thefindingthatamountofcontentwatcheddoesnotsignificantlyaffect

thelevelofparasocialinteractionsofwrestlingfansisnovel.

Thedatacollectedforresearchquestiononefoundnoreasontobelievethat

individualshavehigherlevelsofparasocialinteractionforWWESuperstarsthan

anyothercharactersonTV.Amongstthegeneralpopulationtheyactuallyhadabit

lowerlevels,butthatistobeexpectedbecauseifanindividualdoesn’twatch

wrestlingthereisnowaytoestablisharelationshipwithawrestler.Amongstjust

wrestlingtherewasnosignificantdifferencebetweentheparasocialinteraction

theyhavewithWWESuperstarsandTVcharacterswhichmeanstheWWEisableto

createWWEsuperstarswhobuildstronglevelsofparasocialinteractionthatrivals

otherTVcharacters.Becausethereeffectinthisareaislimitedtojusttheirfanbase

thismaysuggestthattheWWEhaslittletonoinfluenceonthosewhodonot

identifyasfansofprowrestling,certainlynotenoughfortheirSuperstarsto

develophighlevelsofparasocialinteraction.Thismeansthatanymediatryingto

establishparasocialinteractionsisofcourselimitedtothosewhoactuallywatch

theirshow.ThisissportedbythekeywordinLaken’s(2009)study,aswellasmany

others,fan.Anindividualwhoisnotafanofanycontentacharacterisincannotbe

expectedtohavehighlevelsofparasocialinteraction.


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Thesecondresearchquestionlookedatempathyandhowitrelatedto

parasocialinteraction.Therewasasignificantpositivecorrelationbetween

empathyandparasocialinteraction.ThiswouldsuggestthatiftheWWEcangetfans

tounderstandtheirsuperstar’sframeofreferencethentheycangetthemtofeellike

theyhaveastrongrelationshipwiththem.Thismeansthatmakingasuperstarbe

morerelatabletothegeneralpopulation,orattheveryleasttofansofprowrestling,

isimportantinreallydevelopingparasocialinteraction.Thisisconsistentwithwhat

ReissandWiltz(2004)foundaboutrealitystars.Peopleenjoyedwatchingthem

becausetheywererelatabletothem.Thismaybethereasonwhywrestlerssuchas

JohnCena,DeanAmbrose,andAJStylesworksowell,butcharacterslikeGoldust,

Konnor,andViktorhavenotgottenover.Whiletheyareentertainingtheyarenot

relatable.Entertainingmaygetthemamidcardspot,butreliabilitycouldgivethem

thepushtobeaheadliner.Shin(2016)talkedabouthowcelebritiesindirectly,

throughparasocialinteraction,helpgettheirfansthroughtoughtimes.JohnCena

hasgrantedwellover500wishesfortheMake-A-WishFoundation.Thefoundation

grantswishesforkidswithcriticalillness(Hill,2015).Thiscanbeatleastpartially

attributedtofansstrongabilitytorelatetohimandtheirhighlevelsofparasocial

interaction.

Thethirdresearchquestionlookedatenjoymentasitrelatestoparasocial

interaction.Therewasalsoasignificantpositivecorrelationfoundhere.Thismeans

thatifasuperstarhashighlevelsofparasocialinteractionthenfansaregoingto

enjoythemandtheshowasawholemore.TheWWEhasalwaysbeenknownfor

superstarswhoareoverthetopintheirgimmicksandbodysize,fromHulkHogan


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toTheUndertakertoBrayWyatt.Thesesuperstarshavealwaysbeengiventhe

push.IfthisiswhattheWWEUniversewantsthenhowdoesashortguywhois

barleybreaking200poundsandhasnooverthetopgimmickcomeinand

immediatelyearnstheloveandrespectofthewholefanbase,ofcoursethatmanis

DanielBryan.Forthosewhoarenotfansofwrestling,DanielBryanisundersized,

butthathasn’tstoppedhimfrombeingWWEChampion,WorldHeavyweight

Champion,UnitedStatesChampion,IntercontinentalChampion,andWWETag

TeamChampionallinthecourseofthreeyears.Thisresearchsuggeststhatthe

WWEandallthesmallerpromotionsshouldfocustheirattentionawayfromthe

gimmicksandfocusonmakingtheirwrestlersseemmorelikerealpeople.Vince

McMahonlovesthebigguysandoftengivesthemthebiggestpushes.Whilethere

maynotbeexplicitproofstatingthis,itbecomesevidentwhenlookingatstarslike

BigShow,Kane,andBigCasswhoareall7’0tall(Benigno,2017).Whilethesestars

doverywell,itmaybetimetogivetheaverageheight,weight,andlooking

superstarsabigpush.Theymightjustwindupbeingfanfavoritesandleadinga

movementjustlikeDanielBryan.

AnotherreasontheWWEshouldmoveawayfromgivingsomany

championshipopportunitiestotheirgiantsuperstarsisbecausemostpeopleinreal

lifehavetoworkveryhardforwhattheyhave.Mostpeoplecannotrelateto

dominatingandconqueringeveryobstacleinfrontofthemwithease,inthereal

worldpeopleworktowardstheirgoals.Giantsmayreceivelessempathybecauseof

theeaseinwhichtheydothings.Smallersuperstarshavetoearntheirshotandthat

mirrorspeople’sreallives.Thedatasuggeststhatfanswillgetmoreenjoyment


20

seeingsomeoneworkhardjustliketheydo.Thisisnottosaythatgiantshaveno

place.Thegiantscanbethebarriersinthewaythataveragesuperstarshaveto

overcome,butatsomepointtheyshouldovercomeandbegivenchampionships.

Thiswillleadtomoreempathyandoverallenjoymentinthelongrun.Opportunity

formoreaverageandrealisticlookingsuperstarsisnotlimitedtomalesuperstars;

thefemalesshouldbegivenshotsaswell.

FormanyyearstheDiva’sdivisionwasgivenshortmatchesandskimpy

outfits.RecentlytheWWEhasrebrandedtheirfemaledivisioninamovetheyare

callingthewomen’srevolution.TheyrenamedtheDiva’sdivisiontotheWomen’s

division,gavethewomenlongermatches,andgavethembetterstorylines(Fannin,

2017).ThisshouldhelptheWomen’sdivisionimmensely.Itwillhelpmakethe

womenmorerelatableandlesslikedisplayitems.Itshouldincreasetheempathy

viewer’sfeeltowardsthesewomen,thus,increasingparasocialinteractionand

enjoyment.

Conclusion

Theaimofthisstudyistoidentifytheusesandgratificationsofpro

wrestling.ThosewhohaveattendedaWWEeventknowshowdeeplypassionate

wrestlingfansareandhowdeeplyembeddedinthestorylinestheybecome.The

researchbeingpresentedofferscluesastowhythismaybe.Thereisevidencethat

fansofwrestlingfeelarelationshipwiththeirfavoritesuperstars.Thisrelationship

isstrongenoughthattheyfeelempathy.Therelationshiptheyfeelasthoughthey

havewithSuperstarsincreasetheirenjoymentoftheprograming.IftheWWEcan

continuetonurturetheseparasocialrelationshipstheycancontinuetoraisetheir


21

fansenjoymentlevels.Soyes,it’strue,wrestlingisfake,butformanyofthefansitis

muchmorethanthat.Itisaplacewherefansgettoseetheirfavoritesuperstars

fightoneanotherinsomeofthebiggestarenastheworldhastooffer,Itiswere

dreamsaremadeandruinedonepinfallatatime,anditiswherefanscanimmerse

themselvesintoanewreality.

Thestudyisnotwithoutconfounds.First,thesamplewasabitsmallatonly

230participants.Ifthestudyweretobedoneoveralargersamplesizewouldbe

preferred.Therewasonlyonesurveyquestionwhichmeasuredenjoyment,whileit

wassufficient,infuturestudiesmorequestionstestingthisvariablemayincrease

thevalidity.Ifthestudyweretobedoneagainabroaderscopemaybeused.Instead

offocusingonWWEthefocuscouldhavebeenonprowrestlingorganizations.This

isnotahugedealbecauseofthelargediscrepancyinsizeandreachbetweenindie

promotionsandtheWWE.

Interestingavenuesforfutureresearchmightbetoexploresocialmedia’s

influenceonparasocialinteractionwithprowrestlers.Onecouldseeifthereisa

linkbetweenlevelsofsocialmediacontentrelatedtotheWWEconsumedandlevels

ofparasocialinteraction.Anotherinterestingavenueforfurtherresearchwouldbe

toseeifattendinglivetapingsorcommunityeventshaveanyimpactonparasocial

interaction.Surveyscouldbedistributedatoneofthemanytapings,houseshows,

andfaninteractionsWWEputson.Thatdatacouldbecomparedtoparticipantswho

haveneverbeentoanyliveeventstoseeifthereareanydiscrepancies.

Sowhyarepeoplefansofprowrestling?Thereisnoeasyexplanation,but

thedataseemstosuggestthatfansbecomeveryinvestedinthewrestlerstheyare


22

watching.Theyfeelrealemotionsandgetrealenjoyment,evenifthestoriesbeing

toldarefake.WhiletheBigShow’sknockoutpunchmightlookalotworsethanit

feels,somewhereafaniscringingorholdingtheirbreathtobesurethesuperstar

thatwasattheotherendofitisuninjured.


23

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Barker,C.(2013,July03).WWERaw’s1,000thepisode:Thebestterribleshowofall-time.RetrievedDecember07,2017,fromhttps://thiswastv.com/2012/07/23/wwe-raws-1000th-episode-the-best-terrible-show-of-all-time/Benigno,A.(2017,July17).WheredoesBigCassrankamongthetallestSuperstarsever?RetrievedApril19,2018,fromhttp://www.wwe.com/article/7-7-footers-in-wweBellet,P.S.(1991).Theimportanceofempathyasaninterviewingskillinmedicine.JAMA:TheJournaloftheAmericanMedicalAssociation,266(13),1831-1832.Blumler,J.,Katz,E.,&Gurevitch,M.(1974).Utilizationofmasscommunicationbytheindividual.InJ.G.Blumler&E.Katz(Eds.),Theusesofmasscommunications:Currentperspectivesongratificationsresearch(pp.19–32).Canella,G.(2016).OccupyRaw:ProWrestlingFans,Carnivalesque,andtheCommercializationofSocialMovements.TheJournalofPopularCulture,49(6),1375-1392.RetrievedOctober4,2017.Carrier,S.(2016,July12).HowMuchIsWWEWorth?RetrievedNovember16,2017,fromhttp://www.ringsidenews.com/2016/07/12/how-much-is-wwe-worth/Chalaby,J.K.(2015).DramawithoutDrama.Television&NewMedia,17(1),3-20.RetrievedDecember6,2017.Chen,G.M.(2011).Tweetthis:AusesandgratificationsperspectiveonhowactiveTwitterusegratifiesaneedtoconnectwithothers.ComputersinHumanBehavior,27(2),755-762Centeno,D.G.(2016).Celebrities'ParasocialInteractionandRelationships:PredictorofVotingPreferencetowardsEndorsedPoliticalCandidates.PhilippineManagementReview,23.RetrievedApril18,2018.Dosh,K.(2018a,April09).WrestleMania34AttendanceRanks#6InWrestleManiaHistory,BreaksSuperdomeRevenueRecord.RetrievedApril15,2018,fromhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/kristidosh/2018/04/08/wrestlemania-34-attendance-ranks-6-in-wrestlemania-history-breaks-superdome-revenue-record/#485ccd1b3cb5Dosh,K.(2018b,February13).WWE'sRevenueRose10%In2017ToHighestInCompanyHistory.RetrievedApril18,2018,from


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https://www.forbes.com/sites/kristidosh/2018/02/13/wwes-revenue-rose-10-in-2017-to-highest-in-company-history/#576dd967360aFannin,P.(2017,October13).StephanieMcMahonSays"OneKeyPivotalMoment"StartedTheWomen'sRevolution.RetrievedApril15,2018,fromhttps://www.fightful.com/wrestling/stephanie-mcmahon-says-one-key-pivotal-moment-started-women-s-revolutionFriedman,S.(2015).TheMoneyIsintheRematch:Redbelt,TheWrestler,andMasculineSelf-DeterminationontheRopesintheContemporaryHollywoodFightFilm.TheJournalofPopularCulture,48(6),1306-1326.Greenberg,K.E.(2017,April11).AnOralHistoryoftheLastWCWMondayNitro.RetrievedApril18,2018,fromhttp://bleacherreport.com/articles/1860685-an-oral-history-of-the-last-wcw-monday-nitroHill,L.(2015,August21).After500thMake-A-Wishrequest,WWEsuperstarJohnCenasayshe'd'dropeverything'todoitagain.RetrievedNovember16,2017,fromhttp://www.latimes.com/entertainment/tv/showtracker/la-et-st-john-cena-grants-500th-wish-20150821-htmlstory.htmlKim,J.,Lee,J.,Jo,S.,Jung,J.,&Kang,J.(2015).MagazineReadingExperienceandAdvertisingEngagement.Journalism&MassCommunicationQuarterly,92(1),179-198.Kreikenbohm,P.(2018).ROHSupercardOfHonorXII.RetrievedApril15,2018,fromhttps://www.cagematch.net/?id=1&nr=196951Laken,A.R.(2009).Parasocialrelationshipswithcelebrities:Anillusionofintimacywithmediatedfriends(Master'sthesis,UniversityofNevada)(p.3).UMI.Oz,D.(2017,April12).WWE:The15WorstKayfabe-BreakingMomentsinWWEHistory.RetrievedApril15,2018,fromhttp://bleacherreport.com/articles/704-255-wwe-the-15-worst-kayfabe-breaking-moments-in-wwe-historyReiss,S.,&Wiltz,J.(2004).WhyPeopleWatchRealityTV.MediaPsychology,6(4),363-379.Rubinet.al(1985).HumanCommunicationResearch,12,155-180.Shin,D.(2016).DoUsersExperienceRealSociabilityThroughSocialTV?AnalyzingParasocialBehaviorinRelationtoSocialTV.JournalOfBroadcasting&ElectronicMedia,60(1),140-159.


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Slimmer,S.(2015,March29).411MANIA.RetrievedApril22,2018,fromhttps://411mania.com/wrestling/411s-wwe-wrestlemania-31-report-03-29-15/Stanca,L.,Gui,M.,&Gallucci,M.(2013).AttractedbutUnsatisfied:TheEffectsofSensationalContentonTelevisionConsumptionChoices.JournalOfMediaEconomics,26(2),82-97.Whorf,B.L.,&Carroll,J.B.(1957).Language,Thought,andReality:SelectedWritingsofBenjaminLeeWhorf.Language,33(3),421.Wrench,J.S.,Thomas-Maddox,C.,Richmond,V.P.,&McCroskey,J.C.(2016).Quantitativeresearchmethodsforcommunication:ahands-onapproach.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.


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AppendixSurveyAdaptedfromParasocialInteractionScale(Rubinet.al,1985)DoyouconsideryourselfaWWEFan?

o Yeso No

HowmuchWWEcontentdoyouwatcheachweek?

o 0-2hourso 3-4hourso 5-6hourso 7+hours

PleasethinkaboutyourfavoritemaleorfemaleWWESuperstarwhenreplyingtothefollowingitems:

Stronglydisagree

Somewhatdisagree

Neitheragreenordisagree

Somewhatagree

Stronglyagree

Ifeelsadwhenmy

favoriteWWESuperstar

losesamatch.o o o o o

Igetangrywhenmy

favoriteWWESuperstarloses.

o o o o o Iget

enjoymentfrom

watchingWWE.

o o o o o Ifeeljoyseeingmy

favoriteWWE o o o o o


27

Superstarwinamatch.

Sometimeswhen

watchingprowrestlingIputmyselfinmyfavoritewrestlersshoes.

o o o o o

Ifeelsorrywhenmy

favoriteWWEsuperstar

losesamatch.o o o o o

MyfavoriteWWE

superstarmakesme

feelcomfortable,asifIamwithafriend.

o o o o o

MyfavoriteWWE

superstarseemslikeanatural,downtoearthperson.

o o o o o

Ilookforwardtoseeingmy

favoriteWWESuperstarperform.

o o o o o

IfmyfavoriteWWE

superstarweretobeonanotherTVshow,Iwouldwatchtheprogram.

o o o o o


28

WhenmyfavoriteWWEsuperstarisperforming,heorsheseemsto

performthemovesIwant

tosee.

o o o o o

IftherewereastoryaboutmyfavoriteWWE

SuperstarinanewsarticleIwouldreadit.

o o o o o

ImissseeingmyfavoriteWWE

Superstarwhenheorsheisinjuredoroutforalongperiodof

time.

o o o o o

IfindmyfavoriteWWESuperstartobeattractive.

o o o o o IwouldliketomeetmyfavoriteWWEsuperstarinperson.

o o o o o PleasethinkaboutyourfavoritemaleorfemaleTVcharacter(otherthanprowrestling)whenreplyingtothefollowingitems:

Stronglydisagree

Somewhatdisagree

Neitheragreenordisagree

Somewhatagree

Stronglyagree

Ifeelsorryformy

favoriteTV o o o o o


29

characterwhentheymake

mistakes.

MyfavoriteTVcharactermakesme

feelcomfortable,asifIamwithafriend.

o o o o o

MyfavoriteTVcharacterseemslikeanatural,downtoearthperson.

o o o o o

IlookforwardtoseeingmyfavoriteTVcharacterontheirshow.

o o o o o

IfmyfavoriteTVcharacterweretobeonanotherTVshow,Iwouldwatchtheprogram.

o o o o o

WhenmyfavoriteTVcharactertalks,heorsheseemstounderstandthekindsofthingsIwanttoknow.

o o o o o

IftherewereastoryaboutmyfavoriteTVcharacterinanewsarticleI

o o o o o


30

wouldreadit.

ImissseeingmyfavoriteTVcharacterwhentheshowisonhiatus.

o o o o o

IfindmyfavoriteTVcharactertobeattractive.

o o o o o IwouldliketomeetmyfavoriteTVcharacterinperson.

o o o o o

Whatagerangedoyoufallinto?

o 0-20o 21-40o 41-60o 61+

Whatisyourgender?

o Maleo Female

pro wrestling & parasocial interaction€¦ · pro wrestling is unlike any other sport or show...

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