professor omar hasan kasule september 1996 need to sort

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ISLAMIC MEDICAL EDUCATION RESOURCES01

9609-THE EMPIRICAL SCIENTIFIC

METHOD: AN ISLAMIC REFRAMING

Presented at an International Conference on Values and Attitudes in Science and Technology organized

at the International Islamic University Malaysia September 1996 by Professor Dr Omar Hasan Kasule

MB ChB (MUK), MPH (Harvard), DrPH (Harvard)

ABSTRACTThis paper presents 5 assumptions: (i) Methodology is the determinant of knowledge;

advance of knowledge starts reform of methodology (ii) Muslim scientists should start

with, develop, and build on the ummahs methodological heritage in inculcating a culture(attitudes and values) of systematic scientific enquiry to be able to make original and

innovative contributions to scientific knowledge (iii) Empirical research is a type

ofijtihad(iv) The basic elements of the empirical method are valid; Muslims do not object

to the essence but to the Eurocentric philosophical frame and inappropriate use (v)A tauhidi and not a Euro-centric frame can motivate excellent and innovative S&T in

theummah.

The problems due to a Euro-centric world-view are (1) unstated and stated a priori biases

in the formulation of hypotheses, selection of hypotheses for testing, interpretation, and use

of scientific knowledge (II) the assertion that only empirical knowledge is valid (III)arrogance in not acknowledging limitations to human observation and interpretation of

physical phenomena (IV) dealing with the parts and missing the whole.

The following Quranic concepts can contribute to the Islamic reframing of the empirical

method (a) acknowledging wide but finite frontiers of human knowledge (b)

apreciating tauhidas an integrating wholistic universal intellectual paradigm for allprocesses of empirical research (c)accepting natural laws (sunan al llaah) as a basis for an

ordely universe with stable causal relations (d) study of physical phenomena ( tadabburaayat llaah)as basis for empirical observations and interpretation (e) uprightness

(Istiqamat) as protection from methodological biases (d) vicegerancy of the human on earth

(Istikhlaf),placing the universe at the service of humans ( taskhiir), and (buildingcivilization (istiimaar) are bases for responsible technology.

The following concepts from classical Islamic methodological sciences (uluum al Quran,

uluum al hadith, and usuul al fiqh) can also contribute to reframing the emoirical methodand promoting its Islamic values and attitudes: (1) the concept of abrogation (naskh)

motivates understanding of the dynamic changes and growth of scientific facts and theories(2) scientific exigesis (tafsir ilmi), subject-based exigesis (tafsir maudhui) and the scienceof hadith critique (ilm naqd al hadith) relate to data interpretation. The science of narrators

(ilm al jarh wa al taadiil/ilm al rijaal) relates to the assessment and development of an

honest and ethical personality in the scientific researcher. The discipline ofqiyasusuli relates to the inductive logic empirical science. The theory of the general purposes of

the law (maqasid al sharia) relates to the generalization or external validity of empirical

observations and theories. The axioms of the law (al qawaid al fiqhiyyat al kulliyat) relate


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to established scientific laws. There are parallels in S&T practice for the following sources

of law: istihbaab, istihsaan, istislah, ijma, and urf.

The paper concludes by summarizing the basic characteristics of Islamic methodology andmaking 2 recommendations: (a) Aspiring modern Muslim scientists, like their ancestors,

should take a preliminary course on classical methodology to provide intellectual tools,

values, and attitudes on which to build their innovative careers (b) Mature scientists, liketheir encyclopedic forerunners, should break disciplinary barriers so that their

investigations are wholistic and follow the tauhidi paradigm.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 PURPOSE OF THE PAPER

The paper analyzes the empirical methodology and discusses its reframing within anIslamic context as a means of overcoming the attitudinal barriers to the growth of S&T,

R&D, and successful technology transfer. The paper concludes that the basic postulates and

elements of the scientific method are valid and acceptable. The problems are external to themethod and manifest in the way it is framed and is used. The paper proposes means of an

Islamic reframing of the empirical method to overcome the defects above. It also discusses

the values and attitudes that encourage or hinder the transfer and development of scienceand technology.

1.2 DEFINITION OF SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND TECHNOLOGY

Science is a body of organized knowledge secured through systematic investigation. Itsearches for and tries to explain relations among physical phenomena.

A basic assumption of science is that there are natural laws,sunan llah fi al kawn, thatmake the universe rationally organized and predictable. The aim of scientific research is to

learn as much as possible about these laws in order to explain and exploit causal relations.

Humans can investigate those laws that are within the seen worldaalam al shahadat; theyhave no access to laws that are in the unseen aalam al ghaib. As far as human

understanding is concerned a cause is always and is necessarily followed by its effect.

Exceptions to this are in the realm of the aalam al ghaib and humans have no need to

interact with them in the normal conduct of their affairs except where instructed byrevelation. All what humans need to know from aalam al ghaib is provided by revelation.

Scientific research is basically looking for causal relations and how to exploit them.

Research is undertaken in 4 different areas: basic research, applied research, productdevelopment, and technology transfer. The empirical method is used in each of these fields.

Research results into growth of knowledge either by addition of new knowledge or a deeperunderstanding of existing knowledge. Research methods are either observational or

experimental. Observational studies may be descriptive or analytic. Experimental studies

usually result in manipulation of the ecosystem.

Technology is transformation of basic science into services and products. The Islamic


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paradigm of useful knowledge, ilm nafei, calls for transformation of science into

technology. The only exception to this is science studied for the sole purpose of

understanding and appreciating the majesty of the creator.

1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Science and technology are as old as humanity. The first recorded scientific activity wasteaching Adam the names of things. Naming and classification are basics for scientific

research and communication. Human curiosity and the search for practical solutions to

problems of life led to discoveries by empirical observation or trial and error. The S&T wehave today is a product of human endeavor to which all known civilizations contributed:

ancient Egypt,Babylonia, Greece, Persia, China, and India. The Greek achievements are the

best documented.

Muslims played a crucial role in preserving and improving ancient Greek learning and

passing it to Europe just before the scientific revolution at the start of the 16th century

CE. The Umayyad Khalif, Khalid Ibn Yazid, started translations of Greek science and

philosophy into Arabic. This effort intensified in the 3rd century AH under the Abassidrulers. Muslims became leaders of science in its various disciplines by correcting defects in

Greek science but also making innovative additions of their own.

The golden era of Muslim science was during the early Abassid perod. Science in the

Muslim world declined after that. By the 14th century AH the ummah was weak intechnology and superstition had come back. The decline can be dated to (a) the Mongol

invasion and sacking of Baghdad (1258 CE) when over a period of 40 years they killed

scientists and destroyed books and the expulsion of Muslims scientists and (b) catholic

destruction of Muslim institutions of learning and research in Andalusia (1491 CE)

During the renaissance or age of enlightenment, the catholic churchs suppression of

science was rejected. At the same time Muslim science, carrying with it the empiricalmethod, reached Europe through translations or study of Europeans at Muslim universities

in Spain and other countries. This led to the scientific revolution in Europe of the period

1500-1750 CE. Transfer of the empirical method to Europe was imperfect; the Europeanstook the facts but not the tauhidi context. A new European and largely secular context was

developed. The empirical method was presented as the source of knowledge par excellence.

Other sources of knowledge were rejected especially revelation because of its association

with the rejected church. This was an overreaction to the transgressions of the churchagainst science. The experience of the Muslims had shown that the empirical method could

be used alongside other sources of knowledge and that it was not anti-religion.

There were 4 periods of intense scientific interaction between Europe and the Muslim

world: (a) 3-6th centuries AH Greek science was transferred to the Muslim world. The

Muslims had a methodological basis that allowed them to make selective absorption andalso be able to innovate. (b) during the crusades that lasted 8 centuries , the Muslims were

intellectually stronger than the Europeans. The Muslims taught and did not to learn.

Transfer of Muslim science to Europe was limited because of the intense rivalry (c) 13-14th

centuries AH the Muslims were only consumers of S&T because they had lost their


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methodology and could not make original contributions. It was not possible to integrate the

ummahs thinking with modern S&T. Lack of methodological originality led to neglect of

pure sciences (d) With the start of the 15th century ofhijra, calls for a renewal in theummah were made to develop of transfer technology in a selective, critical and innovative

way. Experiences of indiscriminate technology transfer in Egypt,Turkey, Iran, Pakistan and

other Muslim countries over the past 50 years have not been wholly successful; they havemade the Muslims even more dependent than before. Methodology built on the Muslim

heritage will inspire more R&D than methodology developed in another world-view and is

transplanted into the Muslim world. It will at the same time relieve the inferiority complexthat afflicts Muslims. The ummah will absorb what is available in S&T. As Roger Garaudy

advised this must be selective, critical, and creative. The ummah will also have to develop

its methodologies so that it can in its own unique way make innovative additions to the

corpus of human knowledge and experience. The ummah can not achieve technologicalautonomy or develop an innovative and vigorous indigenous science base if it does not

build on an Islamic framework. The world-view that motivates a European scientist can not

motivate a Muslim to the same degree.

1.4 METHODOLOGY, KNOWLEDGE AND REFORM

Study of methodology is rapidly emerging as an important and independent field.Methodology defines a discipline; a discipline can not be recognized as independent until it

evolved a methodology. Methodology defines a discipline. According to

the tauhidi paradigm, there is a methodological framework common to all disciplines sincethere is unity of knowledge and the source of knowledge is one, Allah. This common

methodology can be reached by deep study and reflection of any discipline.

Muslim history has shown that successful reform movements have always started withreform of knowledge. Movements that were based on purely political or military action

with no knowledge reform were not as successful. Knowledge reform requires

methodological reform. Reform of the ummah today will have to start from itsmethodological heritage recast in a contemporary framework, referred to as asaalat

islamiyyat muasiratby Dr Abdulhamid Abusulayman.

The ummah is proud to have been the first to develop uluum al hadith and ilm al usuulas

methodological sciences that ensure correct transmission of text (khabar) and distinguish

the right from the wrong. Tools from Islamic methodological sciences are comparable to

those of the empirical method. Science investigates matter and energy and their useswhereas Islamic methodological sciences investigate revealed text seeking to understand its

use. The field of investigation may be different but the intellectual tools used as well the

possible methodological biases are similar to a large extent. Both face the challenge ofworking from incomplete evidence and making general explanatory theory.

Ancient Muslim scientists were encyclopedic being involved in several fields of enquiry atthe same time. Research is a type ofijtihad. We are of the opinion that door to ijtihad has

never been closed in the ummah at any epoch. The decrease in scholarly output that

occured at certain epochs in history was more due to lack of new challenges for scholars

than to lack of intellectual curiosity. The physical and social environment changed very


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little between the 4th and 10th centuries of hijra. The period starting with the 13th century

has witnessed major changes and challenges and is therefore producing more reformers and

thinkers. Innovative intellectual output of the ummah is now on the rise. This conferencecomes at a very opportune moment.

2.0 METHODS

2.1 SOURCES

The paper is based on bibliographic sources available in Malaysia at the time of writing, theauthors reflections and reading on methodology over the past 5 years, and discussions with

senior colleagues at IIIT and UIA. Both Muslim and non-Muslim critiques of the empirical

methodology were studied. A large sample of writings have been consulted to make sure

that statements made on scientific or Islamic methodology are representative.

In preparation of this paper, an Extensive literature review covering the following areas was

made to define the issues at stake: Islamic Reform Movements, technology transfer, history

of science, philosophy of science, epistemology, research methods, the empirical method,Quranic sciences, hadith sciences, usul al fiqh, Islamic methodology and Islamization of

knowledge.

The main source of information about the various Islamic sciences was al Zahiili,

M.Marjau al uluum al Islamiyyat. Dar al Marifat, Damascus no date

2.2 TERMINOLOGY

Simple terminology has been used to make the paper friendly to the non-specialist. Quranic

terminology has been used whenever possible because it is exact. The term European hasbeen used instead of western to refer to the to the intellectual and cultural heritage that

encompasses Greco-roman, Judeo-christian traditions that developed over the past 2000

years and dominated the world over the past 500 years. Many of the arabic terms used havenot been translated but their meanings have been explained in the glossary.

2.3 METHOD OF ANALYSIS

European sources have been used as authorities in the description of the empirical method.

The tauhidi paradigm has been used to critically analyze the method showing its strengths

and weaknesses. Methodological concepts from traditional Islamic sciences have been

examined in a broad sense as they relate to scientific methodology. The paper has avoidedrediscussing opinions generated by ijtihad of the ummahs scholars over the past 14

centuries because the details were relevant to their eras and only the guiding principles can

be applied to our times. The paper has similarly avoided discussion of the evolution ofcurrent European concepts of epistemology and philosophy of science and just confined

itself to stating the state of art knowledge and analyzed them from a tauhidi perspective.

The paper has analyzed contemporary challenges using the original sources of Quranandsunnat. Parallels between classical Islamic methodological sciences and the empirical

methodology were identified and were discussed.

2.4 USE OF END-NOTES


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End-notes have been used extensively to make the main paper of reasonable length and

avoid interruption of the flow of ideas for the reader familiar with the themes being

discussed and their sources. A reader not familiar with Islamic sciences may turn to thenotes for detailed information.

2.5 TRANSLITERATIONThe author has used his own transliteration system of Arabic words into the Latin alphabet.

Both the motivation and methodology are explained in the notes.

3.0 THE EMPIRICAL SCIENTIFIC METHOD

3.1 DEFINITION & CHARACTERISTICS

The European use of the empirical method has the following established characteristics: (a)It is pragmatic and basically atheistic (a) only observation is the source of valid knowledge;

other sources of knowledge such asistinbat, tarikh, naqlare rejected.

The following characteristics of the empirical method are alleged and may not always holdin practice (a) It is open-ended, theories are abandoned if no longer sustained by facts (b) It

is methodological (systematic, repeatable, and consistent) (c) It is accurate, precise, andobjective.

The empirical methodology is innately good but the manner and context of its use lead tothe following problems: (a) biases due to a priori assumptions (b) limitations of observation

by human senses (c) limitations of human intellect (d) lack of an integrating paradigm

3.2 HISTORY THE EMPIRICAL SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Empiricism could be said to be an innate character of humans which they share with

animals. Humans always want to know the explanation of natural phenomena and what

relates one event to another. In the absence of empirical knowledge orwahy they havesometimes resorted to superstition. It is not easy to give credit for discovery of the

empirical method. Available evidence shows that Muslims scientists in the golden era of

Islam were pioneers of the systematic use of the empirical method. Hitti, William Smith,George Sarton concluded that it was Muslims who first used experimentation and

observation in a systematic way.

Greek science was conjectural and hypothetical. Greeks preferred reasoning and lookeddown upon perceptual knowledge. They would spend years in their confortble arm chairs

reasoning instead of going out of the room and making observation or setting up a simple

experiment to close the issue. Aristotle for example never thought of testing his theoryabout the speed of falling of heavy and light objects.

Dr Sulaiman Daud concluded after an analysis of Muslim and European writings thatMuslims were the first to criticize Greek logic (al qiyaas al mantiqi) and that they were the

first to develop a complete empirical methodology in the form ofqiyaas usuuli.

Allama Muhammad Iqbal in his Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam argued that


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the empirical method was not a European discovery. He quoted contributions by: Ghazzali,

Ishraqi, Ibn Taymiyyat, Abubakr al Razi, and Ibn Hazm. Other pioneers of the empirical

method were: Ibn Sina, Al Biruni, al Kindi (d. 260 AH), Jabir Ibn Hayyan (d. 200 AH), IbnHaytham (d. 340 AH), al Khawarizmi (d. 387 AH).

European history ascribes discovery of the empirical method to Roger Bacon (1561-1626CE). According to Prantl, Roger Bacon learned the empirical method from Arabs. Other

European pioneers of the method such as San Simon 1760-1825 CE, August Kant 1798-

1857 CE, Emile Durkheim 1858-1917 CE built on Bacons ideas.

The Quran is a methodological inspiration to Muslim scientists. Quranic, hadith, and usul

al fiqh sciences are a rich intellectual heritage on which Muslim scientists built their

methodology. They learned from and improved Greek science. They pioneered theempirical methodology and transmitted it to Europe just before the renaissance. The

European copied the empirical method but not its context hence their misuse of the method.

Methodological development in empirical science in the ummah has stagnated over the

centuries. Biased European methodology was imposed on the Muslim world over the past 2centuries with the claim that it was the only source of valid knowledge. Many Muslims

unaware of their heritage have accepted this.

3.3 IBN HYTHAM AND USE OF THE EMPIRICAL METHOD

Scientific investigation starts with hypothesis formulation. The hypotheses are tested by

empirical observation and deductions/inductions are made.

Ibn Haytham, in his Book of Optics kitaab al Manzirillustrates the use of the empiricalmethod. He did a lot of experiments and interpreted the findings. He realized the

importance of mathematics. He used a combination of inductive and deductive logic. In

inductive logic an observation is generalized in the form of a hypothesis that can be testedempirically. In deductive logic, a hypothesis is verified experimentally and the findings are

used to interpret other facts based on the hypothesis. Induction usually is followed by

deduction.

Ibn Hytham formed hypotheses in 2 ways: (a) by observation of natural phenomena for

example he saw that light passing through a hole has the shape of that hole and therefore

formed a hypothesis that light travels in straight lines (b) by analogy for example the moongets light from the sun; stars by analogy get light from the sun

To verify the hypotheses about the stars above, Ibn Hytham made the observation thatunlike the moon, the shapes of the stars did not change with distance from the sun. He

concluded that the stars emit light of their own.

Ibn Hytham moved from experiment to generalize into a law by concluding that (a) light of

whatever type travels in straight lines (b) the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal

are in the same plane.


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3.4A PRIORIASSUMPTIONS

A priori assertions or non-assertions (assertions by default) bias the selection offields/issues of investigation, formulation of hypotheses, selection of hypotheses for testing,

reporting of data, interpretation of data, and use of information.

The source of frustration with European empiricism is that some assertions are understood

but are not stated explicitly so that the uninitiated may not recognize their existence.

European thought is basically materialist. It has several manifestations as positivism,

empiricism, pragmatism, and semanticism.

A materialistic view of the universe contradicts the Islamic view of duality of matter andspirit, mind and body, soul and intellect, philosophy and religion, here and the hereafter.

The theory of evolution that evolved in 19th century England and coincidentally provided

scientific justification for industrial exploitation for the less fit in Europe and the coloniesby the fittest who alone had the right of survival, has a lot of influence in the thinking of

many natural and social scientists. Scientific hypotheses, scientific language, choice ofwhat to study reflect an underlying assumption of the innate superiority of the most

evolved human species in Europe.

Psychological leanings cause bias. Personal or group selfish interests can unconsciously

lead to bias because of the European dichotomy between science and morality.

The life of the scientist is not put in the equation. A scientist is a prisoner of his culture.Only the aqida oftauhidthat is based on universality can rescue him from such a prison.

Many of the leading scientists were morally corrupt even psychologically sick yet their

theories and discoveries were not suspected. There is an implied unscientific assumptionthat a person who tells lies in his ordinary life will not do so about his laboratory research.

The character and moral worth of the investigator is not taken into account when judging

the validity of the data on the assertion that science is morally/ethically neutral (hiyaadakhlaqi). This is the cause of so much scientific fraud most of which is undetectable. The

Islamic approach will involve checking the moral worth of the researcher in the assessment

of any research data to void the possibility of scientific fraud.

Regarding natural laws as final and accepting the laws of evolution that explain the start

and progress of life as chance or accidental events make the European scientist consider the

existence of a creator superflous. No empirical experiment can be set up to test theproposition yet there are indications especially in empirical behavior of humans that there is

a super-natural power.

Tauhidi science start with the following prior assumptions: tauhid(Allah, His

attributes, uluhiyyat, rububiyyat), limitations of human knowledge, causality (sababiyyat) is

the relation between the cause and effect. The causes are creatable by Allah and he could

change them. Thus causal relations are not always what humans expect. The creator can


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disregard the so-called natural laws. A Muslim believes that miracles are associated with

causal relations that are in the realm ofghaib but also recognizes that in practical terms he

need not delve into this field.

3.6 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

Both European empiricists (experience is source of knowledge) and rationalists (reason issource of knowledge) agree that there is no source of knowledge outside the human.

The assertion that the empirical is the only source of valid knowledge excludes 2 majorfields of study: (a) the ultimate questions about the universe that can not be proved

rationally: its start, its future, its end, purpose of human life, life, death and after-death and

(b) human behavior: motivation, and spiritual experiences). There are ultimates of religion

tat can not proved rationally.

The European paradigm that does not recognize existence of limits to human senses and

intellect can not accept that some matters can not be investigated empirically and that other

sources of knowledge such as wahy (knowledge ofghaib) must be used. They are justignored as if they do not exist. A proper approach would have been a declaration by the

empiricist and rationalist that they lie outside the bounds of unaided human investigation.

Islam recognizes three sources of knowledge, 2 being primary and the third dependent on

the other two. Wahy and empirical observation are independent. They however both needreason aqlfor understanding. Muslim thinkers have mentioned other sources of knowledge

such as intuition (hadas), ilhaam, and wijdaan These either have wahy or an empirical

basis that may not be obvious to the uninitiated.

Wahy remains the absolute source since human senses and reason are known by ordinary

human experience to be fallible. Al Ghazali doubted the authority of sense and reason.

Human illusions and hallucinations are possible and do occur.

3.7 INVESTIGATION OF THE PAST AND THE FUTURE

The empirical method performs well in investigation of the present but is awfullyincompetent in its historicity and futuristicity. Investigation of the past and the future

requires ilm al ghaib that comes only from wahy. Ghaib can be absolute or relative.

Empirical investigations continually roll back the frontiers of relativeghaib but can not

even start looking into absoluteghaib. The problem is that the European use of theempirical method just assumes that uninvestigatable matters just do not exist or are

irrelevant. Untestable assertions are classified as unscientific.

3.8 INVESTIGATION OF THE HUMAN

European empiricism, by looking at the human as only matter, does not have the tools to

understand human duality. It fails in understanding causal relations in situations in whichhumans change the ecosystem. Humans can create new facts that accord with their inner

biases such that an investigator coming later is confused.

3.9 INTEGRATION AND SPECIALIZATION


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Too narrow specialization in science has resulted in a situation of knowing the parts and

failing to put them together. Knowing the whole picture makes the study of the parts more

meaningful. European empiricism as used does not acknowledge the basic assertionsoftauhidthat there is one creator for the universe and that therefore there must be an

integrating paradigm for all human research and actions. A practical consequence of this is

that one advance in one area is a catastrophe in another to the extent that many insightfulscientists fear the ultimate destruction of the ecosystem.

3.10 OBJECTIVITY AND UNIVERSALITY

The claim of universality and objectivity is not true. It would have been more honest to

accept the minimum that European science reflects a Euro-centric view of the world.

3.11 LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN SENSES

Empirical knowledge is relativistic and probabilistic. European science is too arrogant in

stating its conclusions as established facts when the observations on which they are based

may be wrong.

Empiricism depends on human senses. Human senses are limited in their observation and

can be deceived; this failure is not cured by use of instruments because they are aids andextensions of the basic human senses.

Diseases of the heart can lead to biased empirical observations. Among these diseasesare: hiqd, kibr, kadhb,

Existence (al wujuud) is at 5 levels: dhaati, hissi, khiyaali, aqli, and shibhi. The empirical

method can only observe the hissi, the rest have to be inferred.

3.12 LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN INTELLECT

The human intellect is necessary to interprete and understand empirical observations. Thisintellect has limitations and there are matters like the human himself that lie outside its

reach. A human can not understand himself fully. Rationalism has a basis in the Quran and

reason is needed to understand the Quran and sunnat. However there are transgressions inthe use of reason that lead to false results. This occus when reason is employed in areas that

are exclusive forwahy. The Ummah like the Europeans has had excesses by rationalists

like the mutazilites. Ibn Taymiyyat, al Ghazzali, and other scholars of the samecaliber came

to bring the ummat back to the original methodology after the excesses of the rationalists.

4.0 USE OF QURANIC CONCEPTS IN THE ISLAMIC REFRAMING OF THE

EMPIRICAL METHOD

4.1 QURAN AND KNOWLEDGE, ILM

Previous civilizations were condemned for reading and not understanding their revelations

(2:78). This is a situation of intellectual blindness. For Muslims the revelation is the start of

understanding and knowledge. Some of the contemporary Muslim weaknesses are

attributable to defects in understanding and using the Quran. Many Muslim communities


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today have abandoned the Quran (hijr al Quran) in that they do not use it as the sole

guide of their affairs. Muslim scientific and technological renaissance will require a return

to the Quran as an inspiration and a methodological guidance.

The learning, collection, study, and interpretation of the Quran was the start of the

methodological and knowledge revolution ushered in by Islam. This revolution was mainlythe liberation of human intellect and will from the clutches of superstition and blind

following.

Quranic verses deal with basically 4 concentric themes: (a) the self, nafs; (b) relation with

other humans; (c) relation with the ecosystem; (d) relation with the creator. In the temporal

dimension the Quran deals with the past, the present, and the future. The future is

generally subsumed under the concept of the unseen, al ghaib.

The Quran is a book of general and basic guidance and not a textbook for any discipline. It

is a methodological guideline for the development of science and technology as well as

other areas of human knowledge.

The Quran and sunnat have their wisdom, hikmat, in the scientific tarbiyatof Muslims.There is a hikmatin the Quran and sunnat being in generalities and not details and why the

companions did not ask many questions. There is also hikmat in verses of the Quran being

validly interpretable in more than one way. There is hikmat in the revelation of the Quranin bits and pieces. The hikmat is to develop a spirit of enquiry and reflection as the way to

scientific facts.

Scientific facts in the Quran are there for purposes of guidance to aqida and not asubstitute for empirical research. It encourages humans to study the universe in order to get

empirical knowledge. This is achieved by indicating that the universe is large, knowledge is

wide in scope, and human knowledge is limited.

The field of human endeavor is the seen and not the unseen. It will be a transgression for a

human to try to research or deal with the unseen. All knowledge of the unseen needed formethodological guidance of empirical study of the world is provided by the Quran. The

Quran also provides information to understand uluhiyyatand rububiyyatand their

implications in daily practical life.

4.2 THE TAUHIDI PARADIGM FROM THE QURAN

Tha tauhidi paradigm has the following concepts: unity of Allah, unity of creation, unity oftruth, unity of knowledge, unity of life, unity of humanity. The concept of unity is the

bedrock for causal relations and a rational predictable universe. Science shows that the

complex universe is actually a simple made up of a few fairly identical building blockscalled atoms, sub-atomic particles and molecules. The natural laws that govern the

interactions among these particles ar simple and are usually written as simple mathemtical

equations.


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Under the tauhidi paradigm, wahy and aqlare complementary. Since knowledge and truth

are a unity, both wahyand aqlare searching for the same goal.

The tauhidi paradigm also implies an all-embracing aspect (shumuuliyyat). Since

everything has the same creator and one source, there must be order and harmony

(nidhaam) since that creator knows all His creation (ihaatat).

Tauhidliberates the human intellect from stagnation (jumuud), dependency (tabiyat), blind

following (taqlid aama). It frees the human from being a slave of his own whims andfancies.

Tauhidencourages innovation (ibda) by emphasizing the unity of the universe and its wide

expanse.

Tauhidmakes us understand why the Quran addresses the whole person and not parts

Tauhidis the final guarantor against methodological biases because the human observingand interpreting natural phenomena is in the same tauhidi frame of reference as the events

being studied. The Quran is comprehensive (shumuliyyat). It has to be accepted as a whole(2:85). The reader must understand the changing time-space dimensions in the Quran.

4.3 SUNAN LLAH FI AL KAWN

The Quran calls for empirical observation of the environment and its interpretation in

many verses. Human senses were given their responsibility in this matter with warning

against transgression. The Quran calls for use of the human intellect. It provides actualexamples of scientific research.

The principal of causality, ie a physical phenomenon must have a preceding humanly-understandable cause, is very clear in many verses of the Quran. The exceptions when the

principle is suspended are described; they involve intervention of divine will beyond human

understanding or are in the realm of the unseen (ilm al ghaib). Humans can ignore theprinciple of causality with the consequence of lack of creativity, innovation, and activity

and they lapse into a stuporous state oftawaakul.

Sunan Allah are of 2 types: those known by Allah alone and those knowable by humans.Thesunan in aalam al ghaib are different from those in aalam al shahadat. Ghaib is of

two types: haqiiqi, knowable only by Allah, and idhaafi, knowable by some humans.

The Quran clearly refers to methodology in Maida:48, Anam:155 and many other

chapters.

The Quranic methodology is induction. It was most unfortunate that Muslim scholars,

under Greek influence, turned to deductive and neglected inductive reasoning.

As part of the intellectual stagnation, thefuqaha concentrated on ayaat al ahkaam and


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neglected ayaat al kawn.

4.4 BASIS FOR EMPIRICAL OBSERVATION AND INTERPRETATION

The Quran calls for the inductive method by ordaining looking at nature.

Ayat kawniyyatrelate directly to human intellect because Allah gave humans the power of

intellect and put at their disposal what is in the earths and heavens ( taskhiir) and called

upon humans to lokk and investigate

The Quran trains the human to observe nature by use of terms such as nadhar, tabassur.

Interpretation is emphasized by terms such as: tadabbur, tafakkur, iitibaar. tafaquhu. Use

of evidential knowledge is emphasized by terms such as: bayyinat, burhan. Terms used tocondemn tendencies to biased observations are: taqliid, dhann.

The Quranic story about Ibrahims search for the truth by observing natural phenomena

like the moon and the sun is a good example of formulating and testing a hypothesis byempirical observation.

4.5ISTIQAMAT

The concept ofistiqimatpromotes valid and un-biased research. It is defined by thefollowing measures of central tendency to the golden mean or equilibrium:adl, wasatiyyat,

tawazun,hikmat, iitidaal, maayiir, mawdhuiyyat. The concept ofwasatiyyatcan be the

basis for statistical measures of central tendency (mean, mode) that are the basis of much

scientific inference

Istiqamatcan also be defined negatively as rejection of what leads to bias: hiwa al nafs, al

dhann.

The Quran came to fight false knowledge that manifests as: usturat, khurafat, kadhb, lahw,

wahm. It condemned intellectual stagnation that manifests as taqlid. It warned againstmistakes (khata) and forgetting (nisyaan). It warned against diseases of the heart that can

color and distort objective observation and interpretation resulting in bias. It teaches

practical measures for avoiding mistakes such as insisting on a written record and calling

witnesses.

It called for use of evidence by use of the following terms: burhan, daliil, bayyinat, shahid,

tathabbut, sidq, iltimas al shawaahid, tathabut fi al umuur(nisa: 83, Hujraat:18).

4.6 BASIS FOR TECHNOLOGY: ISTIKHLAF, TASKHIR, ISTIIMAR

The concept of ilm nafei underlies the imperative to transform basic knowledge into

technology.

5.0 USE OF CONCEPTS FROM THE CLASSICAL ISLAMIC


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METHODOLOGICAL SCIENCES IN THE ISLAMIC REFRAMING OF THE

EMPIRICAL METHOD

5.1 ILM AL TAFSIR

Two branches of tafsir have a bearing on empirical scientific research: tafsir ilmi and tafsir

maudhui.

Tafsir ilmi concentrates on ayaat al kawn. The scope oftafsir ilmi is (a) empirical eg study

of the origin of the universe, shape of the earth, the 7 heavens and earhs, life on otherplanets, origin of man (b) psychological implications of the verses. There are new and old

controversies about its appropriateness. It can be approached in a positive and a negative

way. Positively it can help to increase iman by revealing the power of the creator. It can

also be a source of methodology. Negatively it can be lead to confusion when it is used asshowing the scientific miracles of the Quran (ijaz ilmi li al Quran). Misuse oftafsir

ilmi is due to poor science or poor understanding of the Quran. Tafsir ilmi relates to the

exercise of data interpretation in empirical research.

Tafsir Maudhui tries to discover and explain the internal consistency that may not be

apparent to the casual reader. It is an intellectual challenge to sort out relations amongthings. The problem is that it is not static tafsir. New developments in society and

technology give rise to new subjects matter that can make us have a different and new look

at the Quran. The methods oftafsir maudhui include: looking at a sura as one subject,looking for verses on one subject in the whole Quran. Tafsir maudhui, like tafsir ilmi,

relates to data interpretation. In both tafsir and empirical research an attempt is made to

reach conclusions from given data which may sometimes not be complete.

5.2 ILM AL NASKH WA AL MANSUUKH

Naskh is a matter of study in Quranic, hadith, and usul al fiqh. We will discuss here underQuran but its application is wider.

Naskh has 3 meanings: (a) abrogation of previous revelations and books by the Quran (b)textual abrogations of verses of the Quran like the verse ofrajm but with continuation of

their practical application (c) abrogation of a verse of the Quran by a later verse both text

and application or authority. We shall focus on the third type

The theory ofnaskh has given rise to a lot of controversies. Some scholars assert that it

does not exist and reconcile the abrogated and abrogating verses. Among those who accept

the occurrence of abrogation, there are disputes about which verses were abrogated. Somescholars look at abrogation as making the general particular. Examples are the verses on

alcohol. The complete ban on alcohol was a more specific command that abrogated an

earlier verse that was a more general prohibition in that it forbade prayer while drunk.

There is agreement that Quran abrogates Quran and that Quran abrogates sunnat and that

sunnat abrogates sunnat. There is no agreement on whethersunnat mutawaatiratcan

abrogate Quran


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Our inclination is to the opinion of scholars who assert the eternal vailidity of the Quran

and to explain naskh as a consequence of the revelation of the Quran in a dynamic andchanging society and over a period of 23 years. Abrogating verses came to address people

at a different level of development without necessarily making the abrogated ones invalid.

If we take spatio-temporal circumstances into consideration the problem of naskh becomesclearer. The later verse elaborates or amends the previous one. The first verse could find

application in other spatio-temporal circumstances. The discourse about naskh has been

complicated by looking at it from a legal context which requires that only one unique lawbe operative at a time and the previous laws would be rendered completely useless.

The theory of naskh is very relevant to the progress of science in which new discoveries are

rendering yesterdays theories obsolete today. The concept of naskh could be a backgroundto understanding the changes in scientific facts with newer discoveries. Abandoned theories

still have a grain of truth and the correct explanation of phenomena at a certain level. Study

of atoms started with the theory that the atom was the smallest indivisible particle. This is

still valid when we consider ordinary chemical reactions. Later discoveries of sub-atomicparticles. The initial laws of conservation of energy anf conservation f mass are valid for

routine engineering applications but invalid when nuclear fusion of fission are considered.Newtonian laws of motion are valid for most ordinary low-speed motion but have to be

supplanted by the relativity-based laws.

5.3 ILM AL JARH WA AL TAADIIL

Isnaadand ilm al rijaalare uinque to the ummat. Ilm al rijaalis a major contribution to

science. It is important that the character of the investigator be known in order to trust hisword.

A narration is accepted on he following conditions: adaalat(Muslim, adult, notimmoral,has social respect ) and dhabt (good memory, ......). The following

contradict adaalat:disbelief (kufr),being a minor(sabiyy), immoral character/conduct

(fisq), innovation in religion (mubtadiu), telling lies in ordinary conversation (kadhib fihadith al naas), financial benefit from saying hadith

The biographer (muarrikh) writes biographies of men and looks for: They have to have the

following traits : truthfulness (sidq), reporting literally (lafdh) and not by meaning,mentioning the source of information, good expression, knowledge of the meanings of

words, good overall understanding of all what concerns the subject, not being influenced

by hiwa. The biographer must have personal knowledge of his subject (knowledge,religion, and other attributes).

The modern scientific community has done a good job of policing itself. Published data isusually checked by others who try to replicate the methods. This has however not prevented

cases of scientific fraud to occur from time to time. The matter may be as serious as

cooking data or may be less serious like publishing favorable results and hiding the less

favorable one thus giving a false picture of the reality. The science of jarh and taadiil can


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be a source of guidance on how to bring up an ethical scientist who can be trusted to tell the

truth always. This science protected the ummah from many false hadith that could have

been transmitted.

5.4 ILM NAQD AL HADITH

This branch of hadith science is concerned with building paradigms that will be used in

checking whether an individual hadith is valid as well as checking internal and external

consistency of a narration. There are basically two approaches (a)Naqd al matn involvesloking for illatin hadith and differring the trusted narrators (b)Naqd al

sanadinvolves: adalat al raawi, dhabt al raawi, ittisaal al sanad There are several

categories of hadith depending on the classification criteria used: hasan, dhaif, muttasil,munqatiu, mursal, muudhal, mudalas, mawquuf, marfuu, shaadh, muallal.

The paradigms of ilm naqd al hadith can be used to inculcate attitudes of critical reading

and examination of scientific literature. Such attitudes will ensure that only the most valid

and rigorously-done scientific work finds acceptance. It will also set up a challenge toscientists who do their best in the full knowledge that the readership is very critical.

5.5 QIYAAS

Qiyaas is a type of ijtihad. Qiyaas, or legal syllogism, is systematic raay. Qiyaas is logicaldeduction or induction from Quran and sunnat.

Dr Sulaiman Daud referred to qiyaas as an Islamic empirical methodology. He analyzed the

writings of the following European thinkers on empiricism: Roger Bacon (1214-129 CE),Francis Bacon (1561-1626 CE), David Hume (1711-1776 CE), and John Stuart Mill (1806-

1873 CE). He concluded that qiyaas usuuli is in conformity with the modern empirical

scientific method. Both qiyaas usuuli and the empirical methodology look for causes (illat).

We need to return qiyaas to its simplicity away from the complexity of the ulama. This will

be the start of using it to motivate and develop a scientific culture in the ummah.

Examples of qiyaas in empirical research are: results of drug trials in animals being applied

to humans, findings on drug toxicity in patients being applied to the healthy

5.6 ISTIHBAAB, ISTIHSAAN, AND ISTISLAH

Istihbab is continuation of an established law which has not been revoked or rescinded. It isthe principle of maintaining the status quo on the basis of accompanying circumstances.

The concept of istihbaab could be applied to scientific laws and theories that are considered

working explanations or hypotheses until disproved

Istihsan is acceptance of a rule because of its superior equity on comparison with an already

established law. Ahmad Hasan defined it as preferential reasoning, the principle that

equitable considerations may override strict analogy. It can also be looked at as


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unreasoned preference. Itihsaan is of two types: istihsaan qiyaasi andistihsaan al

dharurat. Clinicians after many years of experience can gain an intuition that should be

respected because in the end it has an empirical basis. This is similar to istihsaan.

Istislah is to seek a legal ruling by reasoning on the basis of maslahat (public interest).

Maslahat mursalat is the basis for istislah. Masalih mursalat refers to any interest/benefitthat falls within the purposes of the law-giver(maqasid al sharei) and was not mentioned in

the law in a specific or generic sense. The concept ofistislah can find application in

decisions involving choosing one technology over another.

Ijma is defned as unanimous agreement of the jurists of the community of a particular age

on a legal issue . It is infallible and is not subject to reason because the community can not

agree on an error. Consensus among empirical researchers has authority eveen if not backedby direct experimental data.

5.7 MAQASID AL SHARIAT

The theory of maqasid provides a high-level or a birds eye view of the law from the

context of its higher purposes and not its mechanics or details. The 5 purposes of the law,maqasid al sharia, are preservation of : din, nafs, aql, nasl, and maal. These 5 can define the

scope and objectives of technology, Maqasid al sharia as a concept are more relevant to

applied than basic science.

Al Ghazzali and his teacher al Juwayni were pioneers ofmaqasid an shariat. Al Shatibi

elaborated and systematized al Ghazzalis ideas. The maqasid theory can transform the

Muslim mind from pre-occupation with parts and branches to dealing with the big or largeissues, from structures to ends and goals, from taqlidto innovations. Dr Shatibi maintained

that maqasid were derived from nass by nduction (istiqra)

The maqasid can provide the Muslim mind with high-level conceptual tools that can be

used to understand and use science and technology for overall benefit of humans and the

ecosystem.

5.8 QAWAID AL FIQHIYYAT AL KULLIYAT /AL QAWANIIN AL USULIYYAT

Al qawaid al fiqhiyyatare simple rules are akin to mathematical axioms derived directlyfrom the primary sources of law. They simplify the logical or reasoning operations involved

In complex situations. The axioms can be stated and used without having to go through

their complicated derivation.

6.0 CONCLUSIONS

6.1 UNIVERSALITY OF ISLAM

A valid fear could be expressed that correcting the European bias in science will produce

another type of bias this time being towards Muslims. The Islamic world-view of life, the


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human is the universal view and is therefore not a bias. The comprehensiveness of the

Islamic frame leaves no room for bias. Bias is in essence standing apart and looking at a

phenomenon from a certain pre-determined point of view only.

6.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF ISLAMIC METHODOLOGY AS PRESENTED BY

DR ABDULHAMID ABUSULAYMAN

6.2.1 Scope:

The Islamic methodology has a very wide scope that encompasses and harmonizes both theseen and the unseen (takaamul al ghaib wa al shahadat). Empirical research is in the

province of the seen and can not trespass into the unseen. Guidance from the unseen helps

encourage empirical research and guide it away from potential bias

6.2.2 Sources:

There are three main sources of knowledge and methodology: Revelation (wahy), Intellect

(aql), and Empirical observation (kawn). These sources are complementary and are never

contradictory. Full knowledge requires use of all the sources.

6.2.3 Basic principles:

Islamic methodology has 3 main principles: wahdaniyyat, al khilafat, al masuliyyat al

akhlaqiyyat

6.2.4 Basic concepts:

The Islamic methodology relies on the following basic concepts:ghaiyyat al khalq wa al

wujuud, mawdhuiyyat al haqiiqat wa nisbiyyat al mawqiu minha, hurriyat al qaraar wa al

iradat al insaniyyat wa masuliyyatuha, al tawakkul, al sababiyyat fi adaa al fiilu alinsaani

6.2.5 Peculiarities:

A distinguishing characteristic of the Islamic methodology is its comprehensiveness,

shumuliyyat.

6.3 REFRAMING THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The above analyzes have shown that the actual processes of the empirical methodology

(hypothesis, testing, conslusion) are not the problem but the context and manner in whichthe method is used. What is therefore needed is t define the Islamic context and make it

predominant. The reframing will succeed most if it is part of the education of the Muslim

scientist.

6.4 EDUCATION OF THE MUSLIM SCIENTIST

The education of a Muslim scientist should encourage development of a culture involving

attitudes and values that can be learned from the Islamic methodological sciences. Studying

the methodological Islamic sciences of usul al fiqh, hadith, and tafsir will help mould the

personality and intellectual preparation of the future researcher within an Islamic context.


19/40

Studying the history and achievements of the early Muslim scientists will be an inspiration

for the young generation.

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Press, 1981). Copy:31228 Q175 F434R.

Ghosh B. N. , Scientific method and social research ( New Delhi: Sterling Pub, 1987).

Copy:147152 m H62 G427.

Brown Clarenc W. , / Ghiselli, Edwin Earnest. Scientific method in psychology. ( New

York: McGrow-Hill, 1955). Copy: 1750 BF38 B877.

Ibn hatham: The Book of Optics

Authors on Islamic Methodology

Ridha, Muhammad rashid. Al wahy al muhammadi: thubuutu an nubuwwat bi al Quran wadawat shuubu al madaniyyat ila al Islam. Al Zahra li al iilaam al arabi. Cairo 1988 BP

166.6 MA 526 1988;

Al Najjaar, Abd al hamid: Mabaahith fi manhajiyyat al fikr al Islami. Dar al Gharb al

islami. Beirut 1982;

Anonymous. Al manhajiyyat al islamiyyat wa al uluum al suluukiyyat wa al tarbawiyyat.

IIIT Herndon VA1990/1441;

Amziyaan, Muhammad Muhammad. manhaj al bahth al ijtimae bayn al wadhaiyyat wa al

miiyaariyat. IIIT HerndonVA 1991;

Alwani, Taha Jabir. Source Methodology in Islamic jurispudence.

IIIT Herndon VA 1411/1990;

Lodhi MAK (ed.) Islamization of Attitudes and Practices in Science and Technology.

IIIT Herndon VA1989/1409;

Uqayli, Ibrahim. Takaamul al manhaj al marifi inda ibn Taymiyyat.IIIT Herndon VA 1415/1994;

Abusulayman, Abdulhamid. Azmat al aql am Muslim. IIIT Herndon 1991;

Abusulayman, Abdulhamic. Islamization: Reforming contemporary knowledge.

IIIT Herndon VA 1994;

Imaarat, Muhammad. Islamiyat al marifat. Dar al Sharq al Awsat li al nashr. Cairo 1991;

Imaarat, Muhammad. Maaalim al Manhaj al islami. IIIT Herndon VA 1991/1411;


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Khaliil, Imad al ddiin. Madkhal ila Islamiyat al Marifat ma mukhattat muqtarahu li

islamiyat ilm al tarikh. IIITHerndon VA 1991/1411;

Basha, Ahmad Fuad: Nasq Islami li manhaj al-bahth al-ilmi (Herndon, VA: IIIT, 1989)

Nassar, Muhammad Abd al-Sattar: Manhaj al-bahth fi ilm al-aqidah fi daw al-tasawwur

al-ilmi al-muasir (Algiers: IIIT, 1989) BP 166 N 265 M

Inayah, Ghazi Husain: Anasir al-manhaj al-ilmi fi al-Quran wa al-sunnah (Herndon, VA,

IIIT, 1989) BP 190.5 S3 I 35 A

Authors on Islamization of Knowledge / Taasiil al uluum

Anonymous: Islamiyat al marifat: am mabadi al aamat-lkhittat al amal- al injaazaat

IIIT Herndon VA 1986

Anonymous: Islamization of Knowledge: General Principles and workplan. IIIT 1989

Anonymous: Toward Islamizatioin of Disciplines. IIIT 1989

Ismail, Zaki Muhammad. al-Tasil al-Islami lil-ulum wa aldirasat al-ijtimaiyah

( Askandariyah: Dar al-Matbuat al-Jadidah, 198.). Copy: 233852 H62.5 I8 I83T.

Yaljin, Miqdad. Dalil al-Tasil al-Islami lil-tarbiyah ( al-Riyad: Jamiat al-Imam

Muhammad Ibn Saud, 1991). Copy: 245263 r LC903 Y19D v1.

Qunayb, Hamid Sadiq / Kemalpazasade (ed.) Dirasat fi tasil al-muarrabat wa al-mustalah

( Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1991). Copy:245781 PJ6670 Q26D

Al-Zub, Zaki Muhammad Ibrahim. Tasil ara Ibn Khaldun al-iqtisadiyah. ( al-Urdun:

Jamiat al-Yarmuk, 1991). Copy:207675 t D116.7 13 Z12T.

Muhammad, Jamal Abd al-Hadi. Akhta yajib an tusallah fi al-tarikh. ( al-Riyad: Dar

Tayyibah, 1985). Copy: BP170 M424Y.

Al-Jindi, Anwar. Aslamah al-manahij wa al-ulum (Cairo: Dar alitisam, ?year) LC 904 J61A

Uluum al Quran

Fatima Ismail Muhammad Ismail: al Quran wa al Nadhr al Aqli (Herndon, VA: IIIT, 1993)

Omar Obaid Hasanat: Kaifa Nataamalu ma al Quran (Herndon, VA: IIIT, 1992)

Hadith Methodology

Saeed, Hammaam Abd Rahim. Manhaj al Muhaddithiin fi kitaabat al hadith wa athar

dhalika fi dhabt al sunnat. Maktabat al Rushd Riyadh 1983/1403 (BP 136.48 A167M)


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Saeed, Hammaam Abd Rahim.Al Fikr al manhaji inda al Muhaddithiin. Riasat al

Mahaakim al Shariyat wa al shuuni al diiniyat, Qatar 1408 AH (BP 136.4 S 132 F)

Technology Transfer

Rittenberger V (ed.). Science and Technology in a Changing International Order: TheUnited Nations Conference on Science and Technology for Development. Westview

Press, Boulder Colorado 1982 (Q 127.2 U58 1979)

Volker Rittberger (ed.) Science and technology in changing International order (Colorado:

Westview Press, 1979). Q127.2 U58

Segal, Aaron & Others. Learning by doing science and technology in the developing world(U.S.A: Westview Press, 1987). Call number: Q127.2 L438

Shils, Edward. Criteria for Scientific Development: Public Policy and National Goals. The

MIT Press, Cambridge1968 (Q 125 S 556)

Thomas, Frederic J. / Kondo, Allan K. (coauthr) .Towards scientific literacy. (Iran: Hultoneducational Pub. Ltd, 1978). Q125 T456

Al-Najjar, Zaghlul Raghib: Qadiyat al-takhalluf al-ilmi wa-al-taqni fi al-alam al-Islami(Qatar: Riasat al-Mahakim al-shariyat, 1988) BP 190.5 S 3 N 162 Q

Historical background

# The Muslim world like all other civilizations learned from others; there were benefits and

risks. Greek science was a double-edged sword. On one hand it stimulated knowledge but

on the other hand it introduced the dedective method that undermined the inductiveempirical research that the Quran called for. The loss of the inductive spirit according to

Muhammad Iqbal had been one of the causes of Muslim decline. Translation of Greek

science and philosophy was accompanied by much confusion when Muslims tried to useGreek philosophy indiscrimately. Al Kindi (d. 260 AH) tried to explain the Islamic aqida in

terms of philosophy. Al Ghazali (d. 505 AH) tried to distinguish Muslim from Greek

methodology in his publications (notes- taharuf al falasifat, maqasid al falasifat, ihya uluum

al ddiin). Other defenders of the Muslim methodology were: Ibn Taymiyyat (d. 728 AH) inhis books (notes: al jamu bayna al aql wa al naql, iqtidhau al sirat al mustaqiim, al radd ala

ibn arabi wa al sufiyat, naqdh al mantiq, mukhalafat ahl al jahiim) and Ibn al Wazir al

yamani Muhammad bin Ibrahim in his books (notes tarjihu asaaliib al Quran ala qawaniinal mubtadaat wa al yunaan).

# European invasion and occupation of Muslims lands in the 18th and 19th century was adouble-edged sword for S&T development. It stimulated S&T but it brought with it the

European world-view that contradicted the Muslim one. Therefore no Muslim creativity

#Muslim scientists were leaders in S&T as Sayyed Hossein Nasr proves in his writings.


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Many of the books by Muslims became texts in Europe. Muslim scientists were

encyclopedic in their knowledge and investigations. Muslim scientists who were also

philosophers were: al Kindi, al Razi, al Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ibn al Baja, Ibn Tufail, Ibn Rushd,al Tuusi.

Reform Movements# The hadith of the prophet about a mujaddid for every century has been fulfilled: 1st

century: Omar ibn al khattab, 2nd century: Omar ibn Abd al Aziz, 3rd century: Muhammad

ibn Idris al Shafei, 4th century: ibn suraij and al ashari, 5th century: Abu Sahl, Abu hamidal Asfarani, 6th century: al Ghazzali, 7th century: al Razi, 8th century: ibn Aqiiq, 9th

century: Nasr al ddiin al Shadhili, Siraj al ddiin al Balqini, 10th century: Jalaluddin al

Suyuti, 11th century: Ahmad al Sirhind. One characteristic of successful reform movements

is that they are preceded by a knowledge/methodological reform or revival. Ancientreformers whose movements were preceded by knowledge reform: Omar ibn Abd al Aziz,

Fakh al ddiin al Razi, Nasr al ddiin al Tuusi , Ahmad Ibn Taymiyyat. Ibn Taymiyyahs

movement started with methodological reform. He criticized philosophers, showed the

defects logic, fought bida and supersitition , opened the doors of jtihad ,attacked deductivelogic and thus opened the way for the inductive empirical method. Ibn Taymiyyahs

writings on methodological reform included: al radd ala al falasifat, al aql wa al naql, alradd ala al mantinqiyiin, bayaan muwafaqaat sariih al maquul li sahiih al manqul, naqd

al mantiq. Modern reformers whose movements involved intellecual revival: Muhammad

Ibn Abd al Wahhab, Ahmad Muhammad al Mahdi, Jamal al ddiin al afghani (1254-114AH), Muhammad Abduh(1266-1323 AH), Sayyied Ahmad Khan, Sayyed Amir Khan,

Muhammad Iqbal, Ibn Badees, Hasan al Banna (1324-1368 AH). Reformers whose

movements that were reactive without an intellectual base and therefore did not last:: Abd

al karim al Kawakibi (1265-1320AH), Urabi Pasha ( ).

Three approaches to revival today

# Dr Abdulhamid Abusulayman in discussing solutions to the ummahs present weaknessesconsidere 3 alternatives: (a) al hall al tariikhi al taqliidi (b) al hall al mustawrad (c) al hall al

Islami al muasir. He concluded that that the only viable alternative is al nahdhat min al

asaalat al islamiyyat al muasirat

Manifestations of a Rennaisance

# Husain, Sayyed Waqar Ahmad: Teaching Islamic Science and Engineering (Leicester:

Islamic Foundation, 1985) 402169 LC905 H968T

# Husain, Sayyed Waqar Ahmad: Islamic Science and Public Policies, Kuala Lumpur, 1986

34334 BP 190.5 S 3 H 968

# International Conference on Science in Islamic Polity (Pakistan): Islamic Scientific

Thought and Muslim Achievements in Science. 207069 Q127 I 742 I 61P vol 1-2

# Muslim journal for the Advancement of Science publishes a Journal of Islamic Science

in New Delhi


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Uluum al Quran: Definition and Lisiting

Definition of uluum al Quran: al mabaahith al kulliyat allati tataallaqu bi al Quran al

karim min nahiyat nuzuulihi, wa tartibihi, wa jamuhu, wa kitaabatuhu, wa quraatuhu, watafsiiruhu, wa ijazuhu, wa nasikhuhu wa mansuukhukhu. The main Quranic sciences

are: ilm tafsir al Quran,ilm asbaab al nuzuul, ilm iijaz al Quran, ilm naasikh al

Quran wa mansuukhuhu, ilm ahkaam al Quran, ilm fadhail al Quran, ilm tawiilmushkil al Quran, ilm al muhkam wa al mutashhabih, ilm taarikh al Quran wa

tadwwinuhu wa naskhihi wa kuttabihi wa rasmihi, ilm iiraab al Quran, ilm tafsiir al

Quran, ilm al Qiraaat. These sciences are interrelated and share the characteristic ofbeing methodological in approach.

Authors on Uluum al Quran

al Suyuuti, Jalal al Ddiin Abd al Rahman bin Abubakar (d. 911 AH). al itqaan fi uluum al

Quran; al Suyuuti, Jalal al Ddiin Abd al Rahman bin Abubakar (d. 911 AH). asbaab al

nuzuul; al Suyuuti, Jalal al Ddiin Abd al Rahman bin Abubakar (d. 911 AH). lubaab al

uquul fi asbaab al nuzuul; al Suyuuti, Jalal al Ddiin Abd al Rahman bin Abubakar (d. 911

AH) Tabaqat al mufassiriin; al Zahiili, M.Marjau al uluum al Islamiyyat. Dar alMarifat,Damascus no date; al Zamakhshari, Abi al Qasim Mahmud bin Omar al

Khawarizmi (d. 538 AH). al Kashhaf an haqaiq al tanziil wa uyuun al aqawiil fi wujuuh altaawiil; al Zarkashi, Imaam Badr al Ddiin Muhammad bin Abdullah (d. 794 AH) al

Burhaan fi uluum al Quran; al Zubairi, Ali Muhammad. Ibn Jaziyi wa manhajuhu fi al

tafsir. Dar al Qalam, Damascus 1987/1407 vols 1-2; al Rumi, Fahad bin Abd al Rahman binSulaiman. Ittijaahaat al tafsir fi al qarn al rabiu ashar. Muassasat al Risaalat Riyadh 1414

AH (vols 1-3); Al Juwayni, Mustafa al Sawi. Manahij fi al tafsir. Munshaat al

maarif, Alexandria, ? date; Arjun, Muhammad al Sadiq. Nahwa Manhaj Li Tafsir al

Quran. Al Dar al Saudia li al nashr. Jeddah 1977/1397; Al hamdhaani, al qadhi Abd aljabbaar bin Ahmad: Mutashhabih al Quran; al shawkaani, Muhammad bin Ali bin

Abdullah al Safaani. Fath al Qadiir fi al tafsiir

Ilm al Tafsir

Ilm tafsir al Quran was defined by Zarkashi as ilm yubhathu fiihi an ahwaal al Quran

al Majeed min haithu dalaalatihi ala muraad al llah taala bi qadr al taqat albashariyyat. There is some tafsir that Allah left for himself. Ilm tafsir al Quran is the

most important of the uluum al Quran. It has a basis in the Quran (Sad: 29, NISA: 82).

The major issue in tafsiris to reconcile the holiness the text with the humanness of

the mufasir. Themufassirmay make mistakes in the interpretation of the text (Hasanat).The tafsirofmuhakamatandmutashabih is different. Ayaat muhakkamatis what

is aldalaalataldhaahiruallathilayatahammalualnaskh.

Ayat mutashabihmalamyutalaqqamaanhuminlafdhihi, walayastaqillubinafsihibalyahtaajuilabayaan. The muhakamatare clear whereas mutashabihatneeds a lot of

interpretation. The evolution oftafsirwent through many stages: The Prophets tafsirwas to

explain the details and explain the meaning. The companions and followers alsoundertooktafsirof a similar nature. Tafsirofsahabatwas eithernaqlorijtihad. Most

famousmufassiriin among the companions were according to al Suyuti (with dates of

death): Abubakr, Omar, Othman, Ali, IbnMasud, Ibn Abbaas, Ubayy bin Kaab, Zayd bin

Thabit, Abu Musa al Ashari, Abdullah bin al Zubayr (HADIDI 1983). The discipline


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oftafsirgrew when differences started to appear and there was a need to look for solutions

to the problems that arose in the community. Tafsir can be classified in several ways: by

approach (linguistic, obvious, scholars, Allah only), by source(Quran,sunnat, ijtihad, isitinbat), by method (mathur, raay), by subject matter (alfadh &

kalimaat, fiqhi, sufi, falsafi, ilmi, lughawi). Each mufassirhas used a different

methodology. Ibn Abbas, the father oftafsir, methodology in tafsir:sabab alnuzuul(occasion, time, place), nasikh & mansuukh, poetry, quran bi al qurran, the

personal dimension. Al Tabari method included:tafsir bi al mathuur, tafsir al qisas bi

hujjat, refusal oftafsir bi al ray, tafsir al nass dhahiriyat, use of linguistic tools. There are2 primary sources oftafsir: the Quran and the sunniat. The Quran explains

itself,sunnatexplains Quran, ijtihaadand inference (istinbaat). The Quran can explain

itself because of its internal unity such that one part can elaborate and not contradict

another. Methods of tafsir al Quran by al Quran: the brief is explained by the detailedayat (sharh al mujaz bi al mubassat), sharh al mutlaq bi al muqayyad, sharh al aam bi al

mukhassas, al jamu bayn ma yatawahhamu annahu mukhtalif(HADID 1983). Methods of

tafsir of Quran by sunat: explain the general, clarify the mushkil, make the general

particular, restrict the mutlaq, explain terminology (lafdh), explain naskh, emphasize theQuranic hukm (HADIDI 1983). Among the disciplines that assist tafsir: ilm al lugha wa

al nahawu wa al saraf, ilm al qiraat, ilm usul al ddiin, ilm usul al fiqh, ilm asbaab alnuzuul.

Types of tafsir

Traditionally 2 main types f tafsir were recognized: tafsir bi al maathuur and tafsir bi al

raay. There are contemporary trends in tafsir: tafsir ilmi, tafir mawdhui, tafsir adabi,

tafsir ijtimae, tafsir salafi, tafsir fiqhi, tafsir tajriibi, and tafsir aqdi (sunni, shi)

Tafsir bi al maathuur

Tafsir bi al mathuurrefers to explanation that are from the Quran, sunnat, the companions

and the followers. Tafsiir based on opinion tafsir bi al raayi uses ijtihad(linguistic, asbaab al nuzuul, nasikh & mansuukh, maqasid al sharia) and can be

prasieworthy, mahmuud, or balemworthy, madhmuum.. The prasieworthy uses opinion that

is guided by valid general principles from the Quran and sunnat. The madhmuum is a freefor all affair that culd lead to wrong conclusions. The main field of tafsir bi al raay are the

allegorical verses. Muslims, modern and ancient have produced a lot of works on

Tafsiir bi al maathuur: Ibn Arabi, Abi Bakar Muhammad bin Abdillah al Andalusi (d.543 AH): ahkaam al Quran; al Baydhaawi, Abdullah bin Muhammad al baydhawi (d. 685

AH) : Anwaar al tanziil wa ssraar al Taawiil; al Nasafi (d. 715 AH): Madaarik al tanziil; al

Khaazin: lubaab al tawiil; Abu hayyaan al tauhidi: Ishharaat Ilahiyyat; Abi Hayyaan alAndalusi: al bahr al Muhiit; al Baghawi, Abi Muhammad al Hussain bin Masud bin

Muhammad al faraa al baghawi (d. 510): Maalim al tanziil; Ibn Attiyah: tafsiir ibn Attiyat;

al Thaalabi: al kashf wa al bayaan; Ibn Kathir, Imad al ddin abi fida Ismail bin Amru alBasri al Dimashqi (d. 774 AH). Tafsiir al Quran al adhiim; al Qurtubi, Abi Abdillah

Muhammad bin Ahmad al Ansari (d. 671 AH). al Jamiu li ahkaam al Quran.; Al Saqr,

Muhammad Abu Al Nur al Hadidi. Tafsir bi al Mathuur wa manhaj al mufassiriin fiihi. Al

Markaz al aalami li al taliim al Islami, Makka 1403/1983 (BP 130.2 S242T); Al


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Samarqandi, Abu al Llayth Nasr bin Muhammad bin Ibrahim (d. 373 AH). Bahr al uluum;

Baqi, bin Mukhallad bin Yaziid, bin Abd al Rahman al Andalusi al Qurtubi. Tafsir Baqi

Mukhallad; al Nisapuri, Abu Ishaq Ahmad bin Ibrahim al Thaalabi. al kashf wa al bayaanan tafsir al Quran; al Suyuuti, Jalal al Ddiin Abd al Rahman (d. 911 AH). al Ddur al

manthuur di al tafsiir bi al maathuur; al Tabari, Abi Jaafar Muhammad bin Jariir (d. 310

AH).Jamiu al Bayaan an taawiil Aayi al Quran; al Razi, Ahmad bin Ali Abubakar alJassaas (d. 370 AH): Ahkaam al Quran; al Zamakhshari, al Kashhaf. The most important

of these authors were: Muhammad bin Jariir bin Yaziid bin Kathir Abu Jaafar al Tabari

(224 - 310 AH), Ismail bin Omar bin Kathiir al Qurashi al basrawi al Dimashqi (701 - 774AH), Abd al rahman bin Abi Bakr bin Muhama bin Sabiq al Ddiin al Khudhairi al Suyuuti

(849 - 911 AH)

Authors on tafsiir bi al raayi

Tafsir bi al raay uses reason and ratinality. It has been controversial throughout the ages.

Ibn Taymiyyat considered tafsir bi al raay haraam. Mutazilities adopted aql in tafsir.

Modern proponents of tafsir bi al raayi: Jamaluddin al Afghani, Muhammad Abduh,

Muhamad Mustafa al Maraghi. The main authors of tafsir bi al raay were: al RaziFakhruddin, Abi Abdilah Muhammad bin Omar al Qurashi (d. 606 AH). Mafatiih al ghaib

(al tafsir al kabiir, tafsir al Razi); Ridha, Muhammad rashid Ridha: tafsir al Quran alkariim; al Ruumi, Fahad bin Abd rahman bin Sulaiman. Al madrasat al aqliyyat al

hadiithat fi al tafsiir. Muassassat al rissalat Riyadh 4th edition 1414 AH (vol 1-2); Ahmad

bin Ali Abubakr al Razi al Jassas (305-370 AH), Mahmud bin Omar bin Muhammad binOmar Abu al Qasim al Khawarizmi al Zamakhshari (d. 538 AH) (notes) . Tafsir can also be

classified according to subject matter as: tafsir al alfaadh wa al kalimmat, tafsir ayaat al

ahkaam, al tafsiir al ilmi, al tafsiir al lughawi; al Baydhawi; al Nasafi; al Khazin; al

Aluusi; Abi Hayyaan al Andalusi.

Combination of tafsir bi al mathur & tafsir bi al raayi

al Shawkaani, Muhammad bin Ali bin Muhmmad (d. 125 AH) .Fath al Qadiir al Jamiubayna fannay al riwayat wa al diraayat min ilm al tafsiir; al Saabuuni, Muhammad

Ali. Safwat al tafaasir; al Aluusi, Shihaab al ddiin Mahmud al aluusi an baghdaadi (d. 1270

AH): Ruuh al maaani fi tafsiir al Quran al adhiim wa al asbu al mathaani;

Al madarast al lughawiyyat fir al tafsir:

Abu Zakariyyat (maani al Quran), Abu Ubaidat (majaaz al Quran), Abi UIshaq al Zujaaj

(Maani al Quran)

Authors on tafir fiqhi

Abibakr al jassaas (d. 370 AH): ahkaam al Quran, Abi bakr ibn Arabi (d. 543 AH): ahkamal Quran, al Qurtubi (d. 671 AH): al jamiu li ahkam al Quran

Tafsir ilmi

Tafsir ilmi is empirical and scientitifc. It is defined as:Ijtihad al mufassir fi kashf al silat

bayn ayaat al Quran al kareem al kawniyyat wa muktashafaat al ilm al tajriibi ala wajh

yadhhiru bi ijaz li al Quran yadullu ala masdarihi wa salahiyatihi li kulli zamaan wamakaan (RUMI pt 3, p 549, 1987). It is concerned with uluum kawniyyat. Examples


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oftafsir ilmi are: creation of everything from water, haidh, barzakh in sea water. In both

ancient and modern times tafsir ilmi has had proponents and opposers.

Terminology

# western is a confusing term. Its meaning in a geographical sense has been changing with

the changes in geo-political alignments. The term European is more appropriate because itclearly refers to a cultural entity that started in Europe and spread in other parts of the

world: the Americas, Australasia, and some parts of Africa.

Transliteration

professor omar hasan kasule september 1996 need to sort

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