Project: Ceramic Tiles and Mosaic

Submitted To:Dr. Muhammad Afzal Javaid

Submitted By:Khalid Yousaf BSCE01113094InayatBSCE01113232Faramarz RahimiBSCE01113239Sayed AhmedBSCE01113240

INTRODUCTIONWhat is Ceramics?The word "ceramic" is derived from theGreekword (keramikos) meaningpottery. It is related to the olderIndo-European languageroot "to burn.Ceramics: Anyofvarioushard,brittle,heatandcorrosion resistantmaterialsmadetypicallyof metallicelements combinedwithoxygenorwithcarbon,nitrogen,or sulfur.Mostceramicsarecrystallineandarepoor conductorsofelectricity,thoughsomerecently discoveredcopper oxideceramicsaresuperconductors atlowtemperatures.

The American Heritage Science DictionaryCopyright 2002. Published by Houghton Mifflin. All rights reserved.

Ceramic engineering:Ceramic Engineering is the science and technology of creating objects from inorganic, non-metallic materials. This is done either by the action of heat, or at lower temperatures using precipitation reactions from high-purity chemical solutions. The term includes the purification of raw materials, the study and production of the chemical compounds concerned, their formation into components and the study of their structure, composition and properties.

Ceramics TilesWhat are Ceramics Tiles?

A tile is a manufactured piece of hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone, metal, or even glass, generally used for covering roofs, floors, walls, showers, or other objects such as tabletops. Alternatively, tile can sometimes refer to similar units made from lightweight materials such as perlite, wood, and mineral wool, typically used for wall and ceiling applications. The word is derived from the French word tuile, which is, in turn, from the Latin word tegula, meaning a roof tile composed of fired clay.Tiles are often used to form wall and floor coverings, and can range from simple square tiles to complex mosaics. Tiles are most often made of ceramic, typically glazed for internal uses and unglazed for roofing, but other materials are also commonly used, such as glass, cork, concrete and other composite materials, and stone. Tiling stone is typically marble, onyx, granite or slate. Thinner tiles can be used on walls than on floors, which require more durable surfaces that will resist impacts.A tile is a piece of baked clay used in covering roofs, walls or floors. It is also a similar piece of plastic material used for covering floors. On the other hand, Mosaic tiles is one type of tile. It is used for the interior decoration or decorative art. Dictionary.com defines tiles as, a thin slab or bent piece of baked clay, sometimes painted or gazed, used for various purposes, as to form one of the units of a roof covering, floor, or revetment. Tile The word Tile is derived from the French word tuile, which is, in turn, from the Latin word tegula, meaning a roof tile composed of fired clay. Tiles are generally used for covering roofs, floors, walls or other subjects such as the top of a table. Tiles are more suitable for harsher applications, such as flooring. They are less likely to absorb moisture and stains which afterwards may become difficult or impossible to remove. Tiles always play an important role when it comes to interior dcor. Nowadays, ceramic tiles are more preferable for households dcor, as it is the most effective and gives a beautiful effect to the room.There are varieties of tiles and all vary in type and cost. It becomes a little tricky to choose a right tile for a right place, from thousands of designs and colors. It becomes a difficult task when you have to choose a tile for home, office, mall or airport.Kingery, W.D., Bowen, H.K., and Uhlmann, D.R.,Introduction to Ceramics, p. 690 (Wiley-Interscience, 2nd Edition, 2006)

TYPES OF TILESThe varieties of tiles are as follows:1. Ceramic tiles2. Metal tiles3. Mosaic tiles4. Vitrified tiles5. Digital tiles6. Stone tiles7. Glazed Porcelain Tiles8. Quarry TileWe are concerned with Ceramics Tiles and Mosaic only.What is Mosaic?A mosaic is a style of art where a larger image is created by arranging bits of clay, glass, or other materials in a pattern. More broadly, you can use this word to describe anything that is made up of many different elements, such as the diverse group represented amosaicof different viewpoints.Basically, Mosaic tiles are small tiles. The term mosaic was arrived in 1500 BC, when ancients were used to design pictures using these tiles. In the earlier days, for about 2000 years ago, it was used for designing the walls with some pictures of humans or animals. Greek and Roman mosaic and Christians mosaic are two types of Mosaic tiles. Mosaic tiles are small tiles, generally 2" x 2" or smaller, and always less than six square inches in area. They may be made from either a porcelain body or a clay body. Mosaic tiles may also be made with other materials, including glass, metal and natural stone. In the older times, mosaic tiles were used for the purpose of art. Small pieces, mostly a rough square, of stone or glass of different colors, known as tesserae, are used to create a pattern or picture. Mosaic tiles are usually used in the malls where they want to show someones picture. Its best quality is that it does not overlap the image. There are numerous ranges of colors and patterns that if one goes out to know more about this tile, he will definitely get confuse!For home dcor, most of the people are afraid of using mosaic tiles. They feel its a bit tricky and difficult to maintain, but that's not correct. It depends on the person and on how hes going to take care of it because the possibilities which mosaic tiles can give are endless. It gives a classy look and it is mostly used in the bathrooms or kitchens. It adds such a texture to the room that its overwhelming. Mosaic tiles, though more generally used for floors, are applied also on the walls. It gives very rich designs to walls as well as to floors. On the other hand, tiles are very popular and are more preferred than mosaic tiles. They are cheaper than mosaic tiles and seem to be more user friendly because they need little maintenance.

CLASSIFICATION OF MOSAIC TILES:GENERAL PURPOSE TILES:These tiles are recommended for flooring in places where light loads are encountered such as residential buildings, offices, schools, colleges, hospitals etc. Based on designs these tiles are further classified as under:DESIGNER TILES:These tiles are mainly used in residential buildings and are very popular due to their designs and colourful appearance. These tiles are locally named as Galicha tiles, Crazy tiles, Veins tiles, Marble and Granite print tiles etc.CHEQUERED TILES:These tiles are used where non-skidding function is required such as foot paths, ramps, passages, swimming pools, stair cases and entrances of the building etc. These tiles may be with or without stone chips and pigments.HEAVY DUTY TILES:These tiles are recommended for heavy traffic conditions such as foot-paths, storage godowns, car parkings, cinema halls, auditoriums and industrial floors etc.These tiles are made with the use of quartz powder, quartz chips and ironite (Ferrous substance) in place of marble powder and marble chips respectively. These tiles are hydraulically pressed at higher pressure of more than 140 kg/cm2 (2000 PSI).

MANUFACTURING OF MOSAIC TILESRAW MATERIALS:J.K. White CementOrdinary Portland cement: Preferably 43 grade.Marble Powder: 100 - 150 mesh, superior whiteness, free from dust and other foreign impurities.Aggregate:(a) Facing Layer: The aggregate shall consist of good quality marble or other natural stone of similarCharacteristics of adequate hardness, angular in shape as distinct from elongated and flaky. It should be graded. It is important to keep fines or dust as low as possible.(b) Backing Layer: Graded Natural stone or crushed gravel should be used as aggregate.Sand: Natural coarse sand clean or duly cleaned.Colouring Pigments: Synthetic inorganic pigments or cement colours/oxide colours, should be used. Use of lead pigment is not recommended due to health reason. Pigment shall not contain zinc compounds or organic dyes.Water: Should be of potable quality, clean, free from salt, foreign impurities, dust, dirt, grease etc.PREPARATION OF MORTAR MIX:The process for the manufacture of Mosaic tiles consists of three layers, the facing, the intermediate and backing layers. The raw materials (cement, marble chips, marble powder, colouring oxides, sand stone chips) are mixed according to the pre-determined proportions thoroughly and mixture is kept separately on the platform of hydraulic/mechanical press for ready use. The mixture for three layers is prepared in the following proportions:1. Facing mixture ProportionGrey cement 1.5Marble chips 4White cement 1Marble powder 1Colouring oxide 0.1 to 0.5%2. Intermediate MixtureGrey cement 1Sand 13. Backing MixtureGrey cement 1Sand 3Stone chips 1Suitable iron moulds are fitted with the bottom plate of the press. The facing mixture is first fed into the mould to a thickness of about 6.5mm and then intermediate and backing mixture is spread over to the thickness of about 9mm each. The mixture is pressed under the pressure of around 150kg/cm2. which varies according to the size of the tile. The tiles are taken out from the moulds and kept for 24 hours for air setting and then immersed in water for curing for a period of about 15days. The cured tiles, are then taken from the curing tank and kept in shed for a period of about 4-5 days for drying. The tiles are then polished and ground on super levelling machine. After polishing, the tiles are given final touch of finish by hand and then sent to store for dispatch.

Quality Control and Standards:For maintaining uniformity in quality the following Indian standards specification may be considered: IS 1237:1980 Cement concrete flooring tiles.As per IS 1237:1980 the use of raw materials is divided into three forms viz. topping mixture, intermediate mixture and backing mixture.Production Capacity (per annum)It is envisaged that unit will produce about 8 lakhs pieces of assorted sizes valued at Rs. 65, 00,000Commercial Point of View:Assorted metallic glass tiles sold in loose bags of approximately 150 tiles. Each mosaic tile is 3/4" x 3/4" and over 1/8" thick. The dimensions are the industry standard for vitreous glass mosaic tiles. The backs of these mosaic tiles are embossed with ridges to help the glue bond more securely. OurMosaic Glass Cutteris the preferred tool for working with glass tile. Supplies are limited and colors vary. These bags are special lots and do not necessarily contain our standard metallic colors:

Dimensions: 3/4" x 3/4" Thickness: 1/8" nominal Coverage: 218 loose tiles cover 1 sq ft. with grout spacing of 1/16". Frost-proof, impervious to liquid Suitable for indoor/outdoor useMosaic Tiles Images

Price: Rs.1450/m2

Price: Rs.1370/m2Price: Rs.1500/m2

Price: Rs.1670/m2

Companies dealing in Mosaic Tiles:1. http://www.iglobal.co/pakistan/search/lahore-marble-mosaic-tiles2. http://www.tradekey.com.pk/mosaic-tiles.htm3. http://www.tradekey.com.pk/mosaic-tiles.htm4. http://punjabtiles.com/5. http://punjabtiles.com/6. http://millatmarble.com/7. http://millatmarble.com/8. http://www.nationaltiles.com/

CERAMIC TILEBackground:Wall and floor tile used for interior and exterior decoration belongs to a class of ceramics known as white wares. The production of tile dates back to ancient times and peoples, including the Egyptians, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians. For instance, the Step Pyramid for the Pharaoh Djoser, built in ancient Egypt around 2600B.C., contained colorful glazed tile. Later,ceramictile was manufactured in virtually every major European country and in the United States. By the beginning of the twentieth century, tile was manufactured on an industrial scale. The invention of the tunnelkilnaround 1910 increased the automation of tile manufacture. At present, tile manufacturing is highly automated.The American National Standards Institute separates tiles into several classifications. Ceramictile may be eitherporcelainor of natural clay composition of size less than 39 cm2 (6 in.2). Decorative wall tile is glazed tile with a thin body used for interior decoration of residential walls. Paver tile is glazed or unglazedporcelainor natural clay tile of size 39 cm2 (6 in.2) or more. Porcelain tile is ceramic mosaic tile or paver tile that is made by a certain method called dry pressing. Quarry tile is glazed or unglazed tile of the same size as paver tile, but made by a different forming method.

Europe, Latin America, and the Far East are the largest producers of tile, with Italy the leader at 16.6 million ft.2/day as of 1989. Following Italy (at 24.6 percent of the world market) are Spain (12.6 percent), Brazil and Germany (both at 11.2 percent), and the United States (4.5 percent). The total market for floor and wall tile in 1990 according to one estimate was $2.4 billion.The United States has approximately 100 plants that manufacture ceramic tile, which shipped about 507 million ft.2 in 1990 according to the U.S. Department of Commerce. U.S. imports, by volume, accounted for approximately 60 percent of consumption in 1990, valued at around $500 million. Italy accounts for almost half of all imports, with Mexico and Spain following. U.S. exports have seen some growth, from $12 million in 1988 to about $20 million in 1990.Because the tile industry is a relatively mature market and dependent on the building industry, growth will be slow. The United States Department of Commerce estimates a three to four percent increase in tile consumption over the next five years. Another economic analysis predicts that 494 million ft.2 will be shipped in 1992, a growth of about 4 percent from the previous year. Some tile manufacturers are a bit more optimistic; an American Ceramic Society survey showed an average growth of around 36 percent per manufacturer over the next five years.The Manufacturing Process

Batching:For many ceramic products, including tile, the body composition is determined by the amount and type of raw materials. The raw materials also determine the color of the tile body, which can be red or white in color, depending on the amount of iron-containing raw materials used. Therefore, it is important to mix the right amounts together to achieve the desired properties. Batch calculations are thus required, which must take into consideration both physical properties and chemical compositions of the raw materials. Once the appropriate weight of each raw material is determined, the raw materials must be mixed together.Mixing and Grinding:Once the ingredients are weighed, they are added together into a shell mixer, ribbon mixer, or intensive mixer. A shell mixer consists of two cylinders joined into a V, which rotates to tumble and mix the material. A ribbon mixer uses helical vanes, and an intensive mixer uses rapidly revolving plows. This step further grinds the ingredients, resulting in a finer particle size that improves the subsequent forming process (see step #4 below).Sometimes it is necessary to add water to improve the mixing of a multiple-ingredient batch as well as to achieve fine grinding. This process is called wet milling and is often performed using a ball mill. The resulting water-filled mixture is called a slurry or slip. The water is then removed from the slurry by filter pressing (which removes 40-50 percent of the moisture), followed by dry milling.Spray Drying:If wet milling is first used, the excess water is usually removed via spray drying. This involves pumping the slurry to an atomizer consisting of a rapidly rotating disk or nozzle. Droplets of the slip are dried as they are heated by a rising hot air column, forming small, free flowing granules that result in a powder suitable for forming.Tile bodies can also be prepared by dry grinding followed by granulation. Granulation uses a machine in which the mixture of previously dry-ground material is mixed with water in order to form the particles into granules, which again form a powder ready for forming.

Forming:Most tile is formed by dry pressing. In this method, the free flowing powdercontaining organic binder or a low percentage of moistureflows from a hopper into the forming die. The material is compressed in a steel cavity by steel plungers and is then ejected by the bottom plunger. Automated presses are used with operating pressures as high as 2,500 tons.Several other methods are also used where the tile body is in a wetter, more moldable form.Extrusionplus punching is used to produce irregularly shaped tile and thinner tile faster and more economically. This involves compacting a plastic mass in a high-pressure cylinder and forcing the material to flow out of the cylinder into short slugs. These slugs are then punched into one or more tiles using hydraulic or pneumatic punching presses.Ram pressing is often used for heavily profiled tiles. With this method, extruded slugs of the tile body are pressed between two halves of a hard or porous mold mounted in a hydraulic press. The formed part is removed by first applying vacuum to the top half of the mold to free the part from the bottom half, followed by forcing air through the top half to free the top part. Excess material must be removed from the part and additional finishing may be needed.Another process, called pressure glazing, has recently been developed. This process combines glazing and shaping simultaneously by pressing the glaze (in spray-dried powder form) directly in the die filled with the tile body powder. Advantages include the elimination of glazing lines, as well as the glazing waste material (calledsludge) that is produced with the conventional method.Drying:Ceramic tile usually must be dried (at high relative humidity) after forming, especially if a wet method is used. Drying, which can take several days, removes the water at a slow enough rate to prevent shrinkage cracks. Continuous or tunnel driers are used that are heated using gas or oil,infraredlamps, or microwave energy. Infrared drying is better suited for thin tile, whereas microwave drying works better for thicker tile. Another method, impulse drying, uses pulses of hot air flowing in the transverse direction instead of continuously in the material flow direction.Glazing:To prepare the glaze, similar methods are used as for the tile body. After a batch formulation is calculated, the raw materials are weighed, mixed and dry or wet milled. The milled glazes are then applied using one of the many methods available. In centrifugal glazing or discing, the glaze is fed through a rotating disc that flings or throws the glaze onto the tile. In the bell/waterfall method, a stream of glaze falls onto the tile as it passes on a conveyor underneath. Sometimes, the glaze is simply sprayed on. For multiple glaze applications, screen printing on, under, or between tiles that have been wet glazed is used. In this process, glaze is forced through a screen by a rubber squeegee or other device.Dry glazing is also being used. This involves the application of powders, crushedfrits(glass materials), and granulated glazes onto a wet-glazed tile surface. After firing, the glaze particles melt into each other to produce a surface like granite.Firing: After glazing, the tile must be heated intensely to strengthen it and give it the desired porosity. Two types of ovens, are

After forming, the file is dried slowly (for several days) and at high humidity, to prevent cracking and shrinkage. Next, the glaze is applied, and then the tile is fired in a furnace or kiln. Although some types of tile require a two-step firing process, wet-milled tile is fired only once, at temperatures of 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit or more. After firing, the tile is packaged and shipped.Kilns, are used for firing tile. Wall tile, or tile that is prepared by dry grinding instead of wet milling (see #2 and #3 above), usually requires a two-step process. In this process, the tile goes through a low-temperature firing called bisque firing before glazing. This step removes the volatiles from the material and most or all of the shrinkage. The body and glaze are then fired together in a process called glost firing. Both firing processes take place in a tunnel or continuous kiln, which consists of a chamber through which the ware is slowly moved on a conveyor on refractory battsshelves built of materials that are resistant to high temperaturesor in containers called saggers. Firing in a tunnel kiln can take two to three days, with firing temperatures around 2,372 degrees Fahrenheit (1,300 degrees Celsius).For tile that only requires a single firingusually tile that is prepared by wet millingroller kilns are generally used. These kilns move the wares on a roller conveyor and do not require kiln furnitures such as batts or saggers. Firing times in roller kilns can be as low as 60 minutes, with firing temperatures around 2,102 degrees Fahrenheit (1,150 degrees Celsius) or more.After firing and testing, the tile is ready to be packaged and shipped.

Byproducts:A variety of pollutants are generated during the various manufacturing steps; these emissions must be controlled to meet air control standards. Among the pollutants produced in tile manufacture are fluorine and lead compounds, which are produced during firing and glazing. Lead compounds have been significantly reduced with the recent development of no-lead or low-lead glazes. Fluorine emissions can be controlled with scrubbers, devices that basically spray the gases with water to remove harmful pollutants. They can also be controlled with dry processes, such as fabric filters coated with lime. This lime can then be recycled as a raw material for future tile.The tile industry is also developing processes to recycle wastewater and sludge produced during milling, glazing, and spray-drying. Already some plants recycle the excess powder generated during dry-pressing as well as the overspray produced during glazing. Waste glaze and rejected tile are also returned to the body preparation process for reuse.

References:Bender, W. and F. Handle, eds.Brick and Tile Making: Procedures and Operating Practices in the Heavy Clay Industries.Bauverlag GmbH, 1982.Jones, J. T. and M. F. Berard.Ceramics: Industrial Processing and Testing.Iowa State University Press, 1972.Pellacani, G. and T. Manfredini.Engineered Materials Handbook.ASM International, 1991, pp. 925-929.

SELECTION OF THE CERAMIC TILES DEPENDING ON THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE TILES:1. RESISTANCE TO ABRASION:This is the basic parameter which should determine the choice of a floor tile for the given premise. It specifies the resistance of the tile to mechanical damage resulting from the impact of the abrasive factor. The greater the hardness of the tile is, the lower its susceptibility to scratching, wear and tear during walking and abrasions etc. The resistance to abrasion is specified according to PN-EN ISO 10545-7. It consists in the specification of the number of rotations of the device that rubs the surface of the glazed tile after which the permanent traces of abrasion become visible. According to this method, the tiles are divided into abrasion resistance grades (PEI) with a specified number of rotations. Within the framework of each grade, however, there is a great range of rotations; therefore, the following descriptions are often used: weak three, strong three, weak four, strong four, etc.2. FREEZE-RESISTANCE:The ceramic tiles, which are to be laid out at places exposed to the impact of negative temperatures, should have the declared freeze-resistance confirmed by the test according to PN-EN ISO 10545-12.3. THERMAL SHOCK RESISTANCE:The ceramic tiles which can be subjected to the local sudden temperature change should have the declared thermal shock resistance confirmed by the test according to PN-EN ISO 10545-9.4. BENDING STRENGTH AND BREAKING FORCE:To put it simply, these parameters specify at which stress, the tile is subject to breaking. It is a particularly important parameter in case of the floor tiles, which are subjected to significant mechanical loads, and abrasive tiles laid out in places, where stresses caused by the movements of building walls can occur. The tests determining the bending strength and the breaking force are performed according the test method specified in PN-EN ISO 10545-9.5. CHEMICAL RESISTANCE:Specifies the resistance of the tile to the impact of testing solutions: daily use agents, salts for swimming pools as well as acids and alkalis. The tiles resistant to the chemical factors cannot be subject to changes under the influence of these substances, e.g. a change in gloss or colour. The chemical resistance test is performed in accordance with the test method specified in PN-EN ISO 10545-13. Grade GA (for daily use agents and salts for swimming pools) means the lack of visible changes after the test; grade GLA (for weak acids and alkalis, i.e. with a concentration up to 3%) signifies the lack of visible changes after the test.

6. STAIN RESISTANCE:Specified according the test method described in PN-EN ISO 10545-14 by grades from 1 to 5, determines the easiness of removal of the visible colours from the tile surface. The tiles from the surface of which, the colours can be removed in the easiest way (with the use of hot water and a fabric) correspond to grade 5.7. PROPERTIES RELATED TO SAFETY:Mainly resistance to slipping, particularly important in the case of tiles intended for floors having contact with water, where there is hazard of slipping, both in residential and public utility premises. In accordance with the German classification according to DIN 51130, the ceramic tiles are divided into 4 groups, from R9 to R12, where the anti-slip properties increase from group R9 to R12.Factory VisitSonex Sanitary Fittings and Ceramic Tiles Industries (Pvt) Ltd Gujranwala