professional communication and …...university of timişoara. author of 10 books on stylistics,...

CONFERENCE SERIES

PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION AND

TRANSLATION STUDIES

EDITORS

RODICA SUPERCEANU – Politehnica University of Timișoara, Romania DANIEL DEJICA – Politehnica University of Timișoara, Romania

ADVISORY BOARD

EUGENIA ARJOCA-IEREMIA – University of Timișoara, Romania MARIANA CERNICOVA-BUCĂ – Politehnica University of Timișoara, Romania GYDE HANSEN – Copenhagen Business School, Denmark ANGELIKA IONAȘ – University of Timișoara, Romania DEBRA JOURNET – University of Louisville, USA UROS MOZETIC – University of Ljubljana, Slovenia HORTENSIA PÂRLOG – University of Timișoara, Romania RODICA SUPERCEANU – Politehnica University of Timișoara, Romania MARIA ȚENCHEA – University of Timișoara, Romania

PUBLISHER

THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION AND FOREIGN LANGUAGES POLITHENICA UNIVERSITY OF TIMIȘOARA

DISCLAIMER: The authors are solely responsible for the content of their articles.

PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION AND TRANSLATION STUDIES, VOL 3 (1-2) / 2010 ISSN 2065 – 099X

POLITEHNICA UNIVERSITY OF TIMIŞOARA

DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION AND FOREIGN LANGUAGES

PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION AND

TRANSLATION STUDIES

Volume 3, Issue 1-2, 2010

Proceedings of the 6th International Conference

3-4 April 2009 TIMIȘOARA, ROMANIA

POLITEHNICA UNIVERSITY PRESS TIMIȘOARA – 2010

Copyright © Editura Politehnica, 2010 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. EDITURA POLITEHNICA Bd. Republicii nr. 9 300159 Timisoara, Romania Tel. 0256/403.823 Fax. 0256/403.823 E-mail: [email protected] Editorial advisor: Prof. dr. ing. Sabin IONEL Redactor: Claudia MIHALI Printing date: 14.10.2010 Printing paper: 6.25 ISSN 2065-099X Printed in Romania Printing order: 85 Printing center, Politehnica University of Timisoara

PREFACE

The second volume of Proceedings of the 2009 International Conference “Professional Communication and Translation studies” presents contributions of the participants grouped into the same three sections as the first volume: Professional Communication, Linguistics and Communication and Translation Studies. What distinguishes these articles from those in the first volume is their noticeable applied orientation: they study instances of communication or communication mediation. The topics of the articles in the Professional Communication section are quite varied, but so is human communication. However, the articles have a common denominator: their concern with live communication, which in these cases is political, corporate, administrative, or educational. Even those which are bent on generalization and theorizing about creativity in PR or negotiating styles bring forth ample illustrations of the ideas with samples of communication. The articles in the Linguistics and Communication section focus on language – the linguistic contrasting points between ESP and EGP, the importance of language for understanding issues of social concern, and teenage language – and highlight the contribution of language to communication. The articles of Translation Studies belong to two research areas: translation problems and translation databases. One article of the former area deals with the problems of EU legislation, whose sources are the semantic peculiarities of the texts, while the other studies the linguistic problems: semantic, lexical and grammatical with the translation of art history texts. The article on translation databases proposes a solution for designing a database for example-based translation. The editors

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PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION AND TRANSLATION STUDIES, 3 (1-2) / 2010

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CONTENTS PREFACE……………………………………………………………………………………..

CONTENTS ………………………………………………………………………………….. NOTES ON EDITORIAL BOARD AND CONTRIBUTORS ..……………………………

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I. PROFESSIONAL COMMUNICATION

PR CHALLENGES IN PROMOTING THE CROSS-BORDER COOPERATION DANUBE-CRIS-MURES-TISA (DKMT)........................................................................ Mariana CERNICOVA INTERCULTURAL NEGOTIATIONS: A CULTURAL APPROACH............................ Raluca-Nicoleta ROGOVEANU

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ETHICS AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR.................................................................... Elena Claudia CONSTANTIN

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CREATIVITY IN PUBLIC RELATIONS........................................................................ Adina PALEA

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POLITISCHE KOMMUNIKATION IN DER MEDIENGESELLSCHAFT - AM

BEISPIEL DER INITIATIVE VERDE PENTRU BICICLETE IN TEMESWAR.............. Tanja BECKER DIE ABTEILUNG FÜR MODERNE ANGEWANDTE SPRACHEN DER „TRANSILVANIA“ UNIVERSITÄT – EINE BILANZ NACH DER ERSTEN BACHELOR GENERATION ........................................................................................ Ioana DIACONU

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II. LINGUISTICS AND COMMUNICATION

ROYAL SPEECH PREVENTS CRISIS QUEEN ELIZABETH’S SPEECH ON THE DEATH OF PRINCESS DIANA.................................................................................... Marina-Cristiana ROTARU A GENERAL VIEW ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ESP AND EGP..... Alexandra-Valeria POPESCU

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JUGENDSPRACHE ALS PROVOKATION..................................................................

Andreea R. RUTHNER

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III. TRANSLATION STUDIES

SEMANTIC PECULIARITIES

Mihaela COZMA

IN THE LEGAL DISCOURSE: A TRANSLATION-ORIENTED APPROACH..............................................................................................

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THE INTERNAL RULES OF THE EXAMPLE DATABASE DESIGN.......................... Nadia Luiza DINCA

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BESONDERHEITEN BEIM DEUTSCH-RUMÄNISCHEN ÜBERSETZEN VON TEXTEN AUS DEM BEREICH DER KUNSTGESCHICHTE........................................ Andreea-M. SÁNDOR

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LIST OF ABSTRACTS IN ENGLISH ……………………………………………………....

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NOTES ON EDITORIAL BOARD AND CONTRIBUTORS

Eugenia ARJOCA-IEREMIA, PhD, is a reader in French and Chair of the Romance Languages Department at the University of the West, Timişoara. Her research interests focus on contemporary French semantics, discourse analysis, LSP translation and French grammar. She is a member in several international associations such as Romanian Society of Romance Linguistics or Association des chercheurs en linguistique française. E-mail: earjoca[a]litere.uvt.ro

Mariana CERNICOVA-BUCA, PhD, is a reader at the Department of Communication and Foreign Languages, Politehnica University of Timişoara. Author of 10 books on stylistics, journalism and modern history, her focus is on applied linguistics, communication sciences and political science. Her professional experience includes translation, counselling in public relations, academic management (provost of a private university, 2004-2008), and political journalism. She is distinguished with the National Order for Merit in Education (2004). She is a member of the European Communication and Research Association, a Board member of the Alliance of Universities for Democracy, vice-president of the Association for Romanian Media History, vice-president of the Centre for Ethical Resources and Initiatives and a member of the Association for Professors in Journalism and Communication. She is a book reviewer and editor for the AUDEM: International Journal of Higher Education and Democracy. E-mail: mcernicova[a]gmail.com

Daniel DEJICA holds a PhD in translation studies from the University of the West, Timişoara. His research interests include translation theory and methodology, LSP translation, and discourse analysis for translation purposes. Daniel Dejica is a member of the Advanced Translation Research Center (ATRC) team at the University of Saarbrucken, Germany. He has been co-editing the Proceedings of the Professional Communication and Translation Studies conference at Politehnica University of Timişoara since 2001; he is also a member in the editorial boards of other international peer-reviewed journals such as conneXions: international professional communication journal (University of Lisbon) or MuTra Journal (University of Saarbrucken). E-mail: daniel.dejica[a]cls.upt.ro

Gyde HANSEN, PhD, Prof. Dr. Habil., has taught at the Copenhagen Business School since 1978 in the disciplines: comparative linguistics, intercultural communication, semiotics and marketing, translation theory and practice, textual analysis and revision, philosophy of science and empirical research methods. Since 2004, she has been Vice President of EST (European Society for Translation Studies). Her research projects include: TRAP (Translation processes), the Copenhagen Retrospection Project, a longitudinal study From Student to Expert and TraREdit, an investigation of quality in translation and revision. E-mail: gh.isv[a]cbs.dk

Angelika IONAS, PhD, is a reader and Vice-Dean of the School of Letters, University of the West, Timişoara. Her research interests include communication theory, intercultural communicarion, rhetoric, and german didactics. She has been authoring and co-authoring more than ten books and German language courses. Angelika IONAS is a member in several international associations, such as Deutsch-Rumänische Akademie-Internationales Forum für Wissenschaften, Ethik, Theologie, Literatur und Kunst (Maniz, Germany). E-mail: angelika.ionas[a]yahoo.com

Debra JOURNET, PhD, is a distinguished teaching professor and PhD supervisor at the University of Louisville, USA. Her research interests include rhetoric of science, narrative theory, technical and scientific communication, multimodal composition, and research methodologies in rhetoric and composition. In 2006 and 2008 she was Director of the Thomas R. Watson Conference in Rhetoric and Composition. E-mail: debra.journet[a]louisville.edu

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Uros MOZETIC, PhD, is an associate professor in English and American literature at the English Department, the Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. He is also a poet and literary translator, co-editor of the international scholarly journal ELOPE, member of the editorial board of the leading Slovene literary and humanist magazine Nova Revija, and a corresponding fellow of The English Association. His main areas of research lie in translation studies, narratology, modern English and American poetry. E-mail: [email protected]

Hortensia PÂRLOG, PhD, is a professor in English at the University of the West, Timişoara, where she supervises doctoral students. She is the author or co-author of several books and dictionaries, the oldest being The Sounds of English and Romanian (co-author D. Chiţoran, J. Augerot), 1984, and the latest Translating the Body, München, Lincom, 2007, revised and enlarged edition, Iaşi, Institutul European, 2009 (co-authors Pia Brînzeu, Aba-Carina Pârlog). She is the founder and editor of the journal B.A.S.-British and American Studies. E-mail: abaparlog[a]gmail.com

Rodica SUPERCEANU, PhD, is a reader and Chair of the Department of Communication and Foreign Languages, Politehnica University of Timişoara, where she has been teaching discourse analysis, pragmatics and translation since 1993. Her research has focused on areas which run parallel to her teaching: discourse and genre analysis, translation studies, translation didactics and lexicography. She is the author of The Rhetoric of Scientific Articles (1998), Elements of Discourse and Discourse Analysis (2000), Translating Pragmatic Texts (2004, 2009), of three LSP textbooks and of numerous articles. She has also co-authored Professional Genres in Public Administration (2006) and two bilingual dictionaries for robotics (2004). She coordinated a research project on a NCSRHE grant about professional genres used in business and public administration settings. Since 2003 she has been editor of the Scientific Bulletin of “Politehnica” University of Timişoara, the Modern Languages Series and since 2001, editor of the proceedings volume Professional Communication and Translation Studies. E-mail: rodica.superceanu[a]cls.upt.ro

Maria TENCHEA, PhD, is a professor in French with the Romance Languages Department, University of the West, Timişoara. She teaches French linguistics and translation and her research interests include French and Romance linguistics, contrastive analysis, and translation theory and methodology. She is the author of L'expression des relations temporelles dans le système des prépositions du français. Préposition et verbe; Études contrastives (domaine français-roumain); Le subjonctif dans les phrases indépendantes. Syntaxe et pragmatique; Noms, verbes, prépositions; (coord.) Etudes de traductologie; (coord.) Dicţionar contextual de termeni traductologici (franceză-română) [Contextual Dictionary of Translation Terms]. Maria Tenchea is a member of the SEPTET (Société d’Études des Pratiques et Théories en Traduction). E-mail: mtenchea[a]yahoo.com

*** Tanja BECKER is DAAD Lecturer at the German Department for International Relations and European Studies, Faculty for Political Science, Philosophy and Communication Science, University of the West, Timişoara. She teaches political communication, discourse analysis, international communication, and introduction to scientific research. Her research interests focus on German literature in Central Europe, communication science, discourse analysis, and gender studies. She is undergoing her PhD studies in comparative literature, published numerous articles on German language and literature, and authored several books. E-Mail: becker[a]daad-Timişoara.de

Mariana CERNICOVA-BUCA, PhD, is a reader at the Department of Communication and Foreign Languages, Politehnica University of Timişoara. Author of 10 books on stylistics, journalism and modern history, her focus is on applied linguistics, communication sciences and political science. Her professional experience includes translation, counselling in public relations,








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academic management (provost of a private university, 2004-2008), and political journalism. She is distinguished with the National Order for Merit in Education (2004). She is a member of the European Communication and Research Association, a Board member of the Alliance of Universities for Democracy, vice-president of the Association for Romanian Media History, vice-president of the Centre for Ethical Resources and Initiatives and a member of the Association for Professors in Journalism and Communication. She is a book reviewer and editor for the AUDEM: International Journal of Higher Education and Democracy. E-mail: mcernicova[a]gmail.com

Elena C. CONSTANTIN is an assistant lecturer at the Department of Communication and Foreign Languages at the Politehnica University of Timisoara, where she teaches translation practice, general English and English for specific purposes. Her major research interests rely on translation studies and English as a foreign language; she has published more than 30 scientific articles in these fields. She is undergoing her PhD studies in the Management of Communication. E-mail: claudia.constantin[a]cls.upt.ro

Mihaela COZMA, PhD, is a lecturer at the English Department, University of the West, Timişoara, Romania. She teaches courses and seminars of English morphology and translation studies. She is interested in various aspects related to translation training and translation research, such as translation norms, translator's competence, discourse analysis for translation purposes, or legal-administrative translations. In 2006, her research in the field of translation led to the publication of a book entitled "Translating Legal-Administrative Discourse: the EU Legislation", a book which is based on the Ph.D. thesis that she defended in the same year. E-mail: mgcozma[a]yahoo.com

Ioana DIACONU, PhD, is a reader at the Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures, Faculty of Letters, Transilvania University, Brasov. Her research includes communication theory and intercultural communication, both for translation purposes. Another focus of her research is didactics of German as a foreign language in universities, being co-author of Mit Deutsch studieren, arbeiten, leben, Milano, Archipelago edizioni, 2009. E-mail: i_diaconu[a]yahoo.de

Nadia Luiza DINCA is a PhD student at the Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence, Romanian Academy. Her research activities focus on theoretical and computational linguistics, machine translation, and speech synthesis. She worked as a linguist in the domain of text-to-speech at Nuance Communications International BVBA (Merelbeke, Belgium) and was the coordinator of a machine translation project at the Institute for Analysis and Synthesis of Open Informational Systems (Iasi, Romania). Nadia Dinca is the author of 11 articles in these fields. Email: hnadia_luiza[a]hotmail.com

Adina PALEA is a doctoral student at Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania. She works as an assistant lecturer at the Politehnica University of Timisoara where she teaches crisis situation management, corporate communication and media relations. Her research interests are in the field of communication sciences, public relations, and new media. E-mail: [email protected]

Alexandra-Valeria POPESCU is an assistant lecturer at the Department of Communication and Foreign Languages at the Politehnica University of Timisoara, where she teaches general English and English for specific purposes. Her main research interests include communication techniques, methods and strategies in teaching both English for specific purposes and English as a foreign language; she has published more articles in these fields. E-mail: [email protected]

Raluca Nicoleta ROGOVEANU, PhD, is a lecturer at the Department of Foreign Languages, Ovidius University of Constanta. A member of ESSE, EAAS, RAAS, she has published widely on cultural studies, 20th century American literature and business English. She authored 3 books and her articles have been published in both Romanian and foreign scientific journals. She teaches courses in American political institutions, American constitution and business communication and correspondence. E-mail: ralu_ionita[a]yahoo.com.










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Marina-Cristiana ROTARU is a lecturer at the Department of Foreign Languages at the Romanian-American University in Bucharest, where she teaches Business English. Her major research topics focus on British cultural studies and she takes a special interest in contemporary constitutional monarchy. She has written various articles on British and Romanian royalty. She is undergoing her PhD studies in contemporary representations of constitutional monarchy at Université de Bretagne-Sud, Lorient, France. E-mail: rotaru_marina[a]yahoo.com.

Andreea SÁNDOR, MA, currently works as an Executive Assistant in the private sector. She has an 8 years experience in specialised (technical) translation and she coordinated the activity of a team of up to six translators over a 3 year period. Her fields of interest are the theory and practice of translation, terminology, special languages and communication studies. E-mail: deasandor[a]yahoo.de

Andreea UNGUREANU-RUTHNER is an assistant lecturer at the Department of Communication and Foreign Languages at the Politehnica University of Timişoara, where she teaches German and English as a foreign language. She holds an M.A. degree in German Interdisciplinary Studies from the University of the West, Timişoara, Romania. Her major research interests rely on intercultural aspects of the foreign language teaching methods. E-mail: arruth2002[a]yahoo.com





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PR CHALLENGES IN PROMOTING THE CROSS-BORDER

COOPERATION DANUBE-CRIS-MURES-TISA (DKMT)

Mariana CERNICOVA-BUCĂ Politehnica University of Timisoara

Abstract: The cross-border cooperation is viewed in Europe as an important tool for unifying the once divided continent and for dismantling historic rivalries between states. In the border region of Romania, Hungary and Serbia the Euro-regional cooperation known as DKMT (Danube-Cris-Mures-Tisa) develops as a model for Romania. The elected officials at the regional level from the three states involved agree to develop projects and try to asses DKMT as part of the “big Europe”. The paper looks into the PR practice of the administrative bodies of DKMT and analyzes some of the current problems in delivering Euro-regional information to the general public. Key words: public relations, Euro-regional cooperation, (public) administration.

1. Introduction

Explaining the administrative decisions to the public is one of the main responsibilities of the PR departments of elected bodies. Introducing new concepts and making them interesting for the people, via media, is even more challenging. In the early ’90s of the previous century, however, the public administration bodies in the frontier region of Romania, Hungary and Serbia set forth to introduce the cross-border cooperation, European processes and integration policies in their public agendas. The paper explores the evolution of this task in Timis county and what challenges remain significant for PR specialists in the context of new European processes. It is based on a combination of direct observation, media monitoring, interviews, analysis of relevant documents and studies concerning the particular case of the cross-border cooperation within the framework of Danube-Cris-Mures-Tisa protocol, signed by regional authorities in 1997.

2. The cross-border cooperation: a view from Timis county

The grass-root cross-border co-operation among sub-national administrative actors in Western Europe goes back as far as the early ’50s, the unification process of the continent having a strong support in the region. Confidence-building measures, in the sense this term is currently used, are efficient only when they are based on open-mindedness, on the deep trust among co-operating partners, trust emerging from knowledge, experience, recurrent success in common action. As evidence, one may hint at the fact that over 70 euro-regions (involving 38 states) have been registered so far, and new euro-regions have been formed in areas formerly closed to such type of co-operation (Eger: 1999). An important fostering factor proved to be the Madrid European Frame-Convention on the Cross-Border Cooperation of Territorial


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Communities or Authorities (1982, with an Additional Protocol of 1989 which enhanced also the possibilities for cross-border cooperation following the euro-regional pattern) and the constitution of the European Association of Border Regions (EABR). Thus, countries which hesitated to allow sub-state regions to cooperate across the border could better grasp the frame and limits of political, economic, administrative, cultural co-operation which could be left at the competence of sub-national authorities, while the regions themselves had a lobbyist and a promoter in the strength of EABR. Since building a new Europe depends largely on changing the function of borders from barriers into mere symbolic marks among states, the existence of euro-regions is favored as a smoothening factor. Also, it has to be kept in mind that the new Europe fosters not solely the state actors, but gives voice and place to communities and individuals. Thus, no political, economic or symbolic factors can be analyzed without taking into consideration a multi-level network of relationships, involving European, national, regional and local authorities. Those who believe that the sub-state authorities will increase in importance, as the unification process continues are encouraged by the fact that the Maastricht Treaty (1992) includes references to the value of regions (not cross-border, but still, regions) and by the ever growing use of the subsidiarity principle.

While looking up to the Western European models as success recipes, the Central and Eastern European countries were rather shy in approaching the regional policies. The new democracies, after a long experience of centralized administration, felt uneasy to let go of the prerogative for international direct co-operation and allow for sub-national authorities to decide on the matter. However, being willingly connected to European processes, having available financial instruments provided by West European donors for cross-border projects and understanding the value of the model, more and more Central and East European countries have stepped into partnerships of this kind (Scarpulla: 1999). Romania proves to be an interesting example, since in a time-span of 5 years (1992-1997) the attitude towards euro-regions changed in a spectacular way. While in 1992 the offer made by Hungarian regional authorities for creating euro-regions was rejected, the national government putting barriers to the process even in 1994 (Cernicova: 1999), the idea remained on the agenda of Romanian county leaders in the border region. Thus, in 1997 the euro-regions became desirable enough not only to allow for creating the DKMT co-operation, but also to include in the basic treaty signed with Ukraine a provision encouraging the creation of euro-regions at the Eastern frontier (involving Ukraine and Moldova Republic) (Cernicova: 2003). After 2000, acknowledging the value of euro-regions as means to attract additional funds for development, the Romanian Government included in the duties of ministries provisions regarding the monitoring and aiding such formations on the Romanian side.

Euro-regions (more often referred to as „cross-border cooperation“ or „cooperation of bordering regions“) should be considered, in a large sense, „stable cooperation initiatives between contiguous sub-national authorities across national


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borders“ (Ricq: 1996). Traditionally, the scopes of euro-regional actions include economic policy, but also spatial planning, transport or environment issues, largely depending on the general frame given by national authorities. Yet, it is obvious that local authorities would include in such actions all the elements which are under their competence by law, such as cultural activities, fostering of small and medium enterprises, educational projects, etc.

For Timis county, as a Romanian promoter of the concept that the Euroregion is part of the integration processes into the larger Europe, the task of introducing the benefits of cross-border cooperation to the general public proved to be easy. PR specialists found out quite soon that the frontier – between Romania and Serbia but also between Romania and Hungary – is perceived as a chance to reach Europe and its benefits, that the historical heritage is vivid and that the neighbouring countries are viewed as factors of development (Bodo, Cernicova, Somogyi: 1999). But journalists needed drama, conflict and competition in order to transform a process or an event into topics worthy of news coverage (Coman: 2007). Since the Romanian national government agreed that counties are also subjects of cross-border cooperation processes only in 1996, the Timis county PR specialists could feed the media with stories on the lost benefits of European cooperation under the form of euroregions, with examples of successful projects in countries where corresponding conventions have been signed and with lobby pieces in favor of the Danube-Cris-Mures-Tisa Euroregion (further, DKMT). As soon as the tension between the county and the national authorities disappeared, a new topic emerged: the fact that the Serbian partner (Voivodina province) fell under the effect of European blockade, following political decisions aimed at upturning Milosevici regime in Belgrade. But as soon as this conflict was over, the drama and conflict elements ceased to motivate an interest of journalists in the topic.

Surprisingly, since 2004/2005 the Euroregion DKMT has almost lost its attractiveness for the media. The local authorities refrained from commenting on conflicts while negotiating new projects or ideas on the trilateral agreements. The battle for competences between national and local authorities reduced its dimensions as a result of the administrative reform – at least in Romania. And also energies have shifted towards a direct representation of county interests on the European arena in Brussels. Timis county has sent its own lobbyist in Brussels, catching the European wave in early formation. PR efforts are, in the foirst decade of the 21st

century, less salient at the county level, rendering the impression that DKMT is not on the public agenda any longer. So much so that DKMT is not even mentioned on the website of the Timis county authorities (while other international cooperation agreements are, see www.cjt.ro) and DKMT is no longer a topic included in the weekly press conferences organized by the president of the Timis county assembly.


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3. Shifts of initiatives: DKMT is taken over by other actors

The idea to create a euro-region involving bordering regions from Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia was launched in 1994, when a first version of the protocol was signed. However, officially what is known now as the Euro-region DKMT came into being in 1997, with 4 Hungarian counties, 4 Romanian counties and the Autonomous Province Voivodina from Serbia. The protocol lists the main intentions of the co-operation: to create a climate of trust that would facilitate the social and economic development or the regions involved, as well as the entire area of co-operation.

The main target of DKMT was, and still is, to enhance the economic and social development of the area, by attracting international funds for regional projects, to access jointly resources which the national governments cannot provide for the area. The most important concept here is economic development, due to international funds, especially under the form of PHARE CBC, but also through the Pact for Stability or from other sources. The fact that the economic development comes first, at least in the intentions of the authorities, but also in the minds of the average (yet knowledgeable) citizens is certified by opinion polls carried in the area, on the territory of the three partners. 70-90% of the value rendered to DKMT comes from the potential possibility to act as a resource-opener (Bodo, Cernicova, Somogyi: 1999, also Branea: 2001). However, only two major projects with impact on economic development are actually funded through international funds: the Cenad-Kiszombor crossing point at the Romanian-Hungarian border, and a regional center for economic entrepreneurship, at Mako and Timisoara. Maybe here can also be included the funding for developing the Strategic Plan for Danube-Kris-Mures-Tisa Co-Operation, a document currently used to support further projects. One has to keep in mind the reference to regional and local administrative authorities only. Since the report the list of success stories has expanded, but due to other actors involved, and not to the will and effort of the governing body of the Euro-region, which is, according to the last (2003) version of the Protocol, the General Assembly (with the county/province presidents and some Hungarian mayors as members).

Emerging from the will of the regional policy-makers themselves, the most notable, but relatively recent achievement is the creation of the euro-regional Development Agency, under the name „Society for Public Utility” (negotiated for some years, but registered only in 2003), based on the provisions of the Hungarian law and based in Szeged. Thus, the decision-makers in the area considered that they stepped into a new cooperation phase, the genuine cooperation stage, after having gone through the information exchange and the concerted information stages (Ricq: 1996). This new stage is characterized by the existence of consultancy and permanent cooperation border institutions whose suggestions are taken up by the local or regional authorities on each side of the border. It is also useful to underline another significant fact: regional authorities have but little competence in economic areas. Therefore, what they still can do is to provide the frame for other actors to step in and manifest fully under the general and generous umbrella of the euro-region. Alongside with the


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responsibility, the administrative authorities also gave away the task of PR activities in favor of DKMT. In order to ensure continuity in fostering the economic development, the administrative bodies invited permanently the representatives of the Chambers of Commerce to the proceedings of the Forum of Presidents (since November 2003, The General Assembly). In their turn, the chambers of commerce signed a co-operation protocol in 1998 and have the pride of organizing economic missions, exhibitions and other events under the label of DKMT. The most recent achievements are the “Euro-regional Partnership for Competitiveness” (2007) and the inauguration of the Regional Center for Sustainable Development of Historical Banat Region (2009). Whether DKMT will be successful in the long run still depends largely on the efficiency of the SPU to attract further funds. Otherwise, the initiative is left to other actors, while the administrations of the bordering regions will concentrate on different issues.

The bond among the partner regions is not so strong at this point and maintaining networks is a difficult task to handle. In addition to the scarcity of attracted European funds, the euro-region faces other challenges: while sharing a similar past, the regions belonging to three different countries move with variable speed towards integration in the European Union. Hungary and Romania are full members, while Serbia is still in a „stand-by“ position. This asymmetry may induce further complications in border and customs regulations. For the time being, the partners acknowledged the following factors hindering the economic cooperation:

a) lack of direct exchange rates for the currencies used in the three countries; b) lack of duties and tax facilities for interregional exchanges among the cross-

border partners; c) lack of cross-border industrial and commercial yearbooks; d) lack of common diagnoses and development concepts; e) finally, the political aspect is of importance, linked to clarifying the status of

Serbia on the international arena, otherwise the co-operation risks remaining a bilateral arrangement between Romania and Hungary (Strategic plan: 2000).

PR consultants, on the other hand, have to deal with other issues: a) lack of active dynamics in the Euro-regional processes, thus making the media

tired of waiting for significant results to cover; b) the necessity to diminish the drama or confrontation between co-operating

partners in order to aid the negotiation processes, but with the effect of losing the interest of journalists in covering the events at the Euro-regional level;

c) the shift of lobbying activities from obtaining the support of local actors to influencing supra-national authorities (Strasbourg and Brussels);

d) the diffuse character of sources of authority in the euroregion, since the presidency of the governing body moves every year from county to county, doubled by the procedures which require consensus for every decision, which makes the process even more difficult to follow for the public, even for the special case of journalists as opinion leaders.


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4. Conclusions

The history of DKMT has proved so far that the initial idea behind the protocol giving birth to the euro-regional cross-border cooperation, namely to attract international funds did not flourish as expected, due to a large number of factors, among which changes in the way European authorities address the problems of Central and Eastern European countries. However, the regional authorities found enough motivating elements to develop euro-regional structures and to exercise the direct co-operation across the border. The main functions of the board of DKMT (be it labeled „Forum of presidents“ or „General Assembly“) are:

- to make choices and set priorities; - to convene and co-ordinate key actors; - to involve people (and institutions) in shaping the policies and programs

which can give substance to the euro-region; - to foster the creation of networks; - to keep the region connected to European processes and make good use of

the action corridors opened by the Council of Europe, the European Union, the Stability Pact etc.

While PR consultants had, in the early stages of negotiating the protocol to form DKMT, tasks concerning educating the public with regard to European processes, regional interest and Euroregion as a framework, along the way they had to learn how to maintain the topic of DKMT on the public agenda, while actors other than the administrative bodies took over the driving role.

References 1. Bodo Barna, Cernicova, Mariana, Somogyi Attila. 1999. “A Duna-Koros-Maros-Tisa

euroregio es a helyi politikai elit”, Hittel, Nr. 11, Nobember 1999, Budapest, Hungary, pp. 64-76.

2. Branea, Dorian (coord.). 2001. Civic participation and accountability, Report on Cross-border Cooperation in Danube-Kris-Mures-Tisa Euro-region, Timisoara: Foundation “A Treia Europa”.

3. Cernicova, Mariana. 2003. The development region V West: polity and administration. Resita: Intergraf.

4. Coman, Mihai. 2007. Introduction to the media system. Iasi: Polirom Publishing House. 5. Eger, Gyorgy. 1999. “Euroregions in the East and in the West”, Altera, nr. 11, year V. 6. Ricq, Charles. 1996. Manuel de cooperation transfrontaliere a l’usage des collectivites

locales et regionales en Europe. Strasbourg: Council of Europe. 7. Scarpulla, Claudio. 1999. “Europe of Regions: realities, challenges and perspectives”,

Altera, nr. 11, year V. 8. ***, 2000. Strategic Plan Danube-Kris-Mures-Tisa, Szeged.

Webography http://www.cciat.ro http://www.cjt.ro

http://www.cciat.ro/�

http://www.cjt.ro/�


9

INTERCULTURAL NEGOTIATIONS: A CULTURAL APPROACH

Raluca-Nicoleta Rogoveanu Ovidius University, Constanta

Abstract: The peculiar characteristic of international business negotiations lies in their being influenced by a wide diversity of environments, which require changing perspectives that determine the selection of appropriate tactics and strategies. When negotiating internationally, what is right, reasonable, or appropriate are parameters largely dependent on the cultural values of the country in which the act of negotiation takes place. This article intends to explore different negotiating styles evolving from various cultures: some favoring the search for compromise, others opting for consensus, while others fighting until the “opponent “surrenders. Key words: cross-cultural negotiation, cultural systems, cultural assumptions, masculine/ feminine cultures, individualistic/collectivistic cultures

1. Theoretical premises

Since all human interactions are inherently intercultural, one can rightly consider that even the meeting of two individuals is an intercultural exercise since they both have different ways to perceive, name and reinvent reality. Negotiations with an employer, family member, friend, fellow employee, union representative, official from a foreign country, and so on are to a large extent determined by intercultural variables. Therefore, we need to live with the knowledge that we have to negotiate and that in every negotiation (domestic or international), the participants have different points of view and different goals.

Moran and Stripp (1991:91) consider that negotiations occur within the space delineated by the four Cs: common interest, conflicting interests, compromise, and criteria. Common interest refers to the fact that each party involved in the negotiation process has, or wants something that the other party possesses or claims. Conflict occurs when people disagree on matters of reciprocal interest such as payment, distribution, profits, contractual responsibilities, and quality. Compromise goes hand in hand with the attempt to find a solution to areas of disagreement. Finally, such criteria include the conditions under which the negotiations take place. Although all negotiations in general take place within the context mentioned above, each and every negotiation in particular is determined by the political, economic, social, and cultural systems of a country. The theory of the negotiation process (Hendon &Hendon1996: 14) includes the following elements: (1) bargainer characteristics, (2) situational constraints, (3) the process of bargaining, and (4) negotiation outcomes. The situation likely to ask for bargaining is a conflict of interest exists between two or more parties. Negotiations are influenced by factors like: communications and actions involved in the act of bargaining, preexisting background factors of cultural traditions or relations and specific situational conditions under which the negotiation is conducted.


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2. Negotiation patterns: cultural conditioning

By means of negotiation, two parties attempt to reach an agreement on matters of mutual interest. Negotiations involve two elements: the substance of negotiation as such and the process. The latter is irrelevant when negotiations are conducted within the same cultural setting. Only when dealing with someone from another country, with a different cultural background does the process usually become an obstacle to the matter to be negotiated and this becomes more evident in intercultural negotiations, when cultural differences must be bridged. A negotiating style is deeply embedded in a cultural system, as it is shaped by each nation's culture, geography, history, and political viewpoints. In any cross-cultural context, misunderstandings are likely to occur since the process of negotiation is always heavily influenced by new behaviors and social environments.

The process of international business negotiation is largely influenced by two groups of variables:

1. Background factors. This category usually includes the parties objectives, third parties involved, such as consultants, agents, and the respective government as ell as the position of the market (seller's vs. buyer's) and finally, the skills and experience of the negotiators.

2. Atmosphere-related factors, which refer to patterns that structure the relation between negotiators (cooperation / conflict, power and dependence) and perceived distance (that the parties are unable to understand each other). Finally, this category also comprises the expectations of the parties, long-term expectations of the true deals or benefits and short-term expectations concerning the prospects of the present deal.

It is naive indeed to start an international negotiation with the simplistic assumptions that "people are and behave very much alike everywhere." Despite possible similarities in term of language preference and clothing style, there are innumerable specificities that dissociate people from different cultural backgrounds. A negotiation style deployed effectively “at home” can be thoroughly inappropriate when dealing with people from other cultures. Consequently, extra sensitivity, more attention to detail, and perhaps even changes in basic behavioral patterns are required when working in/with other cultures. When negotiating with someone from your own country, it is often possible and acceptable to proceed by making reasonable cultural assumptions. But the situation can backfire when two cultures are involved, since making assumptions about another culture is often counterproductive due to the fact that it can lead to misunderstandings and failed communication. The international negotiator must not allow cultural stereotypes to influence his or her relations with local businesspersons.

Culture influences negotiation in three ways: by determining one's perception of reality; by dismissing information inconsistent or unfamiliar with culturally accepted notions; by projecting meaning onto the other party's words and actions. Discussing


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the range of differences between the American and Russian cultures, Hendon and Hendon (1996:145) states:

American and Russian people are not similar; their ethical attitudes do not coincide: they evaluate behavior differently. What an American may consider normative, positive behavior (negotiating and reaching a compromise with an enemy), a Russian perceives as showing cowardice, weakness, and unworthiness; the word "deal" has a strong negative connotation, even today in contemporary Russia. Similarly, for Russians, compromise has negative connotation; principles are supposed to be inviolable and compromise is a matter of integrity […] When the Americans thought they had an understanding, the Russians said it was a procedural matter, meaning they had agreed to a process for conducting the negotiation.

According to the same theoreticians, the most common obstacles in cross-cultural negotiations are:

- Insufficient understanding of different ways of thinking - Insufficient knowledge of the host country--including history, culture,

government, status of business, image of foreigners. - Insufficient recognition of political or other criteria. - Insufficient recognition of the decision-making process. - Insufficient understanding of the role of personal relations and

personalities. - Insufficient allocation of time for negotiations.

The critics also consider that nations tend to develop a “national personality portrait “that influences the types of goals and processes the society pursues in negotiations. In international negotiations, one brings to the negotiating table the values, beliefs, and background interference of one’s culture which guide our presentation and interpretation of data. Cross-cultural negotiators bring into contact unfamiliar and potentially conflicting sets of categories, rules, plans, and behaviors. Difficulties sometimes arise from the different expectations which negotiators have regarding the social setting of the negotiation. These patterns can encompass styles of decision making (the way officials and executives structure their negotiation communication systems and reach institutional decisions) and logical reasoning (ways of conceptualizing issues, of using evidence and new information , of prioritizing arguments pertaining to legal, technical or personal matters).

3. Different examples of negotiating patterns

As previously argued, in cross-cultural negotiations, many of the skills which are guaranteed to make a negotiator ideal within the confines of his/her country may prove worthless or unacceptable in foreign cultural settings. For instance, the stereotypical image of a successful European / American negotiator is that of a persuasive and argumentative communicator, highly skilled in debates, able to overcome objections with eloquence. Yet, these “valuable” assets (in a Eurocentric perspective) may be regarded by members of other cultures as unnecessarily aggressive, superficial, insincere, vulgar or repressive. To the Japanese, the very same traits indicate lack of confidence in one's convictions and insincerity. Instead, terms such as thoughtful,


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cooperative, considerate, and respectful are the “must have “traits in the Japanese and many Asian cultures. The two types of business negotiators therefore distinguish different ways of conceiving the world, of setting business goals, of expressing judgment and emotion, of unveiling or hiding expectations and interests. (see Hendon and Hendon1996: 86)

The cultures that capitalize on dialogue, mediation and compromise (as American and many European cultural systems do) acknowledge the importance of negotiation as the most agreeable method of settling disagreements or minimizing/alleviating conflict between two parties engaged in a dispute. If negotiations are exploratory, they serve to formulate viewpoints, delineate areas of agreement and may aim at working out practical arrangements. The success of any negotiation depends upon whether (a) the issue is negotiable (b) the negotiators are interested not only in taking but also in giving/conceding/compromising.

Hofstede (2001) devised four cultural dimensions that explain many differences between cultures: masculinity / femininity, uncertainty avoidance, power distance and individualism. Masculine cultures value assertiveness, independence, task focus and self-achievement while feminine cultures value cooperation, solidarity, modesty and quality of life. Whereas masculinity is connected to assertiveness and competitiveness, femininity is related to the cultivation of empathy and social relations. Masculine societies tend to implement a more clearly defined division of sex roles and capitalize on the principle "live-to-work" while feminine societies subscribe to "work to-live" theory. The most masculine country is Japan, followed by Latin American countries and the most feminine societies are Scandinavian countries.(see Hendon and Hendon 1996:181-2)

Uncertainty avoidance refers to the degree to which one prefers risky and ambiguous (uncertain, unpredictable) situations. In high uncertainty-avoidance cultures, people tend to dislike and avoid uncertain situations while in low uncertainty-avoidance cultures, people are generally more comfortable with uncertain situations and are more willing to take on risks. Low risk-avoiders require less information when solving negotiation tasks, have fewer people involved in the decision making, and can act more quickly. People in high risk-avoidance cultures tend to rely on many formal bureaucratic rules/ rituals/ standards and formulas. Low uncertainty avoidance societies dislike hierarchy, which they consider inefficient and destructive and have a greater degree of tolerance for deviance and new ideas. Uncertainty avoidance focuses on competitiveness and hinders the exchange of information in the development of creative proposals. A problem solving orientation will be found in cultures characterized by low uncertainty avoidance and low power distance. The United States, the Scandinavian nations, Hong Kong, and Singapore all have low uncertainty avoidance. (see Hendon&Hendon 1996: 147)

Power distance refers to the category comprising the “empowered “individuals and the ones affected by power. In the low power distance pattern, one strives for an equal distribution of power and justice while high power-distance cultures are status


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conscious and respectful of age and seniority. In high power-distance cultures forms of status such as protocol, formality, and hierarchy are of utmost importance. Decisions about who should be praised or remonstrated are based on personal judgments made by power holders. The acceptance of the high power distance patterns implies a willingness to concede that the more forceful party is entitled to a larger share of the benefit than the other party. A low power-distance culture values consultative management styles competence over seniority. Low power-distance cultures include the Anglo-American, Scandinavian, and Germanic cultures. High power-distance cultures are Latin American, South Asian, and Arab cultures. Low masculinity and low power distance are related to the sharing of information, to a cooperative and creative behavior. High masculinity and high power distance are usually connected to competitive behavior, threats and negative reactions.

In individualistic cultures, there is a tendency to value task over relationship and to treasure independence highly. Individuals in such cultures are expected to fend for themselves, to cater for the needs of the individual over that of the collective--the group, community, or society. These individuals are self-motivated and any relationship is defined by self-interest. Collectivism is based on in-group solidarity, loyalty, and strong interdependence among individuals. Relationships rely on mutual self-interest and on the success of the group. Collectivist cultures define themselves in terms of group membership and distinguish ingroups from outgroups. Individualistic cultures tend to value open conflict while collectivist societies tend to minimize conflict. The former category tends to have linear logic while the latter societies tend to strive for abstract, general agreements to the detriment of concrete, specific issues. Collectivist negotiators consider that once a general plan has been agreed on, then details can be worked out in the future. Collectivist societies show more concern for the needs of the other party and focus on group goals rather than on personal gains. Members from collectivist societies have problems accepting individualist culture negotiating members who promote their own positions, decisions, and ideas, sometimes openly contradicting one another. The United States, United Kingdom, Netherlands, France, and the Scandinavian countries are highly individualistic whereas Latin American and Asian countries tend to be highly collectivist.

The concept of bargaining is differently understood by people from different cultures. In traditional Arab culture, for instance, the bargaining, the give-and-take “ritual”, serves many functions, not the least being the opportunity for both sides to get to know each others as individuals. The process of bargaining establishes personal relationships built on a mutual perception of virtue, honesty, and personal merit. For the Japanese, bargaining too soon and too fiercely is a sign of untrustworthiness. Yet the Scandinavians dislike bargaining at all. Such differences in the expectations of the negotiations process must be considered and accepted prior to starting the bargaining stage with others from a different cultural background.

Moreover, the Arabs prefer direct, face-to-face discussions, but tend not to bring open disagreements into a formal session. In fact, rather than admit that they disagree, many Arabs will say they agree, but then take actions that suggestively hint that they


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do not agree at all, hoping that the other party will get the message. In Algeria, an American consultant once said: "My clients never disagree with my recommendations. They just do not try to implement the ones they dislike." (see Hendon&Hendon 1996: 35)

The Japanese are willing to meet face-to-face, but they also use third parties much more frequently than Americans do, since they prefer to use it as a buffer. They are uncomfortable with open conflict and hardly ever express it directly. They mainly talk about it, or do not react at all, or give indirect hints that they disagree. In fact, they hardly ever say no directly; one must infer it from the way they say yes. In Tokyo, the running joke (though true) is the Japanese have twenty ways to say "No" without having to say it.

In Japan and the Arab countries, direct negotiations are combined with social activities, and a distinct focus is laid on good manners and courtesy. One purpose of these activities is to demonstrate hospitality and a more subtle purpose is to determine whether you are the sort of person with whom they wish to do business. Consequently, the social process can be as important as the negotiations process.

The Russians tend to regard negotiations as debates. Their ideological orientation guides them into believing that giving and taking are seen as immoral, a compromise of their principles. Instead of trading concessions, they restate their original position, with all of the arguments supporting it.

4. Conclusions

A successful negotiation should start from acknowledging the sense of difference of the members gathering round a table. Unless one is willing to be empathic enough so as to see the world through the other's eyes), one may never become a sophisticated negotiator. Even so, no one can avoid bringing along his or her own cultural assumptions, and prejudices into any negotiating situation. The way to succeed in cross-cultural negotiations is by fully understanding others, and by using that understanding to one's own advantage to realize what each party wants from the negotiations, by turning the negotiations into a win-win situation for both parties.

References 1. Hendon, Donald W., Rebecca Angeles Hendon, Paul Herbig. 1996. Cross-Cultural Business

Negotiations. Quorum Books2. Hofstede, Geert. 2001. Culture's Consequences, Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions,

and Organizations Across Nations. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage Publications.

.

3. Moran, R.T. and Stripp, W.G. 1991. Dynamics of Successful International Business Negotiations. Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Company.


15

ETHICS AND INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

Elena Claudia Constantin

Politehnica University of Timisoara Abstract: The author stresses the importance of the fact that people who intend to work for different companies have to be aware of the company value system which they have comply with. Unfortunately, some of these values may not be congruent with the employee’s personal moral beliefs and ethics and this fact can create real problems to companies. The article discusses some of the factors that might influence individual behaviour in an organization and suggests that a way of avoiding these kinds of problems is to provide adequate training in applied ethics for both employers and employees.

Key words: company value system, ethics, behaviour.

1. Introduction

Multiculturalism in the work force is increasing, and more and more people want to work for different international companies. But not all of them are aware that there might be different ethical standards or significantly different interests. Not all of them are aware that they have to comply with a company value system which might be different from the one they are used to.

It is a well known fact that when two or more countries interact, people often find that their ethics and understanding of social responsibility differ. More than this, some of these values may be incompatible with their personal moral belief and ethics (Francesco and Gold 2005: 52).

Ethics is generally seen as a product of a society culture which the members of a culture follow unconditionally and take it for granted, as they usually understand and follow the social requirements. Their choices reflect their decisions. Some anthropologists (Geertz 1973:51) define culture as “systems of shared meaning and understanding”.

In business the situation is totally different since one of the biggest mistakes is to assume that ethical rules can be generally applied.

2. Business ethics vs. individual behaviour

In the world of business, the phrase 'business ethics' is generally used to describe the actions of individuals within an organization, as well as the organization as a whole. Most of the experts agree that business ethics consists of written and unwritten codes of principles and values that govern decisions and actions within a company.

Business ethics, also known as corporate ethics, is considered to be the application of ethical values to business behaviour and is applied to any aspects of


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business conduct. It is about how a company does its business, about how it behaves intrinsically. If we have a look at the sites of different companies, we can easily notice that more and more companies are formulating their own ethical and social responsibility policies. Companies have come to realize that they have to publicize ethical actions and their politics. The general rule is that they work only with partners that follow workplace standards and business practices and are consistent with the company values.

Unfortunately the general public cannot find very easy examples of companies which comply with business ethics. It is rather easy to find examples of unethical business behaviour as ethical breaches have become front-page news.

According to Collier and Esteban (2007) employee attitudes and behaviours will be affected by organisational culture and climate. Motivation and commitment will be affected, among others, by the extent to which they can align personal identity and image with that of the organisation.

The danger of a potential conflict between an individual and a company is pointed out by Francesco and Gold (2005:48), who consider ethics as: “moral standards, not governed by law which can be in conflict with the interest of employee or even with the interest of the company”.

The relationship between ethics and legality cannot be denied. Still an important distinction has to be made, while ethics are complied with voluntarily the compliance with the law is often involuntary. In effect, when a company breaks a law, it is of no consequence unless detected and then enforced.

Unfortunately, we have a lot of examples in history when legal was not always synonymous with ethical. However the fact that is not illegal is not an excuse for failing to accept personal responsibility for one’s ethical decisions.

Another factor that can influence the behaviour of an employee is the personal responsibility for one’s ethical choices. This is one of the reasons for which the number of the companies which require their employees to attend different seminars on business conduct is increasing. The employers want to be sure that their employees know and abide the company’s rules of conduct.

According to Christians, Rotzell, & Fackler (1995: 51), intentionality is at the heart of lying and when realties are intentionally misrepresented the intention of deceiving is deliberate and it can be considered an ethical problem; whereas the unintentional misrepresentations of facts are considered to be intellectual failings, not moral ones. Besides this truth can have two components: accuracy and completeness. In answering a question about a certain issue a person might mention two things but omit a third. The reply is accurate but incomplete.

Adequate training for CEOs and subsidiary managers around the world make them aware that function to certain ethical principles they can get a statement that can “be completely true, but not truly complete”. Adequate training for employees makes them aware that everybody has to accept personal responsibility for one’s own actions.


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A rather recent factor that can influence the behaviour of an employee is social responsibility. Large organizations often use corporate governance to promote business ethics and social responsibility. An employee’s behaviour is influenced by the way in which the company he is working for tries to provide benefits to local communities and does something to increase the living standards of the local people.

Ethics and social responsibility are major concerns in the global economy. People have to follow the body of obligations that the society they belong to requires for its members.

3. Dangers of unethical behaviour

With the development of the international collaboration, multicultural corporations have to face new challenges due to dissimilar cultural assumptions, social norms and societal values. Differences in culture can create conflicts that pose moral issues and can raise serious ethical dilemmas.

Besides this, there are cases when there is a discrepancy between the company’s code of ethics and the company’s actual practices which can lead to a lack of commitment. Both employers and employees have to be aware that inappropriate conduct may have serious consequences both socially and legally. Both have to be trained adequately in applied ethics, but it is up to the employers to consider ways of scientifically study organizational ethics.

4. Conclusions

Due the increase of multiculturalism in the work force, in order to avoid conflicts, both employers and employees have to be aware of the existence of different ethical standards. Rather than imposing their own standards (Schneider and Barsoux 2003:301) employers and employees should try to find ways of using the differences in cultures in order to become global citizens. Managers need to evaluate the extent to which national culture can interfere with their company's policy.

In conclusion we can say that working for a multinational company implies among other things: a change in behaviour, knowledge of the company ethical standards and policy, and awareness of personal and social responsibilities.


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References

1. Christians, R. and R. Fackler. 1995. Ethics In Intercultural And International Communication, edited by Cashmir, London Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.

2. Collier, J. and R. Esteban. 2007. Corporate Social Responsibility and Employee Commitment, Business Ethics, A European Review, Vol. 16, no. 1, pp.19-33.

3. Francesco, A. M. and B. A. Gold. 2005. International Organizational Behavior, Prentice Hall.

4. Geertz, C. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures, New York: Basic Books. 5. Schneider, S.C. and J. L. Barsoux. 2003. Managing across cultures, Prentice Hall.


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CREATIVITY IN PUBLIC RELATIONS

Adina PALEA

Politehnica University of Timişoara Abstract: Public relations are a “hot” issue nowadays. People talk about them, read about them and think they understand what they are all about. One of the reasons why people feel so confident about their knowledge in this domain is based on the belief that public relations can be learned and practiced by observing the rules. This article shows, however, that creativity is an essential part of PR. Contrary to what many people may think success in this domain cannot be achieved without creative thinking. Key words: public relations, creativity, guerrilla PR, event planning

1. Introduction

Public relations are a “hot” subject nowadays and they outline an extremely complex territory. The strategic role of PR within companies has been obvious for some time now as public relations no longer represent a “Cinderella” domain. In a company, those who work in public relations must engage all their efforts in order to build a strong, positive image of the organization and counteract any negative elements which might affect its reputation. Public relations are more than a simple promotion, they represent a combination of multiple strategic and creative elements, in which communication, although variable, is the key element.

As in any area of activity which is just starting to gain recognition on a market where many people have not yet understood exactly what its purpose and mechanism is, public relations have to face public disbelief, their confusion and lack of information. Therefore, we think it important to try and define public relations and what they imply.

2. Public relations skills

Public relations are, according to Lawrence W. Long and Vincent Hazleton’s largely accepted definition, ”a communication function of management through which organizations adapt to, alter, or maintain their environment for the purpose of achieving organizational goals” (apud Windahl, 2009:116). A monograph edited by the PRSA (Public Relations Society of America) Foundation, lists the basic components of public relations, providing an extensive view of the domain: consulting, research, media relations, publicity, relations with the employees/members, relations with the community, public affairs, governmental affairs, issue management, fund raising, special events, marketing communication etc. (Wilcox, 2009:8-9).

Since not many people are aware of the complexity of this domain, they tend to underestimate it. One of the misconceptions about public relations has to do with the


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services which specialists have to provide. Some people feel that the job of a PR specialist is accessible, as it does not need any previous study and does not require any special skills. They believe that public relations can be learned and practiced by observing how others work. However, the elements presented above underline the versatility of PR activities. Furthermore, we can deduce from the list that a PR specialist has to master various skills, some of which can be acquired only through study and exercise.

Practitioners may have different qualities and different ways of dealing with a problem. Still, as Dennis Wilcox writes in his book ”Public Relations: Strategies and Tactics”, there are some fundamental attributes which can be found in all successful practitioners, independent of their specific tasks. These are: ”the ability to skillfully use written and spoken words; the analytical ability to identify and define problems; creativity to find new and efficient solutions to each problem; persuasiveness and the ability to deliver attractive and elegant presentations” (Wilcox, 2009:84).

3. The concept of creativity in public relations

We would like to take a closer look at creativity. We have chosen this ability because we think that it is not understood and appreciated enough. We also believe that nowadays the key to success in public relations lies with creativity.

Let us first clarify the term “creativity” as it is understood by practitioners. For example, Jay Conrad Levinson thinks that if “in art creativity is meant to cultivate, to enchant, to touch the soul”, creativity in public relations is supposed to “earn trust, to add value, to change the attitude, behavior and beliefs of the company’s publics”(Levinson, 2002:19).

For Al and Laura Ries “to be creative means to be original” and they think that ”creativity does not belong in the advertising department. The place for creativity is in the public relations department. PR have to be original, that is to place products and services as being new and different” (Ries, 2006:301). This definition highlights a shift in thinking as creativity is no longer believed to be “the” instrument for advertising, but an essential means for fulfilling objectives in the public relations department.

As it is in most communication domains, success in PR does not have a clear recipe. It is the result of the use of suitable instruments at the right time. The various communication campaigns used by a company or an organization obviously have the company’s message as a starting point, but their success depends on the specialists’ capacity to be creative.

As public relations spread rapidly, PR specialists have to bring elements of originality, to look for new perspectives and to prove with each campaign their creativity and professionalism. In order to achieve this, they may explore their creativity by turning to: idea-stimulating techniques, brainstorming, ideas’ evaluation, focus group, individual creativity.


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However, research must forerun any creative approach. Moreover, in public relations everything has to have a practical outcome, measurable in image capital or money. That is why the creative talent is not appreciated for itself as long as there are no tangible results. As a consequence, some firms avoid hiring very creative people who might become unprofitable. Other firms have come up with a more productive solution. They have a person in each team who tempers the creative impulse when it diverts from the target.

4. Guerrilla PR

The creative power of a team of PR specialists is reflected, among others, in the level of satisfaction of clients, coworkers, employers or in the number of clients in the case of PR firms. Unfortunately, the work quality is not the only criterion which motivates or discourages people to turn to services offered by the specialists. Many companies find the PR price lists rather restrictive and find themselves forced to renounce this type of services. But the imagination of PR specialists has managed to overcome even this obstacle. This is how guerrilla PR emerged – a branch that is increasingly appreciated abroad and which has recently appeared in Romania as well. Guerrilla PR is an unconventional system of promotions that may vary from Internet campaigns to wall painting.

The reason why guerrilla PR is becoming more and more valued both by clients and public is very simple. It means, before anything else, creativity in public relations. It implies the use of surprising techniques with maximum effects and minimum costs. It means the transmition of messages in a witty manner, a lot more personal and aggressive than the classical practices (apud Udrea, 2009).

It is extremely important to remember that

“you need not be a creativity magician in order to use the guerrilla creative force. You need not be an exceptional writer, an accomplished artist, a great photographer or a wonderful playwright in order to create successful campaigns. You only have to be a clear thinker, a tireless researcher and a realistic person. And you should also be passionate not about beauty and art but about your product, service or company” (Levinson, 2002:23).

We can conclude that for guerrilla PR: ”the key to success does not mean to do more and more PR activities, which are money consuming, but to find methods to establish solid trustfull connections with your public by using the resources which are already in hand” (Georgescu, 2009).

5. Public relation materials and event planning

Creativity is also important for writing public relations materials. Even if most of the texts used in this domain must closely follow the writing guidelines, creativity does not become redundant. On the contrary, it is much harder to be original and to draw attention when you are limited by norms and templates. This type of condition


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demands more originality and inspiration from the writer. The public does not care if the specialist has written 100 or 1000 press releases about his or her company, for them, every text is a proof of the writer’s involvement, professionalism and appreciation of the company it represents. Therefore, a PR practitioner always has to come up with a new “coat” to wrap up the same defining company message.

Creativity is also a key element in event planning. Of course, there are certain recipes which can be used in order to plan a successful event, but only creativity can make it unique and surprising. The event has to look fresh and perfectly tailored for the participants. People expect to see something new everytime and this can be provided only by turning to creativity.

The Orlando/Orange County Convention & Visitors Bureau Inc. in collaboration with Red 7 Media’s EXPO magazine and Agenda presented the first-ever survey exploring the roots, impact and importance of creativity in the meetings and events industry.

The results of the survey pointed out that

The study measured results from 330 respondents to an e-mail questionnaire in the fall 2008 and focused on creativity in meeting/event planning for a corporation as well as meeting/event planning for an association or not-for-profit organization, independent meeting/event planning, trade show management or executive.

“the areas within the meeting/planning function that require the highest levels of creativity are event marketing and promotion, event design and special events. As business conditions present new challenges within organizations, the need to be creative will become more important than ever”. (http://www.expoweb.com/).

The way people in the industry regard creativity can be seen, for example in the answers to the question: ”How important do you consider being creative as part of your job?”.

The significant majority of survey respondents - 97 percent - said that being creative is an important part of their jobs. Sixty-one percent indicated it as a “very important” aspect of their responsibilities.

6. Creativity and new media

Another issue of great importance nowadays has to do with the way PR specialists deal with the changes brought about by the technological development and turning to creativity in order to adapt and usefully use the new means of communication might be one of the most appropriate options. If the classical press release and the relationship with the media have been the center of a specialist’s activity, nowadays the media is far more complex. Internet and social media are gaining more and more territory. The public can no longer be reached only through traditional means. Specialists are trying to understand and to adapt to the new means of communication in order to keep the public interested.

The advantage of using the Internet is that it provides multiple channels to reach mass and niche audiences. For example blogs, Tweets, videos on YouTube, postings on Facebook or MySpace, PowerPoint presentation on SlideShare can all be used to

http://www.expoweb.com/article/measuring-importance-creativity�


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send messages about the company to the customers or various stakeholders. These new media are not supposed to be used as simple or classical means of delivering a message. They are, however, a great way of initiating a dialogue with the public in order to see their needs, desires, what they like about the company and what their dissatisfactions might be.

”This is the idea of putting the ”public” back into public relations because it advances the fundamental purpose of public relations – building relationships. The dialogue and the feedback from the organization’s steakholders not only builds a relationship, but it also provides an organization with valuable insights into the interests and concerns of its emplyees, customers, stakeholders and the public.” (Wilcox, 2009:17)

If we look at the numbers which describe the rapidity with which the Internet is developing it becomes obvious that the future of public relations is closely linked to the creative way in which PR specialists will use the new media. For example, it is estimated that around 120,000 blogs are being added every day and that 20 hours of video are being uploaded every minute of the day on YouTube (apud Wilcox, 2009:14). Therefore, public relations professionals must confront reality and acknowledge the impact Internet and social media have on this domain. Only by understanding the dynamics of the new technologies and by using them inteligently and creatively can the success of the organization be preserved.

7. Conclusions

This paper has aimed to highlight the importance of creativity in public relations as well as the variety of forms it can assume. Public relations are a complex domain, which demand multiple skills from the PR practitioners. Creativity is one of those skills and it plays an important part in successfully fulfilling the responsibilities assumed by a public relations specialist.

We have seen that Al and Laura Ries consider creativity as belonging more to the PR department than to the advertising department, even though many people still think that creativity is “the” instrument in advertising. Guerrilla PR is an eloquent example of creativity in the public relations department, as it uses original new means of promoting an image, a brand, a person etc. Moreover, a powerful, memorable event cannot be planned without creative thinking, which was underlined by the results of the survey mentioned above.

The writing of PR materials, especially those intended for new media, demand a lot of creativity on the author’s part in order to make them stand out from the countless other similar materials and messages, thus further highlighting the importance of creativity in public relations.


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References

1. Georgescu, Cristina. 2009. Creativitate: succes sau moft in PR?, http://www.prwave.ro/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=5134&Itemid=55, [march 2009].

2. Levinson, Jay Conrad. 2002. Guerrilla creativity, Bucureşti, BusinessTech International Press.

3. Ries, Al, Ries, L. 2006. Căderea advertising-ului şi ascensiunea PR-ului, Bucureşti, Brandbuilders.

4. Udrea, Lavinia. 2009. Guerrilla PR inseamna inainte de toate creativitate in relatiile publice. Available at http://www.brandinfo.ro/stire/813/Guerrilla-PR-inseamna,-inainte-de-toate,-creativitate-in-relatiile-publice-+-Interviu-cu-Lavinia-Udrea,-managing-partner-StreetwisePR.html, [mai 2009].

5. Wilcox, Dennis L. 2009. Preserving Reputation in the Internet Age, Euprera Congress, in Current Trends in International Public Relations, Bucureşti, Tritonic.

6. Wilcox, Dennis L., Glen Cameron, Phillip Ault, 2009. Relaţii publice: strategii şi tactici, Curtea Veche Publishing.

7. Windahl, Sven, Benno H. Signitzer, Jean T. Olson. 2009. Using Communication Theory: An Introduction To Planned Communication,

Sage Publications Ltd, London.

Webography

http://www.expoweb.com/article/measuring-importance-creativity [april 2009]

http://www.brandinfo.ro/stire/813/Guerrilla-PR-inseamna,-inainte-de-toate,-creativitate-in-relatiile-publice-+-Interviu-cu-Lavinia-Udrea,-managing-partner-StreetwisePR.html�



http://www.expoweb.com/article/measuring-importance-creativity�


25

POLITISCHE KOMMUNIKATION IN DER MEDIENGESELLSCHAFT -

AM BEISPIEL DER INITIATIVE VERDE PENTRU BICICLETE IN TEMESWAR

Tanja BECKER

University of the West, Timisoara Zusammenfassung: Der Akteur Verde pentru Biciclete agiert seit Herbst 2008 in der politischen Landschaft von Temeswar. Dabei fiel er vor allem durch sehr öffentlichkeitswirksame Aktionen in den Medien auf. Dieser Beitrag macht es sich zur Aufgabe, die konkrete Vorgehensweise dieser Initiative mit Hilfe der aktuellen theoretischen Konzepte der politischen Kommunikation in der Mediengesellschaft zu analysieren. Dabei wird festgestellt, dass die Initiative sehr professionell vorgeht und offenbar genau über die Bedeutung der Medien bei der Durchsetzung ihrer Ziele Bescheid weiß. Schlüsselwörter

1. Politische Kommunikation

: Politische Kommunikation - Mediengesellschaft – Akteur

Seit Herbst 2008 gibt es in Temeswar eine Initiative für mehr Fahrradwege und für die Propagierung der Fortbewegung mit Hilfe des Fahrrads namens Verde pentru Biciclete.i Dieser Beitrag macht es sich zur Aufgabe herauszufinden, wie sich dieser Akteur in der politischen und in der Medienlandschaft Temeswars positioniert hat. Dabei gehen wir von einem Begriff der politischen Kommunikation aus, der politische Kommunikation selbst als Politik betrachtet. „Politische Kommunikation ist der zentrale Mechanismus bei der Formulierung, Aggregation, Herstellung und Durchsetzung kollektiv bindender Entscheidungen. Insofern ist politische Kommunikation nicht nur Mittel der Politik. Sie ist selbst auch Politik.“ii

Diese politische Kommunikation findet nun, wie von einer ganzen Reihe von Politikwissenschaftlern

iii behauptet wird in einer von einer ständigen Mediatisierung betroffenen Gesellschaft statt. Dabei kann Mediatisierung (oder synonym Medialisierung) im Kontext politischer Kommunikation dreierlei bezeichnen: „(1) die wachsende Verschmelzung von Medienwirklichkeit und politischer sowie sozialer Wirklichkeit, (2) die zunehmende Wahrnehmung von Politik im Wege medienvernmittelter Erfahrung sowie (3) die Ausrichtung politischen Handelns und Verhaltens an den Gesetzmäßigkeiten des Mediensystems“.iv

Wie positioniert sich nun der Akteur Verde pentru Biciclete in der politischen Landschaft Temeswars? Für Akteure und Akteurshandeln sind dabei fünf Faktoren von zentraler Bedeutung:

„1. Ein Akteur hat Interessen und verfolgt Ziele. 2. Ein Akteur hat Orientierungen (Wertorientierungen, kognitive Muster, etc.). 3. Ein Akteur verfügt über Ressourcen, um seine Ziele verfolgen zu können (Mitglieder, Unterstützer, Geld, Personal, Einfluss, Macht, etc.)


26

4. Ein Akteur verfügt über eine Strategie, die es ihm ermöglicht, Mittel und Ziele miteinander zu kombinieren. 5. Ein Akteur versteht sich selbst als Akteur und wird von anderen als solcher anerkannt.“v

2. Kurze Geschichte der Initiative

Verde pentru Biciclete existiert seit Oktober 2008 und geht auf die Initiative des Geschäftsmannes und Gründers der Bega-Stiftungvi Emil Cristescuvii zurück, der seit den letzten Kommunalwahlen im Frühjahr 2008 parteiloses Mitglied des Stadtrates und innerhalb des Stadtrates des Verkehrsausschusses ist. Hinter der Initiative steht keine politische Partei. Beteiligt sind vielmehr als freiwilllige Helfer Mitglieder des Eco Clubs Timişoara (www.ecotimisoara.ro) und des Clubul Sportiv Gratzu (www.cs.gratzu.ro) . Die erste große und sehr medienwirksame Aktion von Verde pentru Biciclete war eine Fahrraddemonstration am 25. Oktober 2008 unter dem Titel „Numerotare bicicletelor“viii

Am 25. Oktober 2008 wurden vor dem Stadion „Dan Paltinişeanu“ Nummern an die Teilnehmer der Demonstartion ausgegeben, die anschließend im Konvoi etwa 9 km

, der eine Debatte zu diesem Thema an der Universität am 24. Oktober 2008 vorausging.

ix durch die ganze Stadt fuhren – laut Veranstaltern auf einer Strecke, in die alle bereits existierenden Fahrradwege einbezogen waren, ebenso wie die Straßen, an denen sie absolut notwendig wären. Die Organisatoren hatten offenbar mit wesentlich weniger Teilnehmern gerechnet und nur 250 Numern vorbereitet. Nach der Aktion sprachen sie von ca. 700 Demonstranten. Die lokalen Medien berichteten intensiv über dieses Ereignis. Den Abschluss bildete eine Unterschriftenaktion auf einem Banner auf dem Parkplatz hinter dem Hotel Timişoara. Bei dieser Gelegenheit wurden auch E-Mail-Adressen der Teilnehmer gesammelt, um eine Yahoo-Group zu bilden und über weitere Aktionen von Verde pentru Biciclete zu informieren. Da viele Teilnehmer enttäuscht waren, weil sie keine Nummer bekommen hatten, entstand eine neue Aktion. Am Samstag, den 22. November 2008, wurden an wichtigen Kreuzungen in der Stadtx

Ausschließlich über die Yahoo-Group und über die Homepage von Verde pentru Biciclete wurden Interessierte auf einen Literaturwettbewerb „Fahrradgeschichten“ aufmerksam gemacht.

weitere Nummern und Informationsbroschüren über richtiges Verhalten im Straßenverkehr verteilt. Interessierte, die auch dort keine Nummern bekommen hatten, konnten sich in der Touristeninformation der Stadt Temeswar in der Alba-Iulia-Straße eine laufende Nummer abholen.

Bis Oktober 2009 sind weitere Aktionen geplant, die von den Organisatoren über die Presse, die Yahoo-Group und die Homepage bekannt gegeben werden.

Geplant ist beispielsweise eine Informationsveranstaltung der Verkehrspolizei zum Thema „Sicherheit im Straßenverkehr“ an zehn an dem Projekt interessierten

http://www.ecotimisoara.ro/�


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Schulen – einschließlich einem theoretischen und einem praktischen Wettbewerb. Weitere Fahrraddemonstrationen sind ebenfalls in Planung.

3. Akteursqualitäten von Verde pentru Biciclete

Wenn man nun die Medienkampagne, die diese Aktionen begleitete, ansieht, kann man feststellen, dass mit sehr einfachen Mitteln sehr effizient gearbeitet wurde. Der Demonstration ging eine Pressekonferenzxi voraus, im Rahmen derer ein vorbereitetes Kommuniqué verteilt wurde. Die örtliche Presse kündigte daraufhin die Veranstaltung an. Über die Veranstaltung selbst erschienen sechs Fernsehberichte und acht Zeitungsberichtexii

Ein Vergleich mit den oben genannten fünf Faktoren des Akteurshandelns ergibt Folgendes:

. Des weiteren wurden Flugblätter verteilt, einige Banner an wichtigen Stellen in der Stadt platziert und Plakate beispielsweise an der Universität und in den Schaukästen des Bürgermeisteramtes aufgehängt. Die stets aktualisierte, professionell betreute Homepage wird laut den Veranstaltern fast 250mal täglich aufgerufen und die Yahoo-Group umfasst 180 Mitglieder.

Zu 1.Die Interessen und Ziele gehen teilweiseaus der oben zusammengefasst Geschichte der Initiative hervor. Der Akteur propagiert die Einrichtung von Fahrradwegen als einen Lösungsansatz für die Probleme im Temeswarer Straßenverkehr. Explizit wird außerdem ein Anstieg der Benutzung des Fahrrads innerhalb einer Jahres, in dem die Aktionen stattfinden, um mindestens 20% genanntxiii

Zu 2. Was die Wertorientierungen und Ziele betrifft betrachten wir zunächst ein Zitat von Emil Cristescu:

.

„Una dintre soluţiile circulaţiei în Timişoara este mersul pe bicicletă. Eu merg pe bicicletă de la vîrstă de 7 ani. Zi de zi, până la 19 ani, am mers cu bicicleta. Timişoara se preteaza la aşa ceva. E foarte mică iar distanţa de la un capăt în altul al oraşului poate fi acoperită în 6 km. Prin această acţiune, vrem să determinam autorităţile să construiască o reţea de piste pentru biciclete şi să determinam pe ceilaţi participanţi la trafic să ne respecte. Scopul final acestui proiect este sa avem în Timişoara un număr din ce în ce mai mare de biciclişti.”xiv

Der wohlhabende Geschäftsmann Emil Cristescu bezeichnet sich selbst als Fahrradfahrer und konterkariert damit das gemeinhin in der rumänischen Öffentlichkeit vorhandene Bild vom armen Fahrradfahrer, der gezwungen ist, dieses Verkehrsmittel zu verwenden, weil er sich kein Auto leisten kann. Wie sich Emil Cristescu tatsächlich in Temeswar fortbewegt, spielt dabei keine Rolle. Uns interessiert in diesem Zusammenhang die Darstellung nach außen.

Zu 3. Der Akteur Verde pentru Biciclete verfügt über Ressourcen, um seine Ziele verfolgen zu können. Die Finanzierung erfolgt durch die Bega-Stiftung. Freiwillige für Flugblattaktionen werden bei den beiden Vereinen Eco-Club Timisoara und Gratzu- Sportclub rekrutiert, und der Initiator des Projekts Emil Cristescu verfügt auch über den nötigen politischen Einfluss in Temeswar.


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Verde pentru Biciclete verfolgt gegenüber der Bevölkerung zwei Strategien: einerseits die Informationsstrategie (Übermittlung von Daten und Fakten) und andererseits die Persuasionsstrategie (Überredung von Ansprechgruppen). Gegenüber den Behörden wird daneben auch eine Verhandlungsstrategie (Aushandlung von Kompromissen) vertreten. Trotz des sehr geringen Institutionalisierungsgrads des Akteurs im Vergleich zu anderen sogenannten „Neuen sozialen Bewegungen“ verfügt er über ausreichende finanzielle Ressourcen, die sehr geschickt eingesetzt werden. So gibt es beispielsweise eine festangestellte Arbeitskraft, die die Homepage professionell betreut, weil dieser strategisch eine große Bedeutung zur Erreichung der Ziele beigemessen wird.

Der Slogan „Verde pentru Biciclete“ spielt zum einen auf grüne Ampeln und damit freie Fahrt für Fahrräder an, zum Anderen ist grün ganz allgenmein die Farbe der Ökologiebewegung. Der Ursprung des Slogans ist mir nicht bekannt – er scheint von PR-Strategen entwickelt, ebenso wie die Verteilung von Nummern auf der Demonstration, die eine psychologische Bindung der Teilnehmer an die Aktion fördert und die auch durch ein Belassen am Fahrrad weiterhin die Aufmerksamkeit der Öffentlichkeit erregt.

Zu 4. Verde pentru Biciclete versteht sich selbst als soziale Bewegung, die in Temeswar agiert. Allerdings kann man sie nur bedingt als Bürgerinitiative bezeichnen, da ihr Initiator ein Lokalpolitiker ist und die beiden mitbeteiligten Organisationen bereits etablierte Vereine sind, die eigene Ziele verfolgen. Bürgern, die sich beteiligen wollen, steht diese Option offen. Die Aktionen von Oktober 2008 bis Oktober 2009 sind allerdings bereits geplant, sodass zunächst Entscheidungen der Führungsebene wenig beeinflusst werden können. Im Übrigen werden Mitglieder der Yahoo-Group, aber auch andere Interessierte durchaus aufgefordert, selbst aktiv zu werden und sich beispielsweise an die Stadt Temeswar zu wenden und für die Einrichtung von mehr Fahrradwegen zu plädieren.xv

Zu 5. Verde pentru Biciclete versteht sich selbst als eine Initiative und damit als ein Akteur und wird in der politischen und in der Medienlandschaft von Temeswar als solcher anerkannt.

4. Strategie der Initiative gegenüber den Behörden

In einem Gespräch mit der Autorin des Beitrags am 12.01.2009 sagte die Projektkoordinatorin Loredana Orhei, Verde pentru Biciclete wolle das Bewusstsein der Bevölkerung wecken und nicht die lokalen Behörden anklagen, dass es zu wenig Fahrradwege gäbe. Dies ist ein Vorgehen, das aus der westlichen Perspektive der Autorin dieses Beitrags außergewöhnlich scheint. Normal erschiene ein Forderungskatalog an die städtischen Behörden, angesichts des Verkehrskollapses endlich mehr für die Nutzung des Fahrrads in Temeswar zu tun – was quasi automatisch zu einer Gegenreaktion der Behörden führen würde. Ein Konflikt würde entstehen. Eine Verteilung weiterer Nummern für die Fahrräder durch ein städtisches


29

Touristenbüro wäre damit im Westen äußerst unwahrscheinlich. Gründe für diese unterschiedliche Vorgehensweise sind, wie zu vermuten ist, mentalitätsgeschichtlicher und soziokultureller Art. Die rumänische Gesellschaft ist eine eher am Konsens orientierte, während im Westen oder zumindest in Deutschland Lösungen für Probleme aus Konflikten entstehen, bei denen beide Seiten nur äußerst ungern nachgeben. Sollte man als Erklärungsansatz die vielzitierte Hirtenmentalität der Rumänen heranziehen?xvi Dies ist sicher nicht ausreichend, aber eine Herde lässt sich nur durch Konsens lenken. Der Hirte muss mit den Hunden kooperieren und umgekehrt und auch die Schafe müssen durch sanften Druck die vorgegebene Richtung akzeptieren. Auch die im Volk verbreitete Idee, die Dinge müssten ihren Lauf nehmen und Veränderungen müssten im Einklang mit der Natur und den Gegebenheiten stattfinden trägt zu einer an Konsens orientierten Vorgehensweise bei.xvii

Ein anderer Erklärungsansatz wäre, dass die rumänische politische Kultur noch nicht reif ist für Initiativen von „Unten“ ohne eine Unterstützung von Lobbyisten in Machtpositionen. Formen demokratischen Engagements, wie reine Bürgerinitiativen, können nicht von heute auf morgen entstehen, sondern müssen erlernt werden. Dieser Prozess findet derzeit statt, aber bis nachfolgende Generationen, die entsprechend sozialisiert sind, in der Gesellschaft aktiv werden, wird es vermutlich noch einige Jahre dauern.

An dieser Stelle sei noch einmal ausdrücklich betont, dass ich jeglichen Kulturchauvinismus weit von mir weise, und dieser Erklärungsansatz, der auf Thesen der rumänischen Kulturphilosophen Lucian Blaga und Ernest Bernea beruht, nicht die Abwertung einer Mentalität bedeutet.

5. Verde pentru Biciclete als System

Wenn man den Akteur Verde pentru Biciclete nach der Systemtheorie von Luhmannxviii bzw. anderen makrotheoretischen Ansätzen als System betrachtet, kann man sie in ein von Parsons entwickeltes AGIL-Schemaxix

1. Adaptation: Anpassung an die Umwelt einordnen.

2. Goal-Attainment: Ausrichtung der Handlungen auf individuelle und kollektive Ziele

3. Integration neuer Ereignisse in die innere Ordnung 4. Latent pattern-maintenance: Aufrechterhaltung grundlegender

Orientierungsmuster (Strukturerhaltung) Zu 1. Die Initiative Verde pentru Biciclete entwickelt eine Kampagne ausgehend

von den Realitäten vor Ort und passt sich damit an die Umwelt an. Die Zielgruppe bereits fahrradfahrender Bürger wird aufgefordert ihre Art der Fortbewegung zu demonstrieren und damit zu propagieren. Dabei werden die lokalen Behörden einbezogen und an der Verteilung weiterer Nummern für die Fahrräder beteiligt.

Zu 2. Die Handlungen der Initiative sind auf das kollektive Ziel der Einrichtung neuer Fahrradwege gerichtet.

Zu 3. Die Tatsache, dass weitere Nummern für Fahrradfahrer benötigt werden, führt zu einer Folgeaktion am 22. November 2008.


30

Zu 4. Die grundsätzlichen Orientierungsmuster der Initiative werden aufrechterhalten und die Ziele durch weitere Aktionen verfolgt. Das System Verde pentru Biciclete kann in diesem Zusammenhang als relativ geschlossen angesehen werden, da ein beschränkter Zugang der Aktivisten zur Konzeptiosn- und Führungsebene besteht.

6.Schlussbemerkung

In jedem Fall scheint es interessant zu beobachten, wie sich diese Initiative im weiteren Verlauf ihrer Aktivitäten in der politischen Landschaft positioniert und mit welchen Strategien der politischen Kommunikation sie weiterhin agieren wird. Die Medienwirksamkeit der geplanten Aktionen entspricht dabei den aktuell vorhandenen Tendenzen in der Mediengesellschaft, nämlich der Ausrichtung des politischen Handelns auf die Gesetzmäßigkeiten des Mediensystems.

Literatur

1. Jarren, Otfried, Donges, Patrick, 2006, Politische Kommunikation in der Mediengesellschaft, Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.

2. Sarcinelli, Ulrich, Mediatisierung, In: Jarren, Otfried, Sarcinelli, Ulrich, Saxer, Ulrich, (Hrsg.), 1998, Politische Kommunikation in der demokratischen Gesellschaft. Ein Handbuch mit Lexikonteil, Wiesbaden: Opladen.

3. Blaga, Lucian, 1982, Vom Wesen der rumänischen Volksseele, Bukarest: Minerva Verlag.

4. Siehe: Bernea, Ernest, 1997, Spaţiu, Timp şi Cauzalitate la poporul Român, Bukarest: Humanitas.

5. Luhmann, Niklas, 1984, Soziale Systeme. Grundriss der allgemeinen Theorie, Frankfurt/M.: Suhrkamp.

6. Parsons, Talcott, 1976, Zur Theorie sozialer Systeme, Opladen.

Webography

www.pedaleaza.ro (Zugriff 10.01.2009) www.fundatiabega.ro (Zugriff 10.01.2009) www.emilcristescu.ro (Zugriff 10.01.2009) http://www.tion.ro/stiri/timis/articol/la-timisoara-238ncepe-numerotoarea-biciletelor/cn (Zugriff 08.01.2009) www.banateanul.ro/ultima-ora/verde-penru-biciclete-la timisoara-334928 (Zugriff 08.01.2009)

Noten 1 http://www.pedaleaza.ro ii Jarren, Otfried, Donges, Patrick, 2006, Politische Kommunikation in der Mediengesellschaft, Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, S. 22. iii Sarcinelli, Donges, Jarren, etc.

http://www.pedaleaza.ro/�

http://www.fundatiabega.ro/�

http://www.emilcristescu.ro/�

http://www.tion.ro/stiri/timis/articol/la-timisoara-238ncepe-numerotoarea-biciletelor/cn�

http://www.banateanul.ro/ultima-ora/verde-penru-biciclete-la%20timisoara-334928�

http://www.pedaleaza.ro/�


31

iv Sarcinelli, Ulrich, Mediatisierung, In: Jarren, Otfried, Sarcinelli, Ulrich, Saxer, Ulrich, (Hrsg.), 1998, Politische Kommunikation in der demokratischen Gesellschaft. Ein Handbuch mit Lexikonteil, Wiesbaden: Opladen, S. 678. v Jarren, Otfried, Donges, Patrick, 2006, Politische Kommunikation in der Mediengesellschaft, Wiesbaden: Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, S. 55. vi http://www.fundatiabega.ro vii www.emilcristescu.ro viii Deutsch: Zählung der Fahrräder (Übersetzung von der Autorin des Beitrags) ix Strecke: Stadion Dan Paltinisanu, Fc. Ripensia, P-ta Leonardo da Vinci, Podul Michelangelo, B-dul. I. C. Bratianu, P-ta Forul Eugeniu Carada, str. Hector, Punctele Cardinale, str. Oituz, P-ta Marasti, Calea Alexandru I. Cuza, P-ta Consiliul Europei, Iulius Mall, Calea Circumvalatiunii, Calea Republici, str. Garii, B-dul Gheorghe Pop de Basesti, B-dul Iulu Maniu, B-dul Regele Carol I, P-ta Alexandru Mocioni, B-dul 16 dec. 1989, P-ta Sf. Maria, Splaiul Tudor Vladimirescu, str. 20 dec. 1989, B-dul Constantin, Primarie, Catedrala, Hotel Timisoara x Intersectia Michelangelo, Piata Consiliul Europei, Strada Garii, Intersectia Splaiul Tudor Vladimirescu – Strada 20 Decembrie 1989 (UPT). Strada Cluj (Spitalul Judetean). xi Am 21.10.2008 xii Angaben der Veranstalter auf ihrer Homepage xiii http://www.tion.ro/stiri/timis/articol/la-timisoara-238ncepe-numerotoarea-biciletelor/cn Zugriff am 08.01.2009 xiv http://www.banateanul.ro/ultima-ora/verde-penru-biciclete-la timisoara-334928 Zugriff am 08.01.2009

Zu Deutsch: „Eine der Lösungen für die Verkehrsprobleme in Temeswar ist die Benutzung des Fahrrads. Ich fahre Rad seit ich sieben Jahre alt war. Bis ich 19 Jahre alt war, fuhr ich täglich mit dem Fahrrad. Temeswar ist dafür sehr geeignet. Die Entfernung von einem Ende der Stadt zum anderen ist sehr gering, sie beträgt sechs Kilometer. Durch diese Aktion wollen wir die Behörden dazu bewegen, Fahrradwege zu bauen und die anderen Verkehrsteilnehmer dazu bringen uns zu respektieren. Das Endziel dieses Projekts ist es, die Zahl der Fahrradfahrer in Temeswar immer weiter zu erhöhen.” – Übersetzung von der Autorin des Artikels.

xv Im Weiteren die Antwort, die ein Mitglied der Yahoo-Group von den lokalen Behörden auf die Frage nach der möglichen Einrichtung von mehr Fahrradwegen bekommen hat:

"Pentru realizarea de piste pentru ciclisti este necesar diminuarea spatiilor verzi, in acest scop se realizeaza documentatii care se depun la Agentia de Mediu, de cele mai multe ori suntem conditionati de realizare de studii de impact, proceduri care intarzie foarte mult lucrarile de proiectare a pistelor pentru ciclisti." (zu Deutsch: “Für die Einrichtung von Fahrradwegen ist es nötig die Grünstreifen zu verkleinern, zu diesem Zweck werden Erhebungen durchgeführt und bei der Umweltagentur eingereicht. Meist müssen vor der Einrichtung Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfungen durchgeführt werden, Prozeduren, die die Projektierung von Fahrradwegen erheblich verzögern.“ – Übersetzung von der Autorin des Artikels).

Und hier der Kommetar der betreffenden Person: se pare ca varianta de a diminua spatiul stradal nici nu intra in considerare. .. sau spatiul pietonal, cel putin pe strazile unde acesta e foarte lat. ma intrabam daca a mai primit cineva un raspuns similar :) (zu Deutsch: „Es scheint so, als ob die Möglichkeit die Straßen zu verkleinern überhaupt nicht in Betracht gezogen wird...oder die Gehwege, wenigstens an den Straßen, an denen sie sehr breit sind. Ich frage mich, ob jemand eine ähnliche Antwort bekommen hat:) –Übersetzung von der Autorin des Beitrags.

Darufhin schaltet sich jemand aus der Führungsebene der Initiative ein: In ceea ce priveste problema ridicata in mailul anterior, membrii Echipei Verde pentru Biciclete au depus o Declaratie la Consiliul Local prin care am adresat rugamintea de a incepe demersurile necesare pentru a sustine biciclistii din Timisoara, prin realizarea de elemente de infrastructura necesare acestora, in special piste si parcari de biciclete. Intr-adevar solutia propusa de d-na Ionescu referitoare la pistele de biciclete sta la indemana fiecaruia dintre noi, ca simpli locuitori ai Timisoarei. De aceea nu ezitati sa va exprimati ideile atat noua, cat si celor care sunt in masura sa ia o decizie concreta in aceasta problema. Va reamintesc linkul http://www.primaria tm.ro/mesaje. php Zu Deutsch: “ Was das in der vorhergehenden Mail erwähnte Thema betrifft, haben die Mitglieder von Verde pentru Biciclete dem Stadtrat eine Erklärung übergeben, in der dieser gebeten wird

http://www.fundatia/�

http://www.tion.ro/stiri/timis/articol/la-timisoara-238ncepe-numerotoarea-biciletelor/cn�

http://www.banateanul.ro/ultima-ora/verde-penru-biciclete-la%20timisoara-334928�

http://www.primariatm.ro/mesaje.php�


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entsprechende Maßnahmen zu ergreifen, um die Fahrradfahrer in Temeswar durch die von ihnen benötigte Infrastruktur zu unterstützen. Die von Frau Ionescu vorgeschlagene Lösung bezüglich der Fahrradwege steht jedem von uns als einfache Bürger von Temeswar offen. Deshalb zögern Sie nicht uns Ihre Ideen mitzuteilen ebenso wie denjenigen, die in der Lage sind, konkrete Entscheidungen, was dieses Problem betrifft, zu treffen. Ich möchte an den Link http://www.primariatm.ro/mesaje.php erinnern. - Übersetzung von der Autorin des Beitrags.

xvi Blaga, Lucian, 1982, Vom Wesen der rumänischen Volksseele, Bukarest: Minerva Verlag, S. 223. xvii Siehe: Bernea, Ernest, 1997, Spaţiu, Timp şi Cauzalitate la poporul Român, Bukarest: Humanitas, xviii Luhmann, Niklas, 1984, Soziale Systeme. Grundriss der allgemeinen Theorie, Frankfurt/M.: Suhrkamp, 1984. xix Parsons, Talcott, 1976, Zur Theorie sozialer Systeme, Opladen, S.275.

http://www.primariatm.ro/mesaje.php�


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DIE ABTEILUNG FÜR MODERNE ANGEWANDTE SPRACHEN DER

„TRANSILVANIA“ UNIVERSITÄT – EINE BILANZ NACH DER ERSTEN BACHELOR GENERATION

Ioana DIACONU

Transilvania University, Brasov Zusammenfassung: Ich möchte in meinem Beitrag zeigen, wie es an der Philologiefakultät aus Kronstadt gelungen ist, die vom Bologna – Prozess aufgezwungenen Änderungen zum Vorteil der Abteilung für moderne angewandte Fremdsprachen zu unternehmen, ohne aber die negativen Aspekte außer acht zu lassen. Die von der Reduzierung der Stundenanzahl ausgehenden Überlegungen betreffen nicht nur die Lehrpläne auf globaler Weise, sondern haben auch zum Umdenken der Inhalte geführt. Dieser Aspekt wird an den Inhalten des Faches „Kommunikationstechniken“ verdeutlicht. Schlüsselwörter: Bologna Prozess, Abteilung für Angewandte Sprachen, Kommunikationstechniken

1. Der Bachelorstudiengang „Moderne angewandte Sprachen“ an der „Transilvania“ Universität

Der Bachelor – Studiengang nimmt sich als Globalziel (misiunea) – so der Lehrplan – die Ausbildung der Fachperson mit Bachelor - Abschluss im Bereich „Moderne Angewandte Sprachen“ vor. Die im Curriculum eingetragenen Qualifikationen, die mit dem Bachelorabschluss erworben werden, sind: Referenten / Innen, Fachreferenten / Innen, Sekretär / Innen, Übersetzer, Experten, Forschungsassistenten, Philologen, Beamte (für den öffentlichen Dienst), Angestellte für kleine und große Firmen Die für das Fach spezifische Ausbildungsziele sind im Lehrplan wie folgt aufgeführt: Der Absolvent soll: die Strukturen der deutschen / französischen und englischen Sprache kennen; die Grammatik der deutschen / französischen und englischen Sprache kennen, sich die wichtigsten linguistischen Theorien aneignen, die wichtigsten Kommunikationstechniken der mündlichen und schriftlichen Kommunikation kennen, die wichtigsten Übersetzungstheorien für die beiden Arbeitssprachen vertiefen.

Die spezifische Kompetenzen und Fächer, die zum Erwerb der verschiedenen Kompetenzen führen sollen, sind:

Kompetenzen Fächer a. Kognitive Kompetenzen

Wesentliche Aspekte der Organisationsstruktur verschiedener Organisationen und des wirtschaftlichen Systems zu kennen;

Aneignen der wichtigsten Theorien über die Kommunikation in Institutionen und über die öffentliche Kommunikation

Die Strukturen der Sprache zu identifizieren und korrekt anzuwenden;

Moderne Informationsquellen zu identifizieren und anzuwenden,

a. Fächer zum Erwerb der Kognitiven Kompetenzen führen

Deutsche / englische Gegenwartssprache Übersetzungstheorie und Praxis Allgemeine Linguistik Angewandte Informatik; Multimedia Landeskunde Recherchieren; Recherchemethoden Erstellen von Datenbanken Semantik des Prototyps Semantik Stereotypen und Klischees


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Datenbanken herzustellen und anzuwenden;

b. Praktische Kompetenzen Die erworbenen Kenntnisse in

verschiedenen Arbeitsverhältnissen anzuwenden;

Sich korrekt und effizient sowohl schriftlich als auch mündlich in der deutschen und englischen Sprache auszudrücken;

Die verschiedenen, während des Studiums erworbenen Kenntnisse zueinander in Beziehung zu setzen;

Effizient die Berufstätigkeit zu organisieren;

b. Fächer zum Erwerb der praktischen Kompetenzen führen sollen

Techniken der mündlichen und schriftlichen Kommunikation

Übersetzungswissenschaft (Deutsch / Englisch)

Praktische Kurse (Deutsch / Englisch) Rumänische angewandte Sprache Sprache und Gesellschaft Soziolinguistik Terminologie Semiotik der Werbung Journalismussprache

c. Kommunikations- und Relationskompetenzen Soll verschiedene Kommunikationsarten

und -stile anwenden, passend zu den spezifischen Bereichen und Situationen;

Soll flexibel sein und sich an die Teamarbeit anpassen können;

Soll effizient in deutscher und englischer Sprache kommunizieren

c. Fächer zum Erwerb der Kommunikations- und Relationskompetenzen führen sollen

Buchhaltung Öffentliches und privates Recht Verwaltung und Kommunikation im Beruf Europäische Behörden Europäische Integration Marketing Internationale Beziehungen Interkulturelle Kommunikation Projektmanagement Verhandlungstechniken

Aus dieser tabellarischen Darstellung der Kompetenzen und Studienfächer, die zum Erwerb der betreffenden Kompetenzen führen sollen, ergibt sich das formelle Problem der ungenauen Angabe der Kompetenzen und eine ungenaue Zuordnung zu den Fächern, die zu diesen Kompetenzen führen sollen. Hier sollte man die angegebenen Qualifikationen an die offiziell anerkannten Berufsbenennungen anpassen, die Fächer und Kompetenz neu zuordnen und die Lehrpläne entsprechend ändern.

Im Bereich der Arbeitssprache Deutsch konnten alle Fächer, die im Magisterstudiengang angeboten wurden, auch im Bachelor – Studiengang beibehalten werden. Es sind: Deutsche Gegenwartssprache (Vorlesung und Seminar), Landeskunde (Vorlesung und Seminar), Übersetzungswissenschaft (Vorlesung und Seminar), grammatische Übersetzungen (Seminar), Kommunikationswissenschaften (Vorlesung und Seminar) und Textgrammatik. Jedoch konnte man nach zwei aufeinander folgenden Bachelor – Jahrgängen feststellen, dass man in den verschiedenen Veranstaltungen nicht mehr dieselben Inhalte, wie im Magisterstudiengang, vermitteln konnte. Dadurch, dass auf die Aufnahmeprüfung als Eingangsvoraussetzung verzichtet wurde, bleibt eigentlich die Sprachkompetenz der Studienbewerber unbekannt, und man kann das Vorwissen der Studienbewerber im Bereich der zwei Arbeitssprachen nicht bestimmen. Man konnte jedes Mal nach Studienbeginn feststellen, dass die Sprachkenntnisse der Studienanfänger von A2 bis C1 reichen. Diesen Problemen versucht man mit einigen Maßnahmen entgegenzusteuern: man unterrichtet normative Grammatik und macht viele praktische Anwendungen und richtet insgesamt die Inhalte der anderen Fächer (Landeskunde, Kommunikationstechniken, Übersetzungswissenschaften) auch auf


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Sprachkompetenzerwerb und Trainieren der schriftlichen und mündlichen Textproduktion aus.

2. Inhaltliches Umdenken am Beispiel des Faches Kommunikationstechniken

2.1. Kommunikationstechniken im Magisterstudiengang

Am Beispiel des Faches Kommunikationstechniken soll das durch den so genannten Bologna-Prozess inhaltliche Umdenken verdeutlicht werden.

Im Magisterstudium im ersten und im zweiten Semester wurden mit den Zielen Entwicklung der Fertigkeit, einen authentischen Text in schriftlicher Form zu rezipieren, Analyse der spezifischen Strukturen der schriftlichen Sprache, Wortschatzbereicherung, Entwicklung der Fertigkeit, Aufsätze zu sozialen und kulturellen Themen zu schreiben, folgende Inhalte vermittelt: Kommunikationsfehler, Analyse der verschiedenen Kommunikationsmodelle, Analyse von Zeitungstexten, Analyse der Strukturen der schriftlichen Sprache und die Rolle der Fremdwörter.

Für das zweite Studienjahr, also für das dritte und vierte Semester hat man sich als Ziel die Wortschatzerweiterung und den mündlicher Ausdruck vorgenommen. Des Weiteren hat man sich auf die Wortschatzbildung in verschiedenen Bereichen (Wirtschaft, Recht, Technik, Politik) konzentriert, wobei es der Schwerpunkt der Veranstaltung war, diesen Wortschatz in verschiedenen Situationen einzusetzen, war. Ein Ergebnis der Veranstaltung ist ein Projekt der Studenten zu einem der behandelten Themen. Inhaltlich hat man sich auf den Fachwortschatz im Bereich Wirtschaft – Gesellschaftsformen, Marketing und Werbung, Transport und Lieferung, Produktion, Moderne Kommunikationsmittel – im Bereich Recht – Wirtschaftsrecht, gesetzliche Verfahren, Verträge – und im Bereich der Politik – Dialog der Kulturen, die Europäische Gemeinschaft konzentriert.

Im dritten Studienjahr, das heißt im fünften und im sechsten Semester, hat man sich schwerpunktmäßig auf Geschäftskommunikation – Briefe und Telefonate – konzentriert. Zu den vermittelten Inhalten gehörten: Firmennachweis / Werbebrief; Anfrage / Angebot; Nachfassbrief; Auftrag / Bestellung – Widerruf; Auftragseingang / Annahme – Ablehnung; Lieferung / Versandanzeige – Rechnung; Wareneingang / Empfangsbestätigung – Zahlungsanzeige; Lieferverzögerung/ Mahnung – Antwort auf eine Mahnung; Mängelrüge / Antwort auf Mängelrüge; Zahlungsverzögerung / Mahnung – antwort auf eine Mahnung; Zahlungsschwierigkeiten / Versuch einer Einigung; Kreditauskunft.

Die Vorlesung im vierten Jahr hat die Themenschwerpunkte Kommunikation mittels Brief oder E-Mail behandelt. Merkmale, kommunikationstheoretische Aspekte; der Brief aus kulturhistorischer Sicht; Wie schreibe ich verständlich? Stilistische Fragen; Neue Tendenzen in der schriftlichen Kommunikation: Verben, Substantive, Adjektive, Satzbildung; Welches Schreiben eignet sich? Fragen zur Gestaltung der Briefe (Vergleich: gestern und heute); Anreden und Grußformeln: gestern und heute; Die häufigsten Fehler; Briefe zu privaten Anlässen: gestern und heute (zum Vergleich: historische Briefe berühmter Persönlichkeiten).


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Im Seminar wurden folgende Themen zur Auswahl präsentiert: Geschäftskorrespondenz (Anfrage, Angebot, Werbebrief, Bestellung, Reklamation; Briefwechsel zwischen Mieter und Vermieter, Kündigung) Bewerbung (Motivationsschreiben), Formulierungsfragen allgemein mit Übungen, Privatkorrespondenz allgemein (Diskussion, neue Tendenzen), Briefe bekannter Persönlichkeiten, Liebesbriefe, Historische Liebesbriefe, (lesen bzw. diese nach heutiger Sicht umformulieren – siehe Thomas Wieke: Goethe an Frau Stein, Luise von Mecklenburg-Strelitz an Prinz Wilhelm von Preußen), Einladungen, Glückwünsche zu Verlobung oder Trauung, Anzeigen und Kreative Übungen: Wortschatzübungen, Umformulierungen, Rollenwechsel usw. Entschuldigung, Danksagung. (ev. auch Kondolenzbriefe, Todesanzeigen) durchgenommen. In den letzten drei Seminarstunden wurden Referate zu verschiedenen Themen – z. Bsp. E-Mails (sprachliche, kulturelle, soziale Fragen usw.), Korrespondenz aus historischer Sicht (ev. eine bekannte Persönlichkeit präsentieren, oder die Funktion des Briefwechsels z.B. am Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts), Neue Tendenzen in der schriftlichen Kommunikation (Fragebogen, Umfrage).

2.2. Kommunikationstechniken im Bachelorstudiengang

Bei der Umstrukturierung der Lehrpläne wurden auch Stimmen gehört, die der Meinung waren, man könnte zum Beispiel diese Stunden auch „vernünftiger“ belegen, zum Beispiel mit zusätzlichen Übersetzungsseminaren oder praktischen Kursen zur Grammatik oder Textproduktion.

Warum trotzdem „Kommunikationstechniken“? Wie viel davon? Mit welchen Inhalten? Ich nehme hier einige Berufe aus der Auflistung der Berufsqualifikationen auf, für deren Ausübung eine sehr korrekte Beherrschung der zwei Arbeitssprachen nicht ausreichend ist: Referenten / Innen, Fachreferenten / Innen, Sekretär / Innen, Beamte (für den öffentlichen Dienst), Angestellte für kleine und große Firmen. Vielleicht haben wir keine so genaue Vorstellung über das Berufsbild Referentin / Fachreferentin, oder auch Angestellte für kleine und große Firmen – das kann ja alles Mögliche bedeuten – aber eins ist sicher: die Fähigkeit, am Arbeitsplatz zu kommunizieren ist eine erforderliche, wenn nicht entscheidende Kompetenz, die nicht nur durch traditionelle philologische Fächer ausgebildet werden kann.

Zur Festlegung der Inhalte des Faches Kommunikationstechniken tragen unter anderem die oben Aufgeführten Festestellungen bezüglich der Eingangvoraussetzungen, der von A2 bis C1 reichenden Sprachkenntnisse der Studierenden und der Anzahl der Studierenden (zwischen 30 und 40 Studierenden). Hinzu kommt auch, dass sich unter den Fächern, auf die im Zuge der Veränderungen verzichtet wurde, sich neben Lexikologie auch die Phonetik befindet.

Die hier aufgezählten Gründe sprechen dafür, im ersten Jahr mit mündlicher Kommunikation anzufangen und nicht z. B. mit der Theorie der Kommunikation oder mit Geschäftsbriefen.

Verbale Kommunikation bietet eine erste Möglichkeit zum Abbau der Hemmungen und zum Sprechtraining. Im Seminar werden im ersten Semester


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Rollenspiele, ausgerichtet einerseits auf verbale Kommunikation mit den Schwerpunkten im Bereich der Aussprache (richtige Tonhöhe, Ton, klare Aussprache) und im Bereich der sprachlichen, beziehungsweise grammatischen Korrektheit und der Angemessenheit des Ausdrucks, aber andererseits auch auf Elemente der nonverbalen Kommunikation wie Mimik und Gestik, Körpersprache im allgemeinen, wofür Rollenspiele zu verschiedenen gegebenen Sprichwörtern (mit angegebenem Wortschatz als Hilfe), Rollenspiele zu witzigen, ironischen oder tragischen Situationen und zu anderen gegebenen Situationen sehr gut angeeignet sind.

Aussprache wird auch anhand von Sprechübungen und Übungen zur Stimmbildung gemacht, des Weiteren werden rhetorische Stilmittel der gesprochenen Sprache" geübt.

Mein Vorschlag sieht eine interaktive „Vorlesung“ vor. Beim ersten Durchlauf habe ich mit dem Ende angefangen. Die Studenten haben sich in Gruppen eingeteilt und zu einem von ihnen ausgewähltem Thema (Essen; Probleme der Jugend; Vorurteile; Schokolade; Die Geschichte der Bundesliga) eine Präsentation gemacht. Anhand dieser Präsentationen haben wir dann die Regeln für professionelle Präsentationen erläutert, die Sprache analysiert und geprüft, inwieweit man überhaupt verstanden hat, was die Kollegen vorgetragen oder vorgelesen haben, erklärt, warum man eigentlich nicht deutlich verstehen konnte, gefragt, warum, wenn sie vorgelesen und nicht vorgetragen haben, warum sie das gemacht haben und festgestellt, wann wir uns langweilt haben und warum (Ein Prüfungsthema war dann auch, die eigene Präsentation und die Präsentation einer der Gruppen zu analysieren.)

Diese Fragen konnten im Rahmen der Veranstaltung nur teilweise beantwortet werden, und wir haben mehr die unklare, undeutliche oder falsche Aussprache in den Fordergrund gestellt.

Sprachliche Elemente, die zum Erfolg bzw. Misserfolg eines Vortrags führen – oder zur Verständlichkeit, bzw. Unverständlichkeit – und der Unterschied zwischen Texten, die für das Lesen und Texten, die für das Vortragen / Hören geschrieben werden, bilden die inhaltlichen Schwerpunkte des zweiten Semesters. Zu den sprachlichen Elementen, deren Einsatz trainiert werden soll, gehören rhetorische Stilmittel wie „Wir“ Sätze, Fragen, kurze Sätze, eine schlichte Sprache, Vergleiche / Beispiele, Pausen, Zitate, Wiederholungen, Provokationen, Humor.

Die Hauptpunkte der Veranstaltung sind folgende „Techniken der Kommunikation“: Rhetorik / Freie Rede, Präsentation, Präsentation und Vortrag, Werkzeuge der Präsentationstechnik, Gespräche unter vier Augen, Moderation von Besprechungen, Aktives Zuhören, Rhetorik am Telefon, Innovative Kommunikationsformen.

Im zweiten Studienjahr konzentriert man sich auf schriftliche Kommunikation. Man hat für das zweite „Bologna“ – Studienjahr (3. und 4. Semester) einen Teil der die Inhalte des 5. und 6. Semesters des vierjährigen Studienganges, das heißt, den schriftlichen Bereich der Geschäftskommunikation und einen Teil der Inhalte aus dem vierten Studienjahr, 7. und 8. Semester, beibehalten. Es werden außerdem Protokolle (Rückschau auf Präsentationen, Moderation von Besprechungen), Referate (Schreiben für Sprechen), Akademisches Schreiben behandelt.


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Nach dem zweiten Studienjahr sind im Lehrplan 120 Stunden Praktikum in einem Betrieb, in einer Übersetzungsfirma, in einer Bibliothek, bei einem Reiseveranstalter, bei einer Zeitung, bei einem Kulturveranstalter o.ä. vorgesehen. Es ist nicht so, dass wir über die Inhalte der Lehrveranstaltungen die Studenten für das Praktikum vorbereiten (sollen), aber wenn man sich die Praktikumsmöglichkeiten ansieht, kann man feststellen, dass die Studenten über „Kommunikationstechniken“ einige wichtige Instrumente für den ersten Kontakt mit der Arbeitswelt bekommen haben, wo sie wiederum schon Elemente aus den Inhalten der nächsten Veranstaltungen zu Kommunikationstechniken antreffen.

Der inhaltliche Vorschlag für das dritte Studienjahr ist Journalismus und Kommunikation, Kommunikation in der Werbung und Interkulturelle Kommunikation.

Warum schlage ich diese Inhalte erst für das dritte Studienjahr vor? Es wurden am Anfang die sehr unterschiedlichen Sprachkenntnisse der Studenten aus dem ersten Studienjahr erwähnt. Man geht davon aus, dass sie im dritten Studienjahr ausgeglichener geworden sind. Bis zum dritten Jahr haben die Studenten schon über die verschiedenen Textsorten sowohl im Sprachunterricht als auch im Übersetzungsunterricht gelernt, sie sind mit der Sprache vertrauter als am Anfang. Das Selbe gilt für die Werbesprache. Hinzu kommt, dass sie vier Semester Landeskunde studiert haben und sie sich ein Bild zu kulturellen Unterschieden machen konnten, im Übersetzungsunterricht wurde auch von der Ausrichtung des Translats an die zielkulturelle Situation gesprochen, und somit wären die Voraussetzungen für diese Herangehensweise gegeben.

Im Bereich der interkulturellen Kommunikation werden Themen wie: Sprache und Kultur, Kulturelle Differenzen, Hot Spots, Kulturstandards und Stereotypen, Relativismus zur Sprache gebracht.

Das Studienfach „Kommunikationstechniken“ hat sich nach der zweiten „Bologna“ Generation als eine bedeutende inhaltliche Ergänzung der anderen Fächer der Arbeitssprache Deutsch in der Ausbildung des Übersetzerberufes und auch einiger anderen Berufe / Qualifikationen, die als Ausbildungsziel des Bachelor – Studienganges angegeben werden, gezeigt. Als Randbemerkung kann noch gesagt werden, dass viele Diplomarbeiten zu Themen aus den Veranstaltungen „Kommunikationstechniken“ verfasst wurden.

Literatur

1. Nord, Christiane. 1999. Fertigkeit Übersetzen. Berlin: Langenscheidt. 2. Snell-Hornby, Mary. 1998. Handbuch Translation. Tübingen: Stauffenburg. 3. Schreiber, Michael. 1993. Übersetzung und Bearbeitung: Zur Differenzierung und

Abgrenzung des Übersetzungsbegriffs. Tübingen: Narr. 4. Wilss, Wolfram. 1996. Übersetzungsunterricht. Eine Einführung. Tübingen: Narr. 5. *** Das 5. internationale Symposium "Translatorische Kompetenz": BA/MA-

Studiengänge im internationalen Vergleich (Germersheim, 9.-11. Dezember 2004) Texte: Germersheimer Erklärung - Vorträge - Protokolle entnommen. http://www.fask.uni-mainz.de/user/hagemann/publ/texte.html (März 2009)

6. *** Lehrpläne der Abteilung für angewandte Fremdsprachen an der Philologiefakultät der „Transilvania“ Universität Brasov, Jahrgänge 2002/2003, 2003/2004, 2004/2005, 2005/2006, 2007/2008, 2008/2009

http://www.fask.uni-mainz.de/user/hagemann/publ/texte.html


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ROYAL SPEECH PREVENTS CRISIS

QUEEN ELIZABETH’S SPEECH ON THE DEATH OF PRINCESS DIANA

Marina-Cristiana ROTARU

Romanian-American University, Bucharest Abstract: The approach I have adopted in analyzing the queen’s speech on the death of Princess Diana focuses on two aspects: critical discourse analysis (or CDA) and strategies of televised communication. The analytical framework of this investigation is based on Norman Fairclough (1989, 1992, 1995, 2000) Lilie Chouliaraki and Norman Fairclough (1999) and Patrick Charaudeau (1995, 1997). CDA emphasizes the importance of language for understanding issues of social concern. Strategies of televised communication aim to project a certain image to get a certain response from the public. The royal family had to carefully handle the public’s reaction in order to avoid a crisis. Key-words: critical discourse, media communication contract, monarchy, royal speech

1. Introduction

The car crash in which the Princess of Wales lost her life triggered a royal crisis of unprecedented consequences for the Crown and the royal family. It was perhaps as serious as the abdication crisis. The abdication of King Edward VIII brought about a constitutional crisis, the outcome of which was considered catastrophic by many members of the royal family. Fortunately, it all ended well and King George VI and his wife, Queen Elizabeth, together with their two daughters, managed to win the people’s hearts and quickly filled the emotional vacuum that King Edward VIII might have left behind. The crisis brought about by Princess Diana’s death went deeper and penetrated the social on such a scale that it took everyone by surprise. The country’s outpouring of grief represented the climax of a long-lasting and camouflaged clash between two sets of values. On the one hand, the traditional British values and ways of conduct: conservatism, self-sufficiency, the stiff-upper lip, held-in-check emotions that the queen and the royal family stood for. On the other hand, the post-modern values that a newly-emerging Britain embraced and that Princess Diana embodied: a stronger emphasis on genuine feelings, a better understanding of the common individual and their beliefs and aspirations. In spite of her sometimes miscalculated conduct, Princess Diana was able to reach the public and touch their hearts in a unique way. Her authenticity and ease in connecting with people from all walks of life made her be regarded as one of their own. That explains the deep sense of loss that many experienced at the news of her death.

2. The Queen and Her People

At times of national crisis it is only natural for people to turn to their leaders, asking for support and guidance. On August 31st 1997, the BBC interrupted all their


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programs to make the tragic announcement: a mass hysteria hit Britain and reverberated abroad. The first public figure to make a speech to commemorate the princess was the newly-appointed Prime Minister, Tony Blair. His words successfully managed to capture the national mood and ingeniously worked as a valve for an increasing public anger. But people wanted the queen to come to London and take charge of whatever needed to be done in such circumstances. Almost five days passed before the sovereign’s arrival in London one day before the funeral. Meanwhile, the public began to fiercely criticize the monarch and the royal family for their aloof attitude at the news of Princess Diana’s death. Newspaper headlines were rhetorically asking: “Where is the Queen?” or “Show us you care!” How was it possible that such a dutiful sovereign like Elizabeth II, whose commitment to her people had never been questioned, lost public support?

Although largely admired for her work and effort, the queen was often criticized for her distant and often too formal and rigid manner. The queen has always been of a very conservative nature and her reigning style much resembles her father’s and grandfather’s. An almost Victorian sense of formality still underlines her rule. The Queen Mother’s formula for dealing with a sensitive situation, “Never explain, never complain, be a royal” was no longer useful. A tension between the way in which the queen understood the performance of her role as sovereign and the way in which the public at large needed and expected the queen to assume her duties and responsibilities was slowly but surely growing. As people were becoming more anxious to receive a sign from their monarch, it was obvious that the queen had to leave Balmoral and its protective surroundings, come to London and face the crowds.

3. The Queen’s Speech as a Media Event

In analyzing this televised event I use Patrick Charaudeau’s concepts of “contrat de communication” (communication contract) and “communication médiatique” (media communication)(Charaudeau, 1995, 1997). According to Patrick Charaudeau (1995) the communication contract is based upon a negotiation of the representations of the world around among those involved in the communication process. In order to be part of the communication process, the subjects need to be considered interlocutors, communicating in a given framework at a certain time. They must be part of an activity that focuses on language and the relationship they establish among themselves transforms into a relationship of mutual influence, their common purpose being the construction of meaning. And every relationship implies a transaction: a negotiation of meaning. Charaudeau (1995) adds that the meaning is the outcome of a process of transformation and a process of transaction.

In social life, a communication contract as a linguistic construction may be concluded on the occasion of public debates, focus groups’ meetings, TV or radio shows. In such circumstances, the interlocutors, the subjects of the communication contract, find themselves in a face-to-face situation. It is often rather uncommon for a royal figure, and mainly a monarch, to find oneself in a face-to-face communication situation. This rarely happens and when it does, for example on the occasion of royal


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walkabouts or garden parties, the exchanges are too limited in time to allow for the transformation and transaction of meaning between the sovereign and the audience. Then how can a British monarch communicate with the public or the nation? It is important to understand that such a communication (in which the sovereign is both sender and receiver) is always mediated. When the queen (as sender) wants to inform the public opinion on a certain aspect of her life and activity, the Buckingham Palace administration, through the office of the Press Secretary, issues royal statements or press releases (these documents have an intermediary function). The queen may also send a certain message through the interviews that different members of her family give (the royals playing the role of spokesperson). When the queen (as receiver) wants to collect information, because of her extraordinary position in the state, she cannot simply go out into the street and ask the passers-by. In this case, too, communication is mediated, taking place indirectly via two sets of intermediaries: the first one includes the royal advisors, the Prime Minister, the courtiers, individuals whose duty it is to keep the queen informed. The second set includes the media (the newspapers the queen may read, the radio programs she may listen to or the TV programs she may choose to watch). These are the mediators that are supposed to facilitate public opinion reaching the queen. The communication between a monarch and the nation is a fact that goes unstated, a tacit promise that the two parties are expected to keep.

Sometimes, this implicit relationship may experience short circuits. After the public announcement of the divorce of the Prince and the Princess of Wales, the queen withdrew the title of “Royal Highness” from Diana. From that moment on, the queen and many members of her family no longer considered her a royal, one of their own. Contrary to the queen’s view, the nation still considered Diana some kind of a royal. In fact, she was the mother of the future king, she was allowed to wear the official title of “Princess of Wales” and she was an aristocrat. In the public’s mind, she was perceived as someone still connected to the world of royalty.

These opposing viewpoints explain the royal family’s initial lack of reaction at the news of the princess’s death and the public’s demand to have the queen in London. In the particular circumstances triggered by Diana’s death, the communication between the monarch and the nation was null. Gradually, under the public’s pressure and on the strong advice of the Prime Minister and also on Prince Charles’s insistence, a channel of communication was opened. Against the background of a socially generalized emotional turmoil, it was now paramount that the queen went public. Television was the best option to connect the sovereign with the rest of the country since it gives one, at least theoretically, the chance to be seen and listened to by almost everybody. A live speech was the most efficient formula the queen could use in order to show that she joined the crowds in their public mourning of Diana, and regain their support. What is unprecedented about this speech is not only its dramatic circumstance, but its very nature: a live TV broadcast. Unlike many other royal speeches that the queen gives and which are recorded in advance and broadcast at a certain time, like the Christmas speeches, for instance, this one was a live speech, which made it even more intense. As Pierre Bourdieu (1998) underlines, television has monopolized the role of facilitating the access to social and political existence. A sovereign is not only a historical construction but also a social and political one. This construction must be seen,


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perceived and experienced by the public as a live organism. Television, via its use of images, facilitates this process and a live broadcast makes it possible in real time terms, as the fresh event unfolds.

The hiatus between the royal family and the nation’s intense reaction to the death of the Princess of Wales, a reaction rendered even more intense by the media, represents the framework within which the sovereign and the public became “the signatories” of a communication contract. Between the British people who no longer regarded the royal family as a national symbol and the royal family who treated the nation with characteristic aloofness, some kind of deliberation was needed in order to create a new social cohesion, based on a refreshed and commonly accepted set of values. The public immediately assumed the role of interlocutor expressing their points of view through the media. Challenged by the public pressure, the queen responded and assumed the role of interlocutor, too, thus allowing the communication contract to become operative. Since the queen’s answer came in the form of a live speech, the communication contract turned into a media communication contract, which makes communication possible via a technological support: paper, image, sound.

Any type of media communication is a social phenomenon of paramount importance, the purpose of which is the construction of social meaning. According to Charaudeau (1995), the constructor of the social meaning is the social actor, any “I”, in the discourse, with their own representations of the world around. The media makes these representations circulate and, in their turn, influence the constructor. The media communication contract assumes the following functions:

1. The informative function: it informs the public about the latest events. 2. The explanatory function: it provides the public with explanations of the

events. 3. The emotional function: it aims to create strong emotions among public

members. 4. The factitive function: it finally aims to determine the public’s attitude, a

public able to develop their own opinions and determine, in their turn, a settlement of the social and political processes.

As part of the media communication contract, the queen’s speech fulfils these functions. It informs the public of the position of the queen and her family regarding Diana’s death (that it was going to be a public farewell). It tries to explain that the royal family, too, grieved over the death of the princess but in a different way from the public. By publicly acknowledging Diana as “an exceptional human being”, the queen tries to produce a positive response from the public and regain some support. Finally, the speech tries to negotiate a new perspective on the members of the royal family and on the role of the monarchy.

For a televised event of such a scale, the temporal framework and the spatial framework within which it unfolds are essential for the meaning they intend to convey. The temporal framework is a strategy whereby reality is staged. The live broadcast is a particular way of staging an event because it forges the impression of taking part in that event. It also creates a strong feeling of intense contact and intimacy. The queen’s speech was broadcast at 6p.m. on a Saturday evening, a prime time in TV terms,


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which highlighted its importance. The spatial framework is another strategy of staging an event to serve a particular purpose. The queen addressed the nation from one of the state rooms in Buckingham Palace, the Chinese Room, situated in the West wing of the building, overlooking the Mall. The setting of the broadcast was symbolical and unprecedented: the queen was standing in front of a wide open French window, overlooking the front gates of the royal residence. In the background one could see the people cramming in front of Buckingham Palace and all along the Mall and listen to the humming of their voices. By overlapping the queen’s image and that of the crowds in the streets, a strongly symbolical scene was created: the sovereign and the people united in paying tribute to a national icon. It might have been a skilful public relations strategy and it was carefully staged and worked well.

4. The Speech Analysis from a CDA Perspective

My next analysis of the tribute speech to Princess Diana focuses on language. The approach I have adopted in analyzing it is called Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). CDA emphasizes the importance of language to the understanding of issues of social concern. According to Lilie Chouliaraki and Norman Fairclough (1999), in social life language figures in three ways: as discourse (a way of representing), genre (a way of interacting) and style (a way of being). My approach will focus on the concept of style.

4.1. The Style Approach

Styles, as ways of being, show how language figures in the identification of people involved in a social practice (e.g. in the construction of speaker and addressee identity). Royal styles are to do with national identities and values. They show how language figures in the identification of the queen as the country’s first representative involved in the social practice of governing the country (since the queen reigns but does not rule). In other words, the style indicates how language helps create a leader identity fitting the queen’s status and role in society. According to Norman Fairclough, “Leader identity in contemporary politics is built upon a tension between the public office and the private individual, the extraordinary position of leader and the ordinary person who holds it. In terms of language, this means a tension between the public language of politics and everyday life” (Fairclough, 2000: 97).

One way of noticing how this tension manifests in the text is to look at the use of personal pronouns. They help identify the queen’s position in relation to her message and the addressee. There are two ways of using pronouns: an inclusive use (meaning the queen and the nation or the queen and the royal family) and an exclusive use (meaning the queen personally).

The use of the personal pronoun “we” has an inclusive meaning: it means the queen together with her family and the nation: “We have seen…an overwhelming expression of sadness”, “We have all felt those emotions…” One use of “we” has a less inclusive meaning, referring only to the royal family: “This week at Balmoral, we have all been trying to help William and Harry…” This paragraph may be read if not as an indirect excuse that the queen makes for her long absence from London, at least as


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a plausible explanation. Linguistically speaking, the use of the pronoun “we” throughout the speech helps build a sense of cohesion and unity in dealing with the death of the Princess of Wales.

The instances of the personal pronoun “I” seem to be slightly more numerous than those of its plural form. It highlights the queen’s direct involvement in the message. It adds agency and stronger focus. Whenever the queen mentions Diana, she uses the pronoun “I”: “I want to pay tribute to Diana myself”, “I admired and respected her…” This linguistic mechanism underlines the queen’s personal recognition of Diana and appreciation of the values the princess embraced. The queen also uses the pronoun “I” when stating her position regarding the consequences of Diana’s death: “I for one believe that there are lessons to be drawn from her life…” The phrase “I for one…” suggests that the queen speaks for herself and acknowledges the need to learn but does not mention who else should learn. This obscurity is preserved by the agentless passive “lessons to be drawn”. It is an oblique way of avoiding to speak in someone else’s name, which might have made the queen sound moralizing.

The queen also uses the “I” when she acknowledges the overwhelming public reaction to the loss of the princess and agrees to join in the people’s farewell: “I share in your determination to cherish her memory”. This is a very careful choice of words, the queen indirectly admitting that her determination in honouring Diana was, at least initially, not as solid as the nation’s, as the antithesis between the pronouns “I” and “your” suggests. The queen thus opts for the wiser “I share”, claiming the right to join the public opinion and signalling involvement.

The most intense use of the pronoun “I” appears in the third paragraph of the speech: “So what I say to you now, as your queen and as a grandmother, I say from my heart”. This is a linguistic construction that added momentum to the event. The conjunction “So” signals a change of focus. It points to the fact that the queen is preparing the ground for an important announcement. “So” is a disguised “Lend me your ears”, by which the queen tries to capture public attention. Between the first “I” and the second “I” of the sentence, the queen clearly establishes the position from which she makes the speech: “as your queen” (underlining her direct relationship with the people and her awareness of her constitutional role) and “as a grandmother”. Therefore, it is the official position which is fore-grounded and the private which is back-grounded. The queen identity and the grandmother identity are united in one person and what gives authenticity to this symbiosis is the reference to a very private (and most often inaccessible sphere), the queen’s private feelings: “…what I say to you now…I say from my heart…”

The final “I” in the text (“I hope that tomorrow we can all, wherever we are, join in expressing our grief at Diana’s loss, and gratitude for her all-too-short life”) points to the queen’s personal call for national unity and her attempt to bridge the gap between herself and her people, using the public’s grief over Diana’s death and respect for her achievements.


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4.2. The Semiotics of Bodily Movement and of Visual Images

The Style, as a way of being, is also the result of the symbolism attached to these physical elements.

The setting of the live broadcast The setting of the event was more extensively analyzed above. The queen’s

image projected over the image of the crowds packing the streets around the royal palace, the voice of the queen heard against a generalized vibration coming from outside are the ingredients of a highly symbolical image: the queen is represented here as the unifying force of a divided country, the long-awaited sovereign expected to fill the vacuum left by a sudden and useless death.

The Queen’s Outfit As is proper in such circumstances, the queen’s outfit emphasizes her body

politic. Only the queen’s face and neck point to the body private. The queen was wearing a plain black dress ornate with a brooch, a white pearl necklace and a pair of pearl earrings. In the world of royalty, this is the standard mourning outfit. The sovereign’s garb spelled out her regal sobriety and calm dignity that perfectly fitted the occasion and clearly marked her nature and style.

Indicators of the Queen’s Anxiety as Expressions of the Private Individual The Swinging Anxiety shows on the face and in the gestures. Although the queen was filmed

from her waist up, a closer look at the images reveals that she was swinging back and forth and sometimes slowly leaning forward. This is an indicator of the queen’s attempt to control her feelings and strike a balance between her inner emotional state and her posture.

The Queen’s Blink The eye movement (or the blink) is another indicator of anxiety. On average,

people blink 15 times per minute (women being reported to blink a bit more often than men). In his Book of Tells-How to Read People’s Minds from Their Actions, Peter Collett (2005) quotes the common study of Robert Goldstein and John Stern (1992) from Washington University of Saint Louis and of Lance Robert (1992) from University of Connecticut. The study has indicated that the blinking rate of an individual and his emotional state are directly related. The more anxious people are, the more often they blink (Goldstein, R., Bauer L., Stern, J.A., 1992). When exposed to intense light or when in extreme weather conditions, individuals tend to blink more frequently trying to adapt their body to that particular circumstance.

The queen’s speech lasts approximately 3 minutes and 7 seconds. Within this span of time she blinks approximately 118 times, which means that she blinks 39 times a minute. This reveals that the queen blinked 260 per cent more per minute than the average individual in an everyday situation. This is a clear symptom of the tremendous pressure that she had to manage. It is also an illustration of how the private individual, through self-control, anchors the public person, facilitating the exercise of different social roles.


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5. Conclusion

The loss of Diana, Princess of Wales, called for reforms of the monarchy and for a revamping of the style in which the royal family understood the fulfilment of their responsibilities. And the only one that could make people believe that reform was not an empty word was the queen. Although she was not alone in this endeavour (the Prime Minister and Prince Charles substantially supported the sovereign), Queen Elizabeth II was the one the nation expected to take the lead. The queen’s speech on Diana’s death was the first stage of a long process. Though criticized for saying too little too late, the queen’s speech struck a balance between what the public expected from the royal family and what the royal family was able to offer at the time. It was an unprecedented and singular statement. A more emotional approach (though much desired by the public) would have destroyed the fundamental equilibrium of the text and made the queen look counterfeit. The rhythm of the speech is well paced and the queen’s voice is carefully balanced. Looking self-composed and distinguished, she managed to combine ceremony and feeling. Although the speech did not and could not have worked wonders, it appeased the crowds and opened a niche where the royal family and the people could join in the national farewell to Diana. The speech tempered the public mood and prevented a crisis that might have had critical consequences for the monarchy.

References

1. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1998. Sur la television. Bucureşti: Meridiane 2. Charaudeau, Patrick. 1995. “Une analyse sémiolinguistique du discours ” in Langages,

No. 117, Paris : Didier-Larousse, pp. 96-111 3. Charaudeau, Patrick. 1997. Le discours d’information médiatique.La construction du

miroir social. Paris : Nathan Université 4. Chouliaraki, Lilie and Fairclough, Norman. 1999. Discourse in Late Modernity –

Rethinking Critical Discourse Analysis. Edinburgh : Edinburgh University Press 5. Collett, Peter. 2005. The Book of Tells.How to Read People’s Minds from Their Actions.

Bucureşti: Trei. 6. Fairclough, Norman. 1989. Language and Power. London: Longman 7. Fairclough, Norman. 1992. Discourse and Social Change. Cambridge: Polity Press 8. Fairclough, Norman. 1995. Media Discourse. London: Edward Arnold 9. Fairclough, Norman. 2000. New Labour, New Language? London: Routledge 10. Goldstein

Robert., Bauer, Lance O. and Stern, John A., “Effect of task difficulty and interstimulus interval on blink parameters” in International Journal of Psychophysiology, Volume 13, Issue 2, September 1992, Pages 111-117.


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A GENERAL VIEW ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN

ESP AND EGP

Alexandra-Valeria POPESCU Politehnica University of Timisoara

Abstract: The present study is an attempt to inquire succinctly into the relationship between English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for General Purposes (EGP). In particular, the general purposes as well as their distinctive features are elaborated upon and examined. The points of contrast leading to the emphatic separation of these two language varieties sometimes occur because of inadequate descriptions or definitions. The aim of this paper is to draw a parallel between ESP and EGP in order to present their common and specific characteristics. Key words: ESP, EGP, common features, distinctive features

1. Introduction

We have to admit that the study of the English language is very important nowadays. It is the basis for better communication between people either specialists or not. Today English is the channel for technical progress as it enables the rapid exchange of information and research of the common global problems. Any specialist of any science field should properly use both ESP and EGP in order to communicate any specialized and non- specialized subject for professionally-oriented activities.

2. Definition and Distinctive Features

The definitions of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) as conceptual term appeared in the literature only in the 1960s. Hutchinson and Waters (cf. 1987, p.19) define ESP as an “approach” rather than a product, meaning that ESP does not involve a particular type of language, teaching materials or methodology.

Peter Strevens (cf.1988, p.1-2) defines English for Specific Purposes (ESP) by making a distinction between its absolute and its variable characteristics. He considers as absolute characteristics the following. ESP –the English language teaching is:

• designed to meet specified needs of the learner; • related in content (i.e. themes and topics) to particular disciplines,

occupations and activities; • centred on the language appropriate for those activities in syntax, lexis,

discourse and semantics; • in contrast with General English.

According to Peter Strevens (cf.1988) the variable characteristics of ESP may be:

• restriction to the language skills to be learned (reading only); • use of no teaching methodology.


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Robinson (cf. 1991) defines ESP on the basis of two criteria: 1. ESP is normally “goal-directed” and 2. ESP courses develop from a needs analysis which aims to specify what

exactly it is that students have to do through the medium of English, and from a number of characteristics which explain that ESP courses are generally constrained by a limited period of time in which their objectives have to be achieved and taught to adults in homogenous classes in terms of the work or specialist studies.

Strevens’ (cf.1988) definition with reference to the course content may confirm the impression held by many teachers that ESP is always and necessarily related to the subject content. Robinson’s (cf. 1991) definition with reference to the homogenous classes may lead to the same conclusion. We have to admit that much of ESP is based on the idea of a common-core of language and skills belonging to all academic disciplines or cutting across the whole business activity.

Dudley-Evans, T. & St. John, M.J. (cf. 1998) offer a modified definition and express their revised view on the essence of ESP from two perspectives: absolute characteristics and variable characteristics. According to them the absolute characteristics are:

• ESP meets the learner’ s specific needs; • ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the

disciplines it serves; • ESP is centred on the language (grammar, lexis, and register), skills,

discourse, and genres appropriate for these activities They consider as variable characteristics the following: • ESP may be related or designed for specific disciplines; • ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology; • ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners; • ESP is generally designed for intermediate and advanced learners.

Dudley-Evans and St. John (cf. 1998) have removed the absolute characteristic that “ESP is in contrast with General English” and added more variable characteristics. They assert that ESP is not necessarily related to a specific discipline. Furthermore, ESP is likely to be used with adult learners although it could be used with young adults in a secondary school setting. The range of ESP has been extended and become more flexible in the modified description.

Anthony (cf.1997) notes that, it is not clear where ESP courses end and general English courses begin; numerous non-specialist EGP instructors use an ESP approach in that their syllabi are based on the analysis of learner needs and their own personal specialist knowledge of using English for real communication.

ESP is a course within the wider professional framework of the English language teaching (ELT), with implications for the design of syllabus and materials as well as its presentation and then evaluation.


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English for General Purposes (EGP) refers to contexts such as the school where needs cannot be readily specified. It is more useful to consider EGP providing a broad foundation rather than a detailed and selective specification of goals like ESP. (Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. 1987, p 53-54).

Aside from the rough separation at the definition level there is an overlapping connection and proportion between them. In order to clarify their relation Widdowson (1983) establishes distinctive features of ESP and EGP.

The most important EGP features are: 1. the focus is often on education; 2. as the learners’ future needs are impossible to predict, the course content

is more difficult to select; 3. due to the above point it is important for the content in the syllabus to have

a high surrender value. The most relevant ESP features are:

1. the focus is on training; 2. as English is intended to be used in specific vocational contexts, the

selection of the appropriate content is easier; 3. it is important for the content in the syllabus to have a high surrender

value, most relevant to the vocational context; 4. the aim may be to create a restricted English competence.

Surrender value stands for the overall utility (value) of the English taught by a specific course, the higher the surrender value, the greater the utility of the English taught. These distinctive features reveal the true nature of EGP and ESP.

3. The learners and their purposes

The learners and their purposes for learning English constitute the major difference between ESP and EGP. ESP learners are usually adults, who are familiar with the English language. ESP learners are highly motivated because their needs are catered to. They are learning the language in order to communicate professional information and to perform some particular, job-related functions.

In ESP course, it is needs analysis that determines which language skills are useful for the learners to be able to accomplish certain professional tasks (e g. for a tourist guide, courses should be focused on the speaking skills).

ESP courses are centred on the context. The English language is taught as a subject related to the learners’ real needs and wishes in a particular field of human activity. The English language is usable immediately in the employment context. The learners are highly motivated as they are aware of their specific purposes for learning English. (cf. Chris Wright, 1992)

The age of EGP learners varies from children to adults and learning the English language is the subject of the courses. EGP courses are mostly focused on grammar, language structure and general vocabulary. EGP courses are responsible to the general language acquisition and, for the vast majority of learners, they are extremely


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useful. EGP helps students to cope with any subject-matter course. It gives them the ability to generate more language. EGP learners, if well-taught, can use English to cope with the language in any undefined tasks. EGP courses deal with many different topics and each of the four skills is equally treated. Due to the general nature of these courses no needs analysis is conducted.

4. Conclusion

It is hard to draw a clear line where EGP courses stop and ESP courses start, we use such labels as Business English, or Medical English to distinguish between ESP and EGP. We consider that the two are highly interrelated. One may ask “What is the difference between the ESP and General English approach?” Hutchinson et al. (1987, p.53) answer this quite simply, "in theory nothing, in practice a great deal". When their book was written, of course, the last statement was quite true. At the time, teachers of General English courses, while acknowledging that students had a specific purpose for studying English, would rarely conduct a needs analysis to find out what was necessary to actually achieve it. Teachers nowadays, however, are much more aware of the importance of needs analysis, and materials writers think very carefully about the goals of learners at all stages of materials production. Perhaps this demonstrates the influence that the ESP approach has had on English teaching in general. Clearly the line where General English courses stop and ESP courses start has become very vague indeed.

References

1. Anthony, L. 1997. ESP: What does it mean? ON CUE. http://interserver.miyazaki-med.ac.jp/~cue/pc/anthony.htm Retreived April 6, 2000, from the World Wide Web.

2. Chris Wright 1992. The Benefits of ESP 3. Dudley-Evans, T. & St. John, M.J.

www.camlang.com/art001.cfm - 1998

4. Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. 1987. English for Specific Purposes: A learning-centered approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

. Developments in English for Specific Purposes: A multi-disciplinary approach, Cambridge University Press.

5. Robinson, P. 1991 ESP Today: a Practitioner’s Guide. Hemel Hempstead: Prentice Hall International.

6. Strevens, P. 1988 ESP after twenty years: A re-appraisal. In M. Tickoo (Ed.), ESP: State of the Art (pp. 1-13). Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Centre.

7. Widdowson, H.G. 1983. Learning Purpose and Language Use. Oxford: Oxford University Press.


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JUGENDSPRACHE ALS PROVOKATION

Andreea R. RUTHNER

Politehnica University of Timisoara

Zusammenfassung: Warum empfinden Erwachsene die Jugendsprache als eine Provokation? – Das ist die erste Frage, die man sich zu diesem Thema stellen sollte. Wir alle haben dieses schwierige Alter erlebt, uns mit denselben Fragen, Sorgen und Gedanken geplagt, wir alle hatten unsere Konflikte mit den einen oder anderen Erwachsenen, und dann fragt man sich, warum scheint denn eigentlich die Jugend der Gegenwart so provokativ? Die vorliegende Arbeit untersucht und unterstreicht die wichtigsten Funktionen der Jugendsprache, anhand von Beispieltexten, und definiert diese Sprachform als eine Spielart, dessen Ziel in der Provokation der Öffentlichkeit durch Ironie, Sarkasmus und sprachstilistische Parodien, aber auch in der Abgrenzung von der Erwachsenenwelt und das Erschaffen eines Zusammengehörigkeitsgefühls zu einer Peer Group liegt.

Schlüsselwörter

1. Einführung

: Konflikte – Sprachszenen – Schimpfwörter – Sexualsprache – Tabuthemen – Sprachwitz – Ironie

Schon Anfang der achtziger Jahre weckte das Thema der Jugendsprache ein unerwartetes Interesse des breiten Publikums, welches sich in der Veröffentlichung zahlreicher Lexika und sprachwissenschaftlicher Arbeiten widerspiegelte. Der Grund dafür war die Besorgnis um den Entwicklungszustand der Sprache, welcher immer Anlass zur sprachwissenschaftlichen Diskussionen gewesen ist.

Heutzutage steht dieser Mythos der Jugendsprache weiterhin im Rampenlicht der Öffentlichkeit, da Sprache sich als ein wesentlicher Teil der Identität junger Leute, und nicht nur, erwiesen hat. In der Suche nach sich selbst entwickelt man eine eigene Persönlichkeit und eine neue Form der Sprache, daher auch die vielen Jugend- und Szenesprachen, die sich als wichtige Ressourcen für den lexikalischen Wandel der Standardsprache herausstellen.

Warum empfinden Erwachsene die Jugendsprache als eine Provokation? – Das ist die erste Frage, die man sich zu diesem Thema stellen sollte. Wir alle haben dieses schwierige Alter erlebt, uns mit denselben Fragen, Sorgen und Gedanken geplagt, wir alle hatten unsere Konflikte mit den einen oder anderen Erwachsenen, und dann fragt man sich, warum scheint denn eigentlich die Jugend der Gegenwart so provokativ?

Es wurde schon mehrmals erwähnt, dass die Jugendsprache eine Sprachform ist, die fortwährend Veränderungen erlebt, in dem Sinne dass ein groβer Anteil an Ausdrücke und Redensarten schnell aus der Sprache verschwindet und durch neue Elemente ersetzt wird. Auβerdem deuten die Sprachwissenschaftler auf die Existenz von mehreren Sprachszenen, die mehr oder weniger ausgeprägte Abwandlungen der Standardsprache beinhalten, vom sozialen Umfeld und vom Alter abhängig. Diese sind die Gründe dafür, dass uns, als Erwachsene, diese Sprachvarietät „zum einen direkter


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und bildlicher und zum anderen auch neu und unbekannt ist, was Misstrauen auslöst“ (Röncke 2005: 6).

Es wurde aber bewiesen, dass einige Ausdrücke der Jugendsprache, vor allem jene die eine sehr lange Zeit im Wortschatz der Jugend erhalten geblieben sind, letztendlich von den Erwachsenen übernommen und zur Umgangssprache gezählt wurden.

2. Versuch einer Definition der Jugendsprache anhand von konkreten Beispielen

Um auf die Frage „Was ist an der Jugendsprache heutzutage wirklich provokativ?“ eine Antwort zu finden, schlägt uns Mareike Röncke in ihrer Arbeit mit dem Titel Jugendsprache als Provokation (2005) einen Vergleich zwischen zwei Lexika der Jugendsprache vor, das PONS Wörterbuch der Jugendsprache 2006 (2005) und ein älteres Werk affengeil – Ein Lexikon der Jugendsprache, das 1994 von Hermann Ehmann veröffentlicht wurde.

Als Erstes versucht Röncke klar zu stellen, was genau als provokativ empfunden wird und meint dazu Folgendes:

Das ist natürlich immer eine subjektive Empfindung, deshalb werden die „weniger provokativen“ Ausdrücke auch nicht als „nicht provokativ“ bezeichnet – man kann nicht immer eindeutig unterscheiden. Mit „provokativ“ sind alle Ausdrücke gemeint, die entweder aus der Vulgärsprache stammen, wie zum Beispiel ‚kotzen‘, ‚Titten‘,‚scheiße‘, oder jene, die verletzend, herabwürdigend oder reduzierend wirken, wie beispielsweise ‚Biotonne‘ (Vegetarier)‚ Kohlenbeschaffer‘ (Eltern) oder Krampfadergeschwader‘ (eine Gruppe älterer Menschen) (Röncke 2005: 2).

Röncke unterstreicht als Nächstes die inhaltliche Authentizität des aktuelleren Wörterbuchs, denn die darin enthaltenen jugendsprachlichen Ausdrücke und Redensarten wurden „von Schülerinnen und Schülern aus ganz Deutschland“ zusammengetragen (PONS 2005:1). Das Wörterbuch enthält 340 jugendsprachliche Namen, Sprüche und Phraseologismen, und Rönckes Meinung nach, beträgt der Anteil der weniger provokativen Ausdrücke am gesamten Wortschatz im PONS Wörterbuch ungefähr 51,2%, während der Anteil der provokativen Ausdrücke ungefähr 45,6% beträgt, „wobei wiederholt werden muss, dass dieser Wert differieren kann, je nach dem, wie zart besaitet der Leser des Buches ist“ (Röncke 2005: 3).

Wir werden zugleich darauf aufmerksam gemacht, dass es für einige Kategorien von Personen besonders viele negative Bezeichnungen gibt: für Übergewichtige erscheinen nicht weniger als 12 Bezeichnungen, 22 Bezeichnungen für Personen, die als hässlich empfunden werden, und sogar 27 Bezeichnungen für Personen, die als dumm oder unsympatisch empfunden werden. Diese verletzenden und anstöβigen Ausdrücke und Schimpfwörter bilden fast 40% der provozierenden Sprachelemente, wobei der Rest von ungefähr 60% vor allem Bezeichnungen für Frauen und sexbezogene Ausdrücke darstellt:


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Tittenfisch (dicker Mann mit Brüsten), Puddingdampfer (übergewichtige Person) Brombeerbums (Geschlechtsverkehr mit einem unrasierten Partner) oder Rudelpisser (Mädchen, die in Gruppen zu Toilette gehen) (Röncke 2005: 4).

Als eine groβe Hilfe für die Erwachsenen, die Jugendliche verstehen möchten, erweist sich der Bereich, der den Phraseologismen erteilt wurde, denn die Mehrheit dieser Redensarten können wirklich nur von Jugendlichen verstanden werden, wie zum Beispiel in den folgenden Fällen:

Restaurant zur goldenen Möwe (McDonalds), einen Radierer schlucken (die Pille danach nehmen), eine Mafiatorte einwerfen, (Pizza essen) oder Kurvenschuhe anhaben (betrunken sein) (Röncke 2005: 3).

Weniger aktuell ist Ehmanns Lexikon affengeil – Ein Lexikon der Jugendsprache (1994), welches zu diesem Zeitpunkt nicht sehr viele gebräuchliche jugendsprachliche Ausdrücke enthält. In den letzten vierzehn Jahren hat sich die Sprache der Jugendlichen stark verändert, wobei die Untersuchungen zeigen, dass sie viel provokativer geworden ist.

Das Lexikon wurde von Hermann Ehmann in den Jahren 1989 bis 1991 durch Befragung von Jugendlichen aus verschiedenen Gebieten zusammengestellt und enthält 454 jugendsprachliche Ausdrücke, inklusive verschiedene Präfixe, wie über- mit passenden Adjektiven oder Substantiven: -hart, -geil, -tussi. Die Phraseologismen, die hier zu finden sind, werden heutzutage nicht mehr als provokativ empfunden, denn teilweise wurden sie in der Umgangssprache, oder sogar in der Standardsprache aufgenommen, wie zum Beispiel:

verrückt (Ich werd verrückt, Das ist zum Verrücktwerden), die Sau rauslassen, Promi (Promi-Party, Promi-News), einen an der Pfanne haben oder heiß (heißer Ofen) (Röncke 2005: 3).

All diese Beispiele galten 1994 als Jugendsprache. In der Zwischenzeit aber wurden sie von den Medien aufgenommen und werden sogar von Erwachsenen in der Öffentlichkeit benutzt. Röncke schreibt von einem kleinen Prozent (15,9%) an provokanten Ausdrücken und von einem groβen Prozent (84,14%) an weniger provokanten Ausdrücken. Gleichzeitig unterstreicht sie die geringe Anzahl an Ausdrücken für unsympatische Personen.

Natürlich gab es auch 1994 vulgärsprachliche Ausdrücke, die in Ehmanns Lexikon nicht vorkommen und trotzdem zur Jugendsprache gezählt wurden [...]. Trotzdem ist zu vermuten, dass die sprachliche Hemmschwelle der Gesellschaft im Allgemeinen und die in den modernen Medien wie Fernsehen und Internet im Besonderen sinkt und dass Jugendliche heutzutage öfter zu extremen sprachlichen Mitteln, beispielsweise Sexual- und Fäkalsprache, greifen müssen, um Tabus zu brechen und zu schockieren (Röncke 2005: 4).

Auch wenn manche jugendlichen Ausdrücke heutzutage vielleicht Misfallen unter den Erwachsenen auslösen und als provozierend empfunden werden, je länger sie es schaffen aktuell zu bleiben, desto mehr Chancen haben sie in der Umgangssprache aufgenommen zu werden und von einer immer gröβeren Anzahl von Menschen benutzt zu werden.


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3. Durch Sexualsprache provozieren

Röncke erwähnt des Weiteren die jugendliche Sexualsprache als eine Form der Provokation Erwachsener und bezieht sich auf die Veröffentlichung des Aufklärungsheftes Let’s talk about sex (1994), welche die Empörung vieler Personen ausgelöst hat, vor allem aus den religiösen und politischen Bereichen Deutschlands. Es wurden folglich viele Diskussionen zu diesem Thema geführt, denn der Verfasser des Heftes hatte eine Reihe von „vulgärsprachlich und unanständig empfundenen Ausdrücken” verwendet.

Norbert Kluge, Professor für Pädagogik an der Universität Koblenz-Landau, führte 1995 zusammen mit dem sozialwissenschaftlichen Institut EMNID eine Repräsentativbefragung unter Jugendlichen und jungen Erwachsenen, zum Tabuthema der Sexualsprache und machte einen Vergleich zwischen zwei Gruppen, eine gebildet aus 14 bis 19jährigen Jugendlichen und eine aus 20 bis 29jährigen Erwachsenen: untersucht wurde die situative Verwendung sexualsprachlicher Ausdrücke von den zwei erwähnten Kategorien. Wie erwartet, haben die Ergebnisse gezeigt, dass Jugendliche eher als Erwachsene in der Öffentlichkeit „(...)als vulgärsprachlich bezeichnete Ausdrücke(...)“ verwenden (Kluge 1996: 186). Kluge schreibt von einem Prozent von 25 im Falle der Jugendlichen und nur 14 im Falle der Erwachsenen. Auβerdem wurden manche Ausdrücke, die von Erwachsenen als „vulgär” abgestempelt wurden, von Jugendlichen eher zu der Allgemeinsprache gezählt. „Wenn Jugendliche sich in Tabuthemen artikulieren, so tun sie dies häufig mittels Ironie, Sarkasmus oder derber Provokation“ (Kluge 1996: 184).

Ältere Generationen empfinden die von Jugendlichen verwendete Sexualsprache nicht als tolerierbar, denn in ihrer Sicht sind Sexualwörter im öffentlichen Sprachgebrauch peinlich, vulgär oder obszön. Auf der anderen Seite zeigen Jugendliche sehr viel Interesse an Wortschöpfungen, Sprüchen und Phraseologismen, vor allem solche mit sexuellen Konotationen, wodurch sie des öfteren bewusst oder unbewusst stark provozieren und schockieren.

Sie verbergen dadurch auch die eigene Unsicherheit beim Thema Sexualität, denn auch sie umschreiben es lieber in ihrem jugendsprachlichen Stil, der zwar provoziert, aber die Dinge dennoch oft nicht beim Namen nennt (Röncke 2005: 5).

Weiterhin deutet Röncke auf den Unterschied zwischen einem Gespräch Jugendlicher vs. Eltern und Jugendlicher vs. Erwachsene aus einem weiteren Umfeld hin. Viel aggressiver in der Wortwahl sind Jugendliche im familiären Umfeld als mit Fremden. Sehr oft wählen sie jugendliche Ausdrücke um ihre Meinung klar zu machen und den Eltern ihre Überlegenheit zu beweisen. Hier ein Beispiel für das Sprachverhalten Jugendlicher in einer typischen Situation:

Mutter: „Würdest du bitte dein Zimmer aufräumen?“ Kind : „Nee, kein Bock.“ Mutter: „Ich sag‘s dir schon seit zwei Wochen ...“ Kind : „Jaja, scheiß dich nicht ein.“ Mutter: „Tu ich nicht, aber du machst dich jetzt sofort an die Arbeit.“


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Kind : „Oh man, ich kotz gleich“ (Röncke 2005: 5).

Phraseologismen, wie kein Bock, scheiß dich nicht ein und ich kotz gleich sind dazu gedacht Missfallen auszudrücken. Variationen dieser Ausdrücke sind Null Bock, scheiß dich mal nicht (so) ein und ich muss kotzen oder ich krieg das Kotzen. All diese Beispiele gehören zu der Fäkalsprache, sie sollen zeigen wie unwohl sich der Jugendliche fühlt und sollen das Elternteil provozieren.

In der Schule oder an anderen öffentlichen Orten benutzen nur wenige Jugendliche dieselbe provozierende Sprechart, wenigstens im Gespräch mit Erwachsenen.

4. Fazit

Wir gelangen letztendlich zu der Schlussfolgerung, dass Jugendliche auch wenn sie durch Sprachwitz, Ironie und vor allem derbe Ausdrücke provozieren möchten, zugleich die Unsicherheit, die diesem Alter entspricht, dahinter zu verbergen versuchen.

Wenn Jugendliche ab und zu durch ihre Sprache provozieren, erregt dies Anstoß und wird sofort von anderen wahrgenommen, wenn sie sich aber durch Standard- und Umgangssprache ausdrücken, wird dies kaum registriert. Das könnte der Grund sein, warum Jugendsprache als provokant wahrgenommen wird, obwohl der einzelne Jugendliche durch seinem Sprachstil meistens gar nicht provoziert (Röncke 2005: 6).

Literatur 1. Ehmann, Hermann. 1994. affengeil. Ein Lexikon der Jugendsprache. 3. Aufl. München:

C.H. Beck`sche Verlagsbuchhandlung. 2. Kluge, Norbert. 1996. Jugendliche Sexualsprache. Eine gesellschaftliche Provokation.

Landau: Petra Knecht. 3. Röncke, Mareike. 2005. Jugendsprache als Provokation. Hrsg. unter der Leitung des

Prof. Dr. P.Schlobinski, Universität Hannover. 4. Wörterbuch der Jugendsprache 2006. PONS. 2005. Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Sprachen

GmbH.


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IN THE LEGAL DISCOURSE: A TRANSLATION-ORIENTED APPROACH

Mihaela COZMA University of the West, Timişoara

Abstract: In addition to a wide range of specialized terms and expressions, legal texts are also characterized by the presence of a large number of words which belong to the common vocabulary, but which are assigned either special or vague meanings in this type of discourse. The paper discusses some semantic peculiarities presented by texts belonging to the category of the EU legislation, pointing to the problems that the Romanian translator of such texts might encounter. Key Words: EU legislation, lexico-semantic norms, specialized terms, preciseness of meaning, vagueness of meaning

1. Introduction

Any translator who wants to produce effective target texts in a particular field must be familiarized with the discoursal, syntactic and lexico-semantic norms and conventions of the genre in which he/she is working (cf. Bhatia 1997). This happens because all the norms, even those which regard lower levels of generic construction, make an important contribution towards the achievement of the overall communicative purpose of a genre, and, consequently, should be given serious attention by the translator.

It is interesting that, when the lexico-semantic norms of a certain genre are brought into discussion, they are generally associated with and restricted to aspects regarding the terminology or the standardized expressions specific to that particular domain. However, as it will be suggested in what follows, there are genres in which the choice and the use of the general words may also be influenced by norms and may even raise certain problems for the translator of the field. In order to illustrate this idea, my paper focuses on the genre of the European Union (EU) legislation, and examines some peculiarities that the EU texts present at the lexico-semantic level, with the specific purpose of arriving at findings that might be relevant for the translators working in the EU field. The corpus that I used for my analysis includes, on the one hand, EU texts originally written in English, texts which, according to the official site of the European Union (cf. http://europa.eu.int), represent „legislation in force”, that is regulations, decisions, directives, agreements, conventions, etc. Since my intention was to arrive at findings of interest for the translators working in the EU field, I also included in my corpus the official Romanian translations of these English texts (cf. http://www.ier.ro). Reference to the texts in my corpus is made by means of the Celex number, which is a unique combination of elements, giving information on the code of the sector to which the document belongs (the first figure), the year in which the

http://europa.eu.int/�

http://www.ier.ro/�



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document was adopted (the next four figures), the type of document (represented by a letter), and the number of the document (made up of the last four figures).

As I mentioned above, any approach to the lexico-semantic norms of a genre generally makes reference to the use of the specialized terms, i.e. to lexical items which “refer deliberately to specific concepts within particular subject fields and therefore constitute a sub-system of knowledge” (Sager 2004: 259). Being produced as part of a professional domain, the EU documents are also characterized by the presence of specialized terms and expressions, which basically fall into three broad categories: terms belonging strictly to the EU domain (i.e. names of institutions, documents or specific activities), more general terms relating to law or administration, and technical terms specific to the various individual fields to which every EU document in its turn is meant to apply (cf. Cozma 2006). Most of these specialized terms have, by their very nature and utility, a fairly clear, exact meaning. However, in addition to the specific terminology, the texts belonging to the genre of the EU legislation make use of a large number of words which belong to the common vocabulary, but which play a very important part in the attainment of the genre-specific communicative purpose. The semantic analysis of this special type of “general” lexical items, as they are revealed by the EU texts making up my corpus, indicates two opposite tendencies: one tendency is to assign these words meanings which are far more precise than in the common vocabulary, and the other is to use words or formulations with vague meanings.

2. Semantic peculiarities in the EU texts

The number of lexical items in a language being finite, some of them may have to take on several meanings. This is the reason why, quite frequently, common words are taken over and pressed into service as terms in particular special languages. This feature, which seems to be characteristic of the legal discourse in general (cf. Danet 1985, Stoichiţoiu-Ichim 2001) is also revealed by the EU documents that I have analyzed – both in their English variants and as Romanian translations. Thus, lexical items like proposal/ propunere, instrument (of ratification/ accession)/ instrument (de ratificare/ aderare), approximation (of the laws)/ apropiere (a legislaţiilor), codification (of a Decision) / codificare (a unei decizii), to align (requirements)/ a alinia (cerinţele) have a much more rigurous technical sense than the corresponding common words, therefore meaning something more specific in these texts than in the everyday use.

Even if the above mentioned tendency manifests itself both in the English texts and in their Romanian translations, the degree of precision presented by a word in this category may vary from one language to another. A good example in this respect is the English opinion, which has a very high frequency in the common vocabulary, but which, in the context of the documents under analysis, is characterized by a restricted and specific meaning. The Romanian translation, on the other hand, i.e. aviz, although


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used as a common word, too, is, however, more frequently associated with the specialized language of the legal-administrative field than its English counterpart.

ST: “The measures provided for in this Decision are in accordance with the opinion of the Standing Committee on Construction”

TT: “Măsurile prevăzute în prezenta directivă sunt conforme cu avizul Comitetului permanent pentru construcţii” (32003D0722)

The other tendency, i.e. that of intentionally resorting to words and phrases with a vague meaning, is very well illustrated by adjectives or adverbs like in the following syntagmas: “duly authorized”/ “autorizat în mod corespunzător” (32002L0006), “appropriate initiatives”/ “iniţiative adecvate” (32003D0291), “carrying out the necessary checks to that end”/ “efectuării controalelor necesare în acest sens” (32003R0058), “using suitably large components with a view to examining the potential …”/ “utilizează componente suficient de mari în vederea examinării posibilităţii …” (42002D0234), “relevant environmental data”/ “date de mediu relevante” (32003L0017), “facilitate road traffic by appropriate means”/ “să faciliteze transportul rutier prin mijloace potrivite” (21992A1221(02)). Such items are meant to bring a certain degree of relaxation in the process of imposing obligations on the member states or on the institutions to which the legislative documents are addressed, by giving them some freedom with regard to the manner in which the main legal provisions contained by these documents are to be applied.

Unfortunately, the texts in my corpus reveal some other instances of vagueness of meaning, which, however, differ from the formulations mentioned above in that they present the danger of provoking ambiguity. Two situations have been identified in this respect.

On the one hand, there are cases when the vagueness of meaning is only a feature of the target text, being a consequence of an inappropriate translation solution. The Romanian variant of the following fragment is a good illustration of such a situation:

ST: “However, products covered by the common organisations of the markets in cereals and rice, on the one hand, and goods not listed in Annex I to the Treaty, on the other hand, shall each be treated as a single product sector.”

TT: “Totuşi, produsele aparţinând organizării comune a pieţei cerealelor şi orezului, pe de o parte, şi mărfurile care nu figurează în anexa I la Tratat, pe de altă parte, formează un singur sector de produse.” (32002R2090)

The translated variant of the fragment above does not offer any counterpart for the source-text lexical item each, which, although a determiner, plays a crucial part in the construction of the overall meaning of the sentence in question. In this way, the Romanian reader is very likely to understand that the products covered by the market organizations and the goods not listed in Annex I form together one single product sector, and not that each of them in its turn represents a separate sector, as the original text suggests.


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The other type of situation revealed by the texts in my corpus is when both the English and the Romanian variants of the documents are somehow ambiguous at certain points. In this case, the ambiguity is determined by problems of stylistic nature, as it is illustrated by the excerpt below:

“Specific sanctions and procedures are set out in Regulation (EC) No 2531/98, providing for a simplified procedure for the imposition of sanctions in the event of certain kinds of infringements but referring to Council Regulation (EC) No 2532/98 of 23 November 1998 concerning the powers of the European Central Bank to impose sanctions for the principles and procedures relating to the imposition of sanctions.”

“În Regulamentul (CE) nr. 2531/98 sunt prevăzute sancţiuni şi proceduri specifice, care prevăd o procedură simplificată pentru impunerea de sancţiuni în cazul anumitor tipuri de încălcări, dar care se referă la Regulamentul Consiliului (CE) nr. 2532/98 din 23 noiembrie 1998 privind competenţele Băncii Centrale Europene de a impune sancţiuni în ceea ce priveşte principiile şi procedurile pentru impunerea de sancţiuni.” (32002R0134)

The awkward and somehow vague form of expression characterizing this fragment, present in the English original text and preserved in its Romanian translation, represents, to a great extent, a consequence of the syntactic features of this category of texts. Thus, the main problem with this piece of language is represented by the fact that the nouns sanctions and procedures/ sancţiuni şi proceduri have a great number of modifiers, which, by repeated embedding, create a rather extended noun phrase that is rather difficult to process. In addition to this, some of the nouns used in this fragment are repeated at short intervals (cf. procedure/ procedură and sanction/ sancţiune), a technique which is probably meant to promote clarity of reference, but which creates a stylistic problem and gives the impression of a badly-constructed text.

In close connection to my comment above, I might mention that, quite frequently, the English EU documents in my corpus reveal the text producer’s little concern for the elegance of the style. This is generally reflected by the placement of lexically related words too close within the same sentence: e.g. “Council Regulation … lists the characteristics to be surveyed in a series of surveys on the structure of agricultural holdings.” (32003D0369). In most such cases – including the one that I have just illustrated – the Romanian translator of these texts does his/her best to find a solution meant to avoid the use of items belonging to the same family of words in the target text: “Regulamentul Consiliului … prevede caracteristicile care trebuie înregistrate în cadrul anchetelor asupra structurii exploataţiilor agricole. ”

The opposite phenomenon is also present in the EU texts that I have analyzed. Thus, sometimes, even if there is no stylistic problem in English, the translator creates one in the target text, by not making the most appropriate selection of lexical items in order to render the intended meaning of the original document. The sentence below which, in its English variant, is very well constructed, sounds rather awkward in Romanian, because it uses the same prepositional noun phrase as an equivalent of both therefore and accordingly:

ST: “Regulation (EC) No 2064/94 should therefore be amended accordingly.”


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TT: “În consecinţă, Regulamentul (CE) nr. 2064/94 trebuie modificat în consecinţă.” (32003R1654)

I must stress, in the end, that, if the intentionally used vagueness of meaning discussed earlier can be taken as a norm of the documents under analysis and is, therefore, expected to be transferred from the English to the Romanian variants of these texts, not the same can be said about the cases of ambiguity or stylistic awkwardness present only at the level of the translated text. Unfortunately, situations like the ones illustrated above are created as a result of an inaccurate or inappropriate translation solution; they represent just accidents that should be avoided as much as possible by the Romanian translators working in this field.

3. Conclusions

In order to ensure the achivement of the genre communicative purpose, which is that of imposing obligations and conferring rights, the producers of the EU texts resort to specific devices at lexico-semantic level. One of the consequences is that, in addition to technical terms and expressions, the lexis of the EU documents is also characterized by the use of common words with specialized meanings. Such words, which usually achieve the status of terms by being assigned only one of the range of meanings that they have in the everyday speech, may create difficulties of comprehension, on the one hand, and of translation, on the other, which are comparable to the ones raised by the technical vocabulary. More specifically, in order to render them correctly, the translator must be sure that s/he uses the appropriate and officially accepted Romanian equivalents, because, otherwise, they may distort the originally intended message. At the same time, as illustrated earlier, the EU documents reveal a number of lexical units which serve the purpose of the genre exactly because of their general reference. The Romanian translator of the field should find target-language solutions which preserve the intended vagueness of meaning, trying, at the same time, to avoid Romanian formulations that might create ambiguity if this feature is not present in the source text.

In the end, I only want to mention that, if we want to find an explanation for these lexico-semantic particularities presented by the EU texts, we can resort to the observation that Crystal and Davy (1969: 212) made with regard to the legal language in general, namely that “the lawyer must go to great lengths to ensure that a document says exactly what he wants it to say, that it is precise or vague in just the right parts and just the right proportions ...”.

References

1. Bhatia, V. K. 1997. “Translating Legal Genres”, in Text Typology and Translation, ed. by A. Trosborg, Amsterdam and Philadelphia: Benjamins, pp. 203-214.

2. Cozma, M. 2006. Translating Legal-Administrative Discourse: the UE Legislation. Timişoara: Tipografia Universităţii de Vest.

3. Crystal, D. and D. Davy. 1969. Investigating English Style. London: Longman.


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4. Danet, B. 1985. “Legal Discourse”, in Handbook of Discourse Analysis, Vol.1, Disciplines of Discourse, ed. by T. A. van Dijk, London: Academic Press – Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers, pp. 273-291.

5. Sager, J. C. 2004. “Terminology – theory”, in Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies, ed. by M. Baker, London and New York: Routledge, pp. 258-262.

6. Stoichiţoiu-Ichim, A. 2001. Semiotica discursului juridic. Bucureşti: Editura Universităţii Bucureşti.

Webography EUR-LEX, the portal to EU law, http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/en/index.htm Translations from the European legislation, http://www.ier.ro

http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/en/index.htm�




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THE INTERNAL RULES OF THE EXAMPLE DATABASE DESIGN

Nadia Luiza DINCA

Research Institute for Artificial Intelligence, Bucharest

Abstract: One of the internal rules of the example-based translation is the dependence of the translation quality on the length and representation of translation examples. These are managed by an example database, for which the linguist should answer two questions when s/he intends to design it: (1) what is the representation chosen for the translation example? and (2) what are the possibilities to generalize the translation examples stored in the database? In this paper my intent is to propose two answers, in fact – a synergetical research direction for Romanian, English and French language. I will consider the representation of the translation examples as depedency trees and I will generalize them by means of the semantic information described by Levin’s verb classes. Keywords: machine translation, translation example, dependency tree, example database design

1. Introduction

The main process of the example-based machine translation is divided into three phases. First, find the most similar examples to the input sentence. Then, recombine the translation of the input sentence according to the most similar example and bilingual dictionary. Lastly, produce the translation of the input sentence.

The example-based machine translation was defined as a translation by analogy which was using an unannotated example data base, created, usually, from a bilingual dictionary - Nagao [1984: 173-180]. The equivalents were represented as word pairs, except the verb equivalents, formalised as case frames.

Later, the structural translation conceived the representation of translation examples as dependency trees with explicited links established between sub-trees (including the leaf nodes, corresponding to the lexical units). These links allow the use of parts of the translation example or sub-trees in order to recognise, for the source language, the exact match between input segments and structures, and for the target language, to select and to combine the equivalent translation units.

MBT2 is the second prototype system in S. Sato and M. Nagao’s Memory-based Translation Project. The two researchers introduced the representation called matching expression, which represents “the combination of fragments of translation examples. The translation process consists of three steps: (i) make the source matching expression from the source sentence. (ii) transfer the source matching expression into the target matching expression. (iii) construct the target sentence from the target matching expression.”

The concept matching expression considers three basic operations applied on dependency sub-trees which are already in database: delete the identifier of a certain sub-tree; replace the identifier with a matching expression; add a matching expression as a child of root node of the identifier.


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This mechanism generates some candidates of translation. To select the best translation out of them, “a score of a translation was defined, so that it should reflect the correctness of the translation unit. The last is a fragment of a source (or target) word-dependency tree, and also a fragment of a translation example. The more similar these two environments are, the better” (S. Sato and M. Nagao, 1992: 247-252).

The system proposed by H. Kaji et al. in 1992 is a two-phase example-based machine translation methodology which develops translation templates from examples and then translates using template matching.

A translation template is a bilingual pair of sentences in which corresponding units (words and phrases) are coupled and replaced with variables. Conditions concerning syntactic categories, semantic categories, etc. are attached to each variable. A word or phrase satisfying the conditions can be substituted for a variable. The two pseudo-sentences constituting a template include the same set of variables.

The learning procedure is divided into two steps. “In a first step, a series of translation templates is generated from each pair of sentences in the corpus. The first step is subdivided into coupling of corresponding units (words and phrases) and generation of translation templates. In the second step, translation templates are refined to resolve conflicts among them” (Kaji, H. et al.,1992: 672-678).

Translation based on templates consists of (i) source language template matching, (ii) translation of words and phrases and (iii) target language sentence generation. “First, a translation template is retrieved. Words and phrases in the source language sentence are then bound to each variable in the template. Second, the words and phrases which are bound to variables are translated by a conventional machine translation method. Finally, a target language sentence is generated by substituting the translated words and phrases for the variables in the target language part of the translation template” (Kaji, H. et al., ibidem).

In this article, the design of an example database for Romanian, English and French language is realised by following two steps:

- The translation example is represented by the means of dependency trees between which corresponding links are established. At the same time, the types of syntactic dependency relations between the composant units of a verb phrase are identified.

- In order to be generalized, the verb requires a semantic class, by considering Levin’s typology [Levin, 1993]. A gap between the input string and the sub-strings from the example database is filled up by calling the semantic verb class and, implicitly, the verb list which established the synonymous relation between its verbs and the input verb.

2. Representation of the translation examples

2.1. Preliminary discussion

The translation example is a phrase, sometimes having a different meaning not deductible from those of the individual words, and to whom a translation and an exact meaning are assigned for the target language.


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A translation example is composed of three parts: - a source dependency tree (Romanian and English, in this paper); - a target dependency tree (English and French, in this paper); - correpondence links.

These three parts are shown in the following verb phrase, extracted from G. Orwell’s novel, “1984”, subject of a very extended linguistic project, Multext-East:

îşi imaginase orice ↔ had imagined everything ↔ avait tout imaginé ro_e ([ro1, [ro1.1., [imagina, v], [ro1.2, [îşi, pron]], [ro2, [orice, pron]]]]) en_e ([en1, [had, aux]], [en2, [imagine, v], [en3, [everything, pron]]]]) fr_e ([fr1, [avait, aux]], [fr2, [imaginer, v], [fr3, [tout, pron]]]]) clinks ([[ro1, en2], [ro2, en3]], [[fr1, en1], [fr2, en2], [fr3, en3]]).

Each number with prefix ‘ro’, ‘en’ or ‘fr’ in the word-dependency trees represents the ID of the sub-tree. Each node in a tree contains a word (in root form) and its syntactic category. A correspondence link is represented as a pair of IDs: clinks ([[fr1, en1], [fr2, en2], [fr3, en3]]). A word-dependency (sub)tree which has a correspondence link is translatable; e.g.: el, e2, e3, fr l, fr2, fr3. A translatable tree in which some translatable sub-trees are removed is also translatable; e.g.: e l - e 2 , e 2 - e 3 , e l - e 2 - e 3 , fr l - fr 2, fr2 - fr3, fr1 - fr2- fr3 .

The translation process consists of three steps: decomposition, transfer, and composition [S. Sato and M. Nagao, 1990: 247-252]. In decomposition, the system decomposes a source word-dependency tree into translation units, and makes a source matching expression. In the transfer step, the system replaces every ID in the source matching expression with its corresponding ID. In the composition step, the system composes the target word-dependency tree according to the target matching expression.

2.2. Syntactic Dependency Relations

All the units which constitute the utterance are arranged by the speaker in well-specified constructions, by taking into consideration the dependencies created between them: one word form depends on another for its linear position and its grammatical form [I. Mel’cuk, 2003].

The surface syntactic structure represents a tree whose nodes are labeled with all the lexemes of the sentence, and the arcs receive the names of a language specific syntactic relation, as it is exemplified in the followings lines.

The three major classes of syntactic dependencies, namely: complementation, modification, coordonation, are responsible for a largeg number of syntactic relations at the verb phrase level:

I. Subordinate Syntactic Relations: a. direct object:


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(cumpărase – ob-dir → cartea) ↔ (bought – ob-dir → [the] book) (bought – ob-dir → [the] book) ↔ ([avait] acheté – ob-dir → [le] livre) (luă – ob-dir → [o] ţigară) ↔ (took – ob-dir → [a] cigarette) (took – ob-dir → [a] cigarette) ↔ (prit – ob-dir → [une] cigarette)

b. indirect object in Dative ([să] spună – ob-indir → i) ↔ ([should] tell – ob-indir → him) ([should] tell – ob-indir → him) ↔ (lui ← ob-indir – indiquerait)

c. prepositional object in Accusative ([se simţea] atras– ob-prep → de [el]) ↔ ([felt] drawn– ob-prep → to [him])

d. infinitive object ([le] putea – ob-inf → vedea) ↔ (could– ob-inf → see) (could– ob-inf → see) ↔ (pouvait – ob-inf → [les] voir)

II. Coordinate Syntactic Relation scoase – ob-dir→ [un] toc –coord→ [o] sticlă [de cerneală] –coord→ şi[un volum] ↔ took down – ob-dir→ [a] penholder –coord→ [a] bottle [of ink] –coord→ and [a book] took down – ob-dir→ [a] penholder –coord→ [a] bottle [of ink] –coord→ and [a book] ↔ (sortit [du tiroir] – ob-dir→ [un] porte-plume –coord→ [un] flacon [d’encre] –coord→ [un] in-quarto).

2.3. Dependency Trees and Correspondence links

Three sets of criteria are used to establish the syntactic relations between two verb phrases, for Romanian, English and French language:

- criteria for syntactic connectedness of two word forms; - criteria for the syntactic dominance between two word forms; - criteria for the specific type of the given syntactic dependency between two

word forms. These criteria are language specific relations, which sometimes make the

identification of a correspondence difficult. It is the case of the French adverbial pronoun en, for example, not realised in English utterance:

îşi turnă o ceaşcă de ceai ↔ pour out a teacupful ↔ en versa une pleine tasse ro_e ([ro1, [turna, v], [ro2, ob-indir, [îşi, pron]], [ro3, ob-dir, [3.1, [ceaşcă, n], [ro3.2, [o, art]], [ro3.3, [de, prep], [ro3.4, [ceai, n]]]]]]) en_e ([en1, [en1.1., [pour, v], [en1.2, jonctiv, [out, prep]], [en2, ob-dir, [en2.1, [teacupful, n], [en2.2, [a, art]]]]]]) fr_e([fr1, [verser, v], [fr2, ob-adverbial, [en, pron]], [fr3, ob-dir,


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[fr3.1, [tasse, n], [fr3.2, [une, art]], [fr3.3, [pleine, adj]]]]]) clinks ([[ro1,en1], [ro3, en2]], [[en1, fr1], [en 2-3, fr2-3]])

The type of syntactic dependency specific to the indirect object in Romanian is undertaken in English by the subject, as the main agent. The type of syntactic dependency proper to the adverbial object is accomplished in English by the semantics of the entire utterance a teacupful, while, in French, the pronoun requires knowledge from the previous sentence: Le liquide répandait une odeur huileuse, écœurante comme celle de l’eau-de-vie de riz des Chinois. The second source node is extended into daughters 2.1.- teacupful and 2.2.- a, and it has correspondence links to the third target, but, for a complete understanding, someone should take into consideration the second target node too.

In the following situation, the personal pronoun her is not realised in a French equivalent, because its meaning is included in the compositional meaning of the construction elle tendit- “subject-predicate”:

extended her arms towards the screen ↔ tendit les bras vers l’écran en_e ([en1, [extend, v], [en2, dir-obj, [en2.1., possession, [her, pron]], [en2.2., [arms, n]]], [en3, direction, [en3.1, [towards, prep], [en3.2, [screen, n], [en3.3, [the, art]]]]]]) fr_e([fr1, [tendit, v], [fr2, dir-obj, [fr2.1, [bras, n], [fr2.2, [les, art]]]], [fr3, direction, [fr3.1, [vers, prep], [fr3.2, [ecran, n], [fr3.3, [l’, art]]]]]]) clinks ([[en1, fr1], [en2, fr2], [en3, fr3]])

The second source node has two different dependency relations: direct object and possession. The dominant one is a direct object, applied to a commun noun which impose a possession relationship on the Genitive of the personal pronoun. The entire phrase is building in association with the verb, the translatable unit extended her arms. The English sub-tree respects the criteria of linear position of wordforms, while the equivalent French sub-tree is more dependent on the criteria for the specific type of direct-object relation.

3. Generalization of the translation examples

3.1. Preliminary

The main problem of the example-based machine translation is the necessity to use a translation example for more than one input situation. The first step is, usually, responsible for the identification of a match between the input lexical string or its sub-


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strings, and the translation examples stored in database. Sometimes, this may cause frustration about the translation quality, because the database is not able to manipulate the linguistic flexibility.

One possible solution, for this inconvenience, is given by the combination of semantic-syntactic relations, so that a lexeme from the translation example be able to open different instances for other lexemes, in order to generate the synonymic relation.

The algorithm supposed by this solution has as principal steps to deflect the wordforms from the input sentence, to find all the lexical base forms, to disambiguate them and to establish only one morpho-syntactic value, and-respectively- to search matches in the example database. When a verb correspondence is not found, the program searches for terms accepted by the given verb in paradigmatic associations, organized in a semantic relations database. For these situations when there is at least one term, the program checks again for matches and accepts only the trees or sub-trees corresponding to translation input.

Let’s take the following syntactic structure extracted from Orwell’s corpus, to be translated:

Was preaching freedom of speech.

After the deflection and disambiguation steps, which are not the subject of this paper, the algorithm has to consider the match search. In the example database, the verb to preach does not collocate with the noun phrase freedom of speech. But this noun phrase has a syntactic dependency relation with another verb, to advocate, in the syntactic structure: was advocating freedom of speech, with the translation equivalent: défendait la liberté de parler. That is why the program is checking now for a semantic relation between the verbs to preach and to advocate.

In this way, another semantic class 37.1 is found, named- Verbs of Transfer of a Message, a class which instantiates for the English language the verb lexemes preach:2, advocate:2, and for the French language, the equivalents prôner:1 and défendre:3. The search is stopped and the program validates the match between was preaching freedom of speech and was advocating freedom of speech. The synonymous relations for English are created by means of the lexical semantic ontology WordNet, while for French by using an impressive linguistic resource- TLF, and for Romanian by consulting Luiza and Mircea Seche’s dictionary of synonyms.

3.2. The role of the semantic properties of verbs

There is a strong correlation between “the semantic properties of a verb and its syntactic properties, and it seems obvious that speakers can sometimes exploit this pattern to predict form from meaning” (Gropen, J. et al., 1991: 153-195).

This is, in fact, the reason for adding the semantic properties of a verb. A verb that governs a syntactic dependency relation is not isolated in all the verbs worlds, but it is the actant of a synonymy relation with other verbal lexemes. Not all the meanings of a verb participate to create the synset; only those which are grouped around a common meaning.


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Indicate the type of the syntactic dependency relation and to create the synsets grouped into verb classes may stimulate the translation quality, because of a better flexibility to the language nature and to its semantic-syntactic representation.

The semantic properties and the syntactic properties are shown in the following translation example:

dădea o muzică stridentă, militărească ↔ changed over to strident military music ↔ s’était changée en une stridente musique militaire ro_e ([ro1, [Verbe de Transformare-> da:9, transmite:13], [da, v], [ro2, ob-dir, [ro2.1, [muzică, n], [ro2.2, [o, art]], [ro2.3, [stridentă, adj]], [ro2.4, [militărească, adj]]]]]) en_e ([en1, [had, aux]], [en2, [en2.1, [Turn Verbs -> change over:2, convert:2], [change, v], [en2.2, jonctiv, [over, prep]], [en3, ob-prep, [en3.1, [to, prep], [en3.2, [music, n], [en3.3, [a, art]], [en3.4, [strident, adj]], [en3.5, [military, adj]]]]]]]) fr_e([fr1, [etait, aux]], [fr2, [fr2.1, [Verbs de Transformer -> changer: 3, transformer: 2], [changer, v], [fr3, dir-obj, [se, pron]], [fr4, prep-obj, [fr4.1, [en, prep], [fr4.2, [musique, n], [fr4.3, [une, art]], [fr4.4, [stridente, adj]], [fr4.5, [militaire, adj]]]]]]]) clinks([[ro1, en2], [ro2, en3]], [[en1, fr1], [en2,fr2], [en3, fr4]])

In conclusion, creating dependency trees means describing for the main verb the semantic class, the associated synset and the types of dependency governed by the verb. In this way, possibilities are generalized to match the input string and the examples is the database, but at the same time a filter is generated from the point of view of syntactic dependency relations. The program has to select only the candidates that governs the same syntactic dependency from the matching candidates set. Together, the semantic-syntactic descriptions have an important role in the translation disambiguation.

4. Conclusions

This paper proposes an approach about the applicability of a translation example database. In order to develop it, I started from the premise of semantic-syntactic relations between two word forms, by following two main ideas: utility and generalization. We consider both the syntactic dependency relations between the verb


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and the other parts of speech, and the synonymous relation between a given verb and the lexemes in the same synset, respectively, the same verb class.

At first sight, a translation example database which crammed with this kind of information could be difficult to manipulate, because of the size of search numbers. In order to diminish this inconvenience, I consider three criteria of examples selection before creating a database. First, the very frequent expressions and structures should be considered for both the source and target language. Once this core is realized, the linguist should add the propositional sequences whose meaning is different than the composition of every meaning of its constituents. Finally, the verb phrases from a large corpora, namely “1984”, should be added, too.

If the conditions of frequency, of semantic-syntactic-based structures are fulfilled, the search number in database will be diminished. At the same time, there will be a better possibility to identify in the most frequent verb set the ones in a synonymous relation with the input verb form.

The semantic-syntactic disambiguation represents another advantage of designing the example database by the means of the synonymous relation, filtred out by syntactic dependency relations. There are verbs which have more than one meaning, some of them being responsible for the creation of differrent dependency frames. When the synonymy between the meanings of two verbs is evaluated by having the same types of syntactic dependency, the program can identify a certain meaning from the candidates set of the input verb. The operation is also available for the arguments selected by the verb: if the verbs build a synset and one has a syntagmatic line, which is already known, the others imitate its syntactic behaviour.

References 1. Gropen, J., Pinker, S. and R. Goldberg. 1991. “Affectedness and direct object: The role

of lexical semantics in the acquisition of verb argument structure”, in Cognition, 41, 1991, pp. 153-195.

2. Levin, B. 1993. English Verb Classes and Alternations- A Preliminary Investigation, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

3. Kaji, H., Kida, Y. and Y. Morimoto, Y. 1992. “Learning translation templates from bilingual text”, in Proceedings of the Fourteenth International Conference on Computational Linguistics, Nantes, pp. 672-678.

4. Mel’cuk, I. 2003. “Levels of Dependency in Linguistic Description: Concepts and Problems”, in Dependency and Valency. An International Handbook of Contemporary Research, in (V. Agel, L. Eichinnger, H.-W. Eroms, P. Hellwig, H. J. Herringer, H. Lobin) (eds.), vol. 1, Berlin - New York, W. de Gruyter, pp. 188-229.

5. Nagao, M. 1984. “A framework of a mechanical translation between Japanese and English by analogy principle”, in Proceedings of the International NATO Symposium on Artificial and Human Intelligence, Lyon, France, pp. 173 – 180.

6. S. Sato And M. Nagao. 1990. “Toward memory-based translation”, in Proceedings of the 13th conference on Computational Linguistics, vol. 3, Helsinki, Finland, pp. 247 – 252.


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BESONDERHEITEN BEIM DEUTSCH-RUMÄNISCHEN ÜBERSETZEN

VON TEXTEN AUS DEM BEREICH DER KUNSTGESCHICHTE

Andreea-M. SÁNDOR Continental Automotive Romania

Zusammenfassung: Diese Arbeit beschreibt Besonderheiten, die beim Übersetzen von Texten aus dem Bereich der Kunstgeschichte aus dem Deutschen ins Rumänische auftreten können. Dabei wird auf die übersetzungsrelevante Textanalyse, auf Übersetzungsprobleme und Übersetzungprozeduren eingegangen. Es werden gleichzeitig Übersetzungsprobleme semantischer Art, auf lexikalischer, syntaktischer und morphologischer Ebene jeweils durch Beispiele und Lösungsvorschläge veranschaulicht. Die Bedeutung der Recherche bei der Übertragung eines solchen Textes aus dem Deutschen in das Rumänische, sowie der Kenntnisse über Weltgeschichte im Allgemeinen und über Kunstgeschichte im Besonderen, und der Vertrautheit mit dem Stil dieser Texte soll dabei auch nicht unterschätzt werden. Schlüsselwörter:

1. Allgemeines über Texte aus dem Bereich der Kunstgeschichte

Textverstehen, Terminologie, Stil

Kunstgeschichte ist ein sehr breites Gebiet. Indem sie von der geschichtlichen Entwicklung der bildenden Kunst, d.h. gleichermaßen Architektur, Plastik, Deckenmalerei, Staffeleimalerei, Fresken, Zeichnung, Kunsthandwerk, und von all dem was mit Kunst zu tun hat, berichtet, kann sie als ein sehr komplexer Wissens- und Forschungsbereich betrachtet werden. Somit zeigt sich auch die dazugehörige Sprache und Terminologie als sehr komplex. Begriffe aus all diesen Bereichen der Kunst und aus der Geschichte verschmelzen mit der Gemeinsprache in einem Text, der sowohl eine informative, als auch eine deskriptive Funktion leistet. Die Textualität des Übersetzten ist als besonders wichtig zu sehen, da der entstandene Text möglichst leicht zu lesen und verstehen sein soll, die Fachsprache einhalten soll, und an den Strukturen der Zielsprache angepasst werden muss, ohne dass dadurch ein Informationsverlust oder eine Sinnänderung verursacht wird.

1.1 Merkmale der Texte aus Kunstgeschichte – allgemeine Festlegungen in Bezug auf deren deutsch-rumänisches Übersetzen

Nach einer Analyse mehrerer Textbeispiele aus diesem Bereich kann man ein paar Merkmale dieser Texte im Deutschen und einige Besonderheiten beim Übersetzen ins Rumänische feststellen. In solchen Texten erscheinen sehr oft Namen von Ländern, Künstlern, Ortschaften, Historikern, Kunstwerken. Namen die in der Geschichte als sehr bekannt gelten, wie z. B. die des Kaisers Karl VI., des Kaisers Franz Joseph oder der Kaiserin Maria Theresia haben üblicherweise eine Korrespondenz in der Zielsprache (împăratul Carol al VI-lea; împăratul Franz Iosif; împărăteasa Maria Tereza). Im Gegensatz dazu, werden Namen verschiedener


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Künstler, Kunsthistoriker oder Namen anderer Personen, wie z.B. Johann Lucas von Hildebrandt, Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach, Andrea Altomonte, Lothar Franz von Schönborn, Herbert Haupt, Ingeborg Schemper, Fra Angelico, Michelangelo usw., nicht übersetzt. Es kommen viele Angaben zu historischen Ereignissen, Epochen und damit verbundene Begriffe vor. Zu nennen wären hier die Benennungen die in der Geschichte sehr genau festgelegt sind, und bei deren Übersetzung unbedingt das Äquivalent angegeben werden muss. Solche Beispiele sind: Kaiserhaus – Casa imperială; Herrscherhaus – Casa dominatoare; Kaiserhof – Curtea imperială; das Heilige Römische Reich – Sfântul Imperiu Roman; Kurfürst – prinţ elector; Renaissance – Renaştere; Jugendstil – Jugendstil u.Ä..

Sehr oft treten in solchen Texten Zitate, und Endnoten bzw. Fußnoten auf, und die meisten dieser Texte werden durch zahlreiche Abbildungen und manchmal auch durch Glossare ergänzt, Elemente die allerdings eine wichtige Unterstützung beim Übersetzen darstellen, da sie bei der Verständigung der Fachtermini, bzw. des Textes sehr viel beitragen. Je nach Kunstepoche und Stil können Wörter aus anderen Sprachen vorkommen, z.B aus dem Französischen oder Italienischen, wie „allonge“, „loggia“, „rocaille“ usw., die in den meisten Fällen als solche im Zieltext übernommen werden.

Da es kein deutsch-rumänisches Wörterbuch der Kunst gibt, ist der Schwierigkeitsgrad der Übersetzung aus diesem Fachgebiet wesentlich erhöht. Der Übersetzer muss daher ohnehin Textdokumentation anhand von Kunstzeitschriften, Glossaren, einsprachigen Wörterbüchern, Lexika, Sach- bzw. Fachbüchern, Enzyklopädien, Internet-Ressourcen usw. unternehmen. Sehr wichtig ist hier auch die so genannte „vergleichende terminologische Textauswertung“ (Hohnhold.1990: 64ff). Der Übersetzer kann dadurch sowohl ein besseres Verständnis des Fachgebiets gewinnen, als auch sich mit dem in der Zielsprache üblicherweise verwendeten Stil ähnlicher Texte, in gewissem Maße vertraut machen.

Die Strukturunterschiede zwischen den beiden Sprachen, sowie die Merkmale die diese Texte aufweisen führen selbstverständlich zu Problemen bei der Übertragung aus dem Deutschen ins Rumänische, u.a. sowohl auf syntaktischer, als auch auf morphologischer Ebene.

2. Textbeispiele und Übersetzungsvorschläge

Beispiel 1. Auszug aus: Hoppe S. 2003. Was ist Barock? Darmstadt: Primus Verlag:

1a. Die Technik, mittels der formbaren Stuckmasse Bilder und Ornamente am Bau zu applizieren, war auch im Mittelalter bekannt. Erst in der Renaissance wurde sie aber unter dem Vorzeichen der Antikenrezeption zu einem Modethema, das bereits durch seine Materialästhetik, unabhängig von Bildsujet und Stil, auf antike Größe anspielen konnte.

Übersetzungsvorschlag Sándor A.:


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1a. Tehnica de aplicare a imaginilor şi ornamentelor pe edificii prin folosirea masei maleabile de stuc era cunoscută şi în evul mediu. Abia în Renaştere însă, sub semnul recepţiei antichităţii, a devenit o temă la modă, care putea să facă referinţă la dimensiunea antică chiar şi numai prin estetica materialului său, indiferent de tema reprezentării şi de stil.

Beispiel 2. Auszüge aus: Wagner F. 1994. “Kunsthandwerk” in Die Kunst des Barock in Österreich, hrsg. von Günter Brucher, Salzburg – Wien: Residenz Verlag:

2a. […] am 4. Februar 1608 beschwerte sich […] ein » Caspar Thanner, Leibtrabant, wider den Puchbinder alhie, so ihme seine Lehrjunger nit für redlich halten will«. 2b. …die »Allonge-Perücke«, die, wie schon ihr Name sagt, den Menschen erhöhen, vergrößern soll… 2c. [...] So etwa die 1720 entstandene Ausstattung des Kremsmünsterer Kaisersaales: Der originale Kohleriß des Diego Francesco Carlone für die auf den Portalgiebeln der Eingangswand sitzenden freiplastischen Stuckputten findet sich unmittelbar hinter den Figuren auf die weiße Rückwand skizziert. 2d. [...] Daß es im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert keine Unterscheidung gab, ob Stoffe für kirchliche oder für profane Zwecke bestimmt waren, ist aus vielen ähnlich lautenden Eintragungen in den Rechnungsbüchern der Prälatenklöster […] nachweisbar.


2a. […] la 4 februarie 1608, un anume »Caspar Thanner, paznic de gardă, precum şi legătorul de cărţi de aici«, s-a plâns de »învăţăceii lui, pe care nu-i crede de bună credinţă«. 2b. …»peruca allonge«, leonină, care, aşa cum reiese şi din denumirea sa, avea ca scop înălţarea siluetei…. 2c. [...] Un exemplu ar fi decoraţia realizată în 1720 a sălii imperiale a Catedralei din Krems: crochiul original, realizat cu cărbune de Diego Francesco Carlone pentru putti din stuc de o plasticitate liberă, aşezaţi pe frontoanele portalului de pe faţada de intrare, este schiţat pe peretele alb din spatele statuetelor. 2d. [...] Faptul că în secolele al XVII-lea şi al XVIII-lea nu exista o diferenţiere a materialelor în funcţie de scopul căruia îi erau destinate – bisericesc sau profan –, poate fi dedus din multe consemnări similare din registrele de socoteli ale mănăstirilor prelaţilor,…

Beispiel 3. Auszüge aus: von Haegen A. und Strasser R. 2005. Toskana. Kunst & Architektur. Köln: Könemann:

3a. Fra Angelico (um 1397 – 1455), Verkündigung, um 1432 – 1433. Tempera in Gold auf Holz, 154 x 194 cm. In einer offenen Loggia begegnet der Engel Maria. Zerbrechlich, mit hingebungsvollem Blick empfängt die Jungfrau die Botschaft des goldschimmernden, himmlischen Wesens. Der Dialog zwischen den beiden erscheint in goldenen Lettern. [...] Das blühende „Paradiesgärtlein“, das die Renaissance-Loggia umgibt, und die perspektivische Anlage der Architektur lenken den Blick in den Hintergrund. Dort ist vor dunklem Nachthimmel die „Vertreibung aus dem Paradies“ zu sehen. Fra Angelico verbildlicht so die inhaltliche Verbindung zwischen beiden Erreignissen: Erst durch Geburt und Opfertod Christi gibt es eine Erlösung von der Sünde. Auf der Predella sind die wichtigsten Stationen aus dem Leben Mariä dargestellt: “Geburt”, “Vermählung“, „Heimsuchung“, „Anbetung der Könige“, „Darbringung im Tempel“ und „Marientod“. 3b. [...] In Italien außerordentlich ungewöhnlich ist der Umgangschor mit Kapellenkranz, der in der Nachfolge des ab 1088 errichteten benediktinischen Reformklosters Cluny in Burgund entstanden ist. Hingegen zeugen der isoliert stehende Glockenturm und der Verzicht auf vielfältige Gliederungsformen von italienischer Bautradition.


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3a. Fra Angelico (1397-1455), Bunavestire, aproximativ 1432-1433. Tempera cu foiţă de aur pe lemn, 154 x 194 cm. Într-o loggia deschisă îngerul o întâlneşte pe Maria. Fragilă, cu o privire plină de devotament, Fecioara primeşte vestea din partea făpturii celeste cu sclipiri aurii. Dialogul dintre cei doi apare în litere de aur. [...] „Mica Grădină a Paradisului”, înflorită, care împrejmuieşte loggia renascentistă, şi folosirea perspectivei în reprezentarea arhitecturii conduc privirea către fundal. Acolo, în faţa cerului întunecat al nopţii, se zăreşte „Izgonirea din Paradis”. Fra Angelico ilustrează astfel legătura de conţinut dintre cele două evenimente: doar prin naşterea şi jertfirea lui Christos există mântuirea de păcat. Pe predelă sunt reprezentate cele mai importante momente din viaţa Mariei: „Naşterea”, „Căsătoria”, „Vizita”, „Adoraţia Magilor”, „Aducerea la Templu” şi „Adormirea Maicii Domnului”. 3b. [...] În Italia, extrem de neobişnuit este deambulatoriul cu capele raionante, inspirat din biserica abaţială reformatoare benedictină Cluny din Burgundia, ridicată începând cu anul 1088. Pe de altă parte, turnul clopotniţă independent şi renunţarea la formele de structurare diversificate stau mărturie pentru tradiţia italiană de construcţie.

3. Zur Analyse der Besonderheiten beim deutsch-rumänischen Übersetzen der Texte aus Kunstgeschichte anhand der ausgesuchten Beispiele

Die ausgesuchten Beispiele sind jeweils Auszüge aus drei Büchern die dem Wissenszweig Kunstgeschichte anzuordnen sind.

Wichtig anzugeben ist, dass in der hier betrachteten Übersetzungssituation die Translatfunktion [„Skopos“ (s. Nord. 1991: 27ff)] unverändert bleibt und dass wir auf keine detaillierte Analyse jedes der angegebenen Textbeispiele und deren Übersetzung eingehen werden, sondern, werden nur versuchen einige Besonderheiten festzulegen, bzw. besondere Übersetzungsprobleme und die dafür als passend empfundene Lösungen hervorzuheben, jedoch war es notwendig, all diese Beispiele anzugeben, um die Besonderheit dieser Texte besser darstellen zu können.

3.1 Besonderheiten die sich aus der Ausgangstextanalyse ergeben

Bei der Ausgangstextanalyse sind einige textexterne Faktoren zu erwähnen: die Produzenten der Texte aus den Beispielen 1 und 2 sind Kunsthistoriker, daher ergibt sich auch die Textfunktion, die in erster Linie informativ ist, deshalb muss die informative Invarianz der Übersetzung angestrebt werden; die gezielte Empfänger sind hauptsächlich Fachleute und/oder Studierende der (Kunst-)geschichte, könnten aber auch Laien sein. Im Falle der Texte aus Beispiel 3 gibt es keine Informationen über die Autorinnen, der Kunstreiseführer, der “rasche Orientierung und fundierte kunsthistorische Darstellungen” bieten soll, wendet sich allerdings hauptsächlich an Laien, und zwar an Touristen, daher kann man auch eine leicht vereinfachte Fachsprache feststellen, trotzdem handelt es sich aber auch hier um eine wissenschaftliche Arbeit, die auch der Kunstgeschichte spezifische Termini enthält. Wichtig zu nennen sind die textexternen Determinanten der Lexik. Ein Beispiel dafür ist das Zitat vom Anfang des 17. Jhs. (Bsp. 2a) „[…] am 4. Februar 1608 beschwerte sich […] ein » Caspar Thanner, Leibtrabant, wider den Puchbinder alhie, so ihme seine


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Lehrjunger nit für redlich halten will«“; eine mögliche Lösung für dessen Übersetzung wäre die Verwendung einer “zeitlosen” Sprache (Nord. 1991:132), bzw. eine möglichst freie Übersetzung, und der Versuch eine möglichst einfache Klanggestalt zu erreichen. Vor der Übersetzung ist die Übertragung des Textes ins Neuhochdeutsche sehr hilfreich, dabei würde sich in diesem Beispiel Folgendes ergeben: […]am 4. Februar 1608 beschwerte sich […] ein Caspar Thanner, Leibwächter, sowie der Buchbinder von hier, über seine Lehrjünger, die er nicht für aufrichtig/ ehrlich hält.

Als textinterne Faktoren sind der Wortschatz (sehr komplex, natürliche Verschmelzung des Fachwortschatzes mit der Gemeinsprache, spezifische Wortwahl und Formulierungen, die sich auch im Zieltext widerspiegeln sollen), die non-verbalen Elemente (am wichtigsten sind die zahlreichen Abbildungen, die die Textfunktion unterstützen und dem Leser, d.h. auch dem Übersetzer, das Verständnis des Textes erleichtern, sowie die Anführungszeichen), die langen Sätze, die Angabe der Titel bekannter Kunstwerke und der Namen bekannter Künstler zu nennen.

3.2 Übersetzungsprobleme und verwendete Übersetzungsprozeduren

3.2.1 Probleme auf pragmatischer Ebene

Die Besonderheit die das Übersetzen der Texten aus dem Fach Kunstgeschichte aufweist besteht eben in den Problemen die es stellt. Es geht hier nicht nur um terminologische und linguistische Probleme im Allgemeinen, sondern auch um zahlreiche pragmatische Probleme. Wie bereits angegeben, kommen in diesen Texten sehr oft Titel verschiedener Kunstwerke vor oder es werden allgemein bekannte (historische) Ereignisse erwähnt. Diese Titel bzw. Ereignisse in der Zielsprache so anzugeben, wie sie in der Zielkultur bekannt sind, ist dabei äußerst wichtig und nicht einfach, und bedarf ggf. eine eingehende Recherchearbeit. In den hier betrachteten Texten könnten folgende Beispiele genannt werden: die „Verkündigung“ Fra Angelico’s, die immer als „Bunavestire“ zu übersetzen ist, der Name des Künstlers ist auch im rumänischen Kulturraum so bekannt, wird daher in dieser Form übernommen, die Ereignisse vom Leben Mariä: „Geburt“, „Vermählung“, „Heimsuchung“, „Anbetung der Könige“, „Darbringung im Tempel“ und „Marientod“, ins Rumänische als „Naşterea”, „Căsătoria”, „Vizita [Sf. Fecioare Maria la Elisabeta]”, „Adoraţia Magilor”, „Aducerea la Templu [a Fecioarei Maria]” und „Adormirea Maicii Domnului” bekannt. Würde man z.B. „Anbetung der Könige” als „Divinizarea Regilor”, oder „Marientod” als „ Moartea Mariei” statt „Adormirea Maicii Domnului” übersetzen, so würde diese Übersetzung als falsch, oder nicht-äquivalent gelten, und sogar störend wirken, da sie die Gegebenheiten der Zielkultur nicht berücksichtigt hat. Ein weiteres Beispiel ist „Paradiesgärtlein“, ein Gemälde eines unbekannten deutschen Malers vom Anfang des 15. Jhs., das im rumänischen Kulturraum kaum bekannt ist. Unabhängig vom eigentlichen Thema des Textes wird darauf mittels der Anführungszeichen angespielt, daher muss das auch bei der Übersetzung ins Rumänische unbedingt berücksichtigt werden. Ob der Leser des Ausgangs- bzw. Zieltextes an dieses Gemälde denken wird, ob er die Anspielung verstehen wird bzw.


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ob bei ihm dadurch ein Vorwissen aktiviert wird, kann man nicht nachvollziehen, schließlich hängt das von seinem Weltwissen ab, doch der Übersetzer darf und kann es sich nicht leisten diese Anspielung einfach zu ignorieren, er muss nachforschen, um herauszufinden was der Produzent des Ausgangstextes damit gemeint hat, um dieselbe Information und dieselbe Anspielung auch in seinem übersetzten Text widerzuspiegeln.

3.2.2 Probleme auf syntaktischer Ebene

Die Probleme die die Syntax anbelangen sind von wesentlicher Bedeutung bei jeder Übersetzung. Die richtige Wortstellung im Satz, die Herstellung der Beziehungen zwischen den Satzgliedern bzw. den Teilsätzen, sowie die Anordnung der Teilsätze in einem Satzgefüge spielen eine große Rolle bei der Gestaltung eines für den Leser verständlichen Textes, der die Sprachnormen, sowie den vom Leser erwarteten Stil in Rücksicht nimmt. Als Beispiel können wir den Text 2d nehmen: “Daß es im 17. und 18. Jahrhundert keine Unterscheidung gab, ob Stoffe für kirchliche oder für profane Zwecke bestimmt waren, ist aus vielen ähnlich lautenden Eintragungen in den Rechnungsbüchern der Prälatenklöster […] nachweisbar ” – “Faptul că în secolele al XVII-lea şi al XVIII-lea nu exista o diferenţiere a materialelor în funcţie de scopul căruia îi erau destinate – bisericesc sau profan –, poate fi dedus din multe consemnări similare din registrele de socoteli ale mănăstirilor prelaţilor,…”. Die Struktur des deutschen Satzgefüges könnte vereinfacht so dargestellt werden: Subjektsatz + Attributsatz + Hauptsatz, wobei diese Struktur durch Übersetzung ins Rumänische so umgestaltet wurde: Subjekt des Hauptsatzes + Attributsatz + Attributsatz + Hauptsatz. Die Rolle eines Wortes im Satz kann sich durch Übersetzung auch ändern: Stoffe ist im Ausgangstext Subjekt, der Korrespondent im Zieltext – a materialelor – ist Attribut. Im Zieltext sind die Konjunktion ob und der Präpositionalobjekt für [...] Zwecke gemeinsam als Attribut wiederzufinden: în funcţie de scopul.

3.2.3 Probleme auf morphologischer und lexikalischer Ebene

Übersetzungsrelevant auf morphologischer Ebene sind die Wortbildung und die verschiedenen Wortarten. Die Entscheidungen des Übersetzers auf lexikalischer bzw. terminologischer Ebene hängen eng mit der morphologischen und syntaktischen Ebene zusammen, wobei diese sich gegenseitig beeinflussen. Die terminologische Äquivalenz veranlasst als Hauptfaktor den Entschluss für die richtige Übersetzung und dieser Entschluss wird dann auch die passende Übersetzungsprozedur bestimmen. Nachstehend wird der Versuch unternommen, dies anhand einiger relevanten Beispielen darzustellen: der entsprechende Begriff im Rumänischen für Allonge-Perücke ist perucă leonină, der Französiche Begriff allonge hängt aber mit dem nachher Gesagten eng zusammen – diese Art von Perücke soll nämlich den Menschen erhöhen –, kann daher nicht weggelassen werden, und der in der Zielsprache übliche Fachterminus muss auch unbedingt angegeben werden. Daher


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lautet die Übersetzung peruca »allonge«, leonină (Amplifikation). Den Menschen erhöhen, vergröβern (Verben) wird als înălţarea (Nomen) siluetei übersetzt. Die hier verwendeten Prozeduren sind der Wortartwechsel und die Ökonomie (Deutsch: 2 Verben – Rumänisch: 1 Nomen), und die Änderung der Perspektive (Modulation): Mensch – siluetă statt om. Bei der Übersetzung des Modalverbs soll durch avea ca scop wurde die Dilution (inkl. Tempusänderung) verwendet. Infinitivkonstruktionen, wie im Beispiel „Die Technik, [...] Bilder und Ornamente am Bau zu applizieren“ werden meistens ebenfalls durch Wortartwechsel übersetzt: „Tehnica de aplicare a imaginilor şi ornamentelor pe edificii“. Es kommen zahlreiche Partizipialkonstruktionen vor: goldschimmerndes Wesen übersetzt durch făptură cu sclipiri aurii; der isoliert stehende Glockenturm wird aufgrund terminologischer Äquivalenz mittels Konzentration durch turnul clopotniţă independent übersetzt; die Konzentration wird auch hier verwendet: ähnlich lautende Eintragungen – consemnări similare. Der Begriff freiplastisch (Adjektiv) wird hingegen durch Dilution in das Rumänische übertragen: de o plasticitate liberă (Nominalphrase). Aufgrund terminologischer Äquivalenz wird auch im folgenden Fall die Dilution angewendet: Der originale Kohleriß – crochiul original, realizat cu cărbune. Ebenfalls mit Rücksicht auf die terminologische Äquivalenz erfolgt die folgende Übertragung: der Umgangschor mit Kapellenkranz (Komposita gebildet aus je zwei Nomen) – deambulatoriul cu capele raionante (zwei Nomen und ein Adjektiv). Weitere benutzte Übersetzungsprozeduren sind die Direktentlehnung, wie im Beispiel Renaissance-Loggia – loggia renascentistă (hier auch Wortartwechsel Nomen – Adjektiv), die Explizitation, beispielsweise: Tempera in Gold auf Holz – Tempera cu foiţă de aur pe lemn.

3.2.4 Probleme auf lexikalischer Ebene

Die Berücksichtigung der Terminologie und des passenden Wortschatzes können den Stil des Textes entscheidend beeinflussen. Dabei spielen die Kreativität und die Intuition des Übersetzers eine sehr wichtige Rolle bei der Wortwahl. Relevante Beispiele sind hierfür folgende ausgewählte Übersetzungslösungen: zeugen ... von – stau mărturie pentru statt atestă; göttlich – divin statt dumnezeiesc; himmlisch – celest statt ceresc; Wesen – făptură statt fiinţă; Bau – edificiu statt construcţie; umgibt – împrejmuieşte statt înconjoară; ist zu sehen – se zăreşte statt se vede; Rechnungsbuch – wird hier keineswegs als registru de facturi übersetzt, die richtige Übersetzung ist in diesem Fall registru de socoteli (s. textexterne Determinanten der Lexik: im 17. u. 18. Jh. gab es keine Rechnung, d.h. factura im heutigen Sinne); beinahe wörtlich umgesetzt – pusă în aplicare aproape literalmente, nicht în mod literal oder în sens strict.

4 . Schlussbemerkungen

Den Ausgangstext, seine Funktion und seine Aussage zu verstehen ist eine sine-qua-non Bedingung für eine anschließend erfolgreiche bzw. „geglückte“ Übersetzung (Paepcke. 1986: 162) und der Übersetzer muss dabei sein Weltwissen


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und seine Vorkenntnisse im betreffenden Bereich stark einbringen. Die Terminologiearbeit, bzw. die Recherche ist hier äußerst wichtig, und der Übersetzer muss auch fähig sein die Informationen die er findet zu sortieren, bzw. die richtige Information von der falschen zu unterscheiden. Der Übersetzer muss den Mut haben mit dem Text zu „spielen“ und Entscheidungen auf linguistischer Ebene zu treffen um einen lesbaren, kohärenten und kohäsiven Text verantwortlich zu „produzieren“, und gleichzeitig die informative Invarianz anstreben. Kreativität, Intuition, Stimmung, sowie eine divergente Denkweise spielen hierbei eine besonders wichtige Rolle “weil der Übersetzer aus dem überwältigenden Reichtum der sprachlichen Formulierungsweisen textspezifische Perspektiven auszuwählen hat” (Paepcke.1986: 108), um “für seine übersetzerischen Entscheidungen – also auch für bewusste und gewollte Abweichungen von Text1 eine verläßliche Basis zu finden” (Reiß, K. 1988: 69)

Da die Strukturen der deutschen Sprache so verschieden von denen des Rumänischen sind, muss der Übersetzer immer sehr aufmerksam auf die Klanggestalt des Übersetzten sein, bzw. auf die logische Verkettung der Gliedsätze und der Satzglieder und auf die Klarheit des “Gesagten” achten. Durch die Veranschaulichung der Relationen zwischen den grammatischen und lexikalischen Strukturen, durch die Umfassung aller im Ausgangstext geäußerten Informationen, muss er sich bemühen einen informativen, expliziten, kohäsiven, kohärenten, und kommunikationsfähigen Text zu gestalten, der die Topik und die Sprachnormen des Rumänischen einhält.

Literatur

1. Hohnhold, I. 1990. Übersetzungsorientierte Terminologiearbeit. Stuttgart: InTra 2. Nord, C. 1991. Textanalyse und Übersetzen. Heidelberg: Julius Groos Verlag 3. Nord, C. 1993. Einführung in das funktionale Übersetzen. Tübingen und Basel: Francke

Verlag 4. Paepcke, F. 1986. Im Übersetzen leben. Übersetzen und Textvergleich, hrsg. von K.

Berger und H.-M. Speier. Tübingen: Narr Verlag 5. Reiß, K. 1988. “„Der“ Text und der Übersetzer” in Textlinguistik und Fachsprache, Band

1, hrsg. von Reiner Arntz, Hildesheim-Zürich-New York: Georg Olms Verlag, S. 67-75 6. Reiß, K., Vermeer H. J. 1991. Grundlegung einer allgemeinen Translationstheorie.

Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag 7. Stolze, R. 1986. “Zur Bedeutung von Hermeneutik und Textlinguistik beim Übersetzen”

in Übersetzungswissenschaft. Eine Neuorientierung. 2. Auflage, hrsg. von M. Snell-Hornby, Tübingen und Basel: Francke Verlag, S. 133-159

8. Stolze, R. 1994. Übersetzungstheorien. Eine Einführung. Tübingen: Gunter Narr Verlag 9. Wilss, W. 1988. “Übersetzen als Entscheidungsprozess” in Textlinguistik und

Fachsprache, Band 1, hrsg. von Reiner Arntz, Hildesheim-Zürich-New York: Georg Olms Verlag, S. 7-20


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