proposal

Running head: MOOD CONGRUENCE EFFECT AND PICTURE RECALL 1

Mood Congruency on Picture Recall

Brittany K. Kirk and Hanna E. Reimer

Saint Francis University


Abstract

The effect of mood congruency on picture recall has not been found in the literature. Forty-one,

female and male, college students ranging from 18-22, were randomly assigned to a positive,

negative or control music group. Participants entered the room listening to assigned music and

continued listening to these songs while studying 30 colored photographs. All photos expressed

either positive or negative emotion-evolving stimuli. Positive music invoked a positive emotion

in our participants, which caused them to recall more positive than negative pictures. Also,

negative music invoked a negative emotion in our participants, which caused them to recall more

negative than positive pictures. Results suggest the mood congruency effect can be extended to

recall of visual images.

Keywords: Mood congruency, college students, recall pictures, music, positive and

negative emotion.


Mood Congruency on Picture Recall

A study was conducted to find the effects of mood congruency on the type of picture

recalled. The types of pictures to recall were either negative or positive objects or scenes. No

prior published work could be located that used recall of photos. The goal of the current study

was to ultimately discover whether or not positive or negative mood induction could impact

visual image recall aside from verbal information using short term memory.

Mood congruency may be studied by inducing people into a happy mood or an

unhappy mood by thinking about positive or negative life events. (Kellogg, 2003) In the study

called Music Enhanced Recall: An Effect of Mood Congruence, Emotion Arousal or Emotion

Function, they used three different theories to measure how music enhanced the recall in

humans. These three theories include: emotional arousal theory, mood congruence theory and the

function theory. The emotional arousal theory focuses on how the brain has hormonal and neural

mechanisms that react when the person hears or is exposed to emotional arousing stimuli. For

example, in Tesoriero and Rickard’s experiment to test this theory, they had participants view

neutral slides and listen to an emotional neutral story or they viewed emotionally arousing slides

and listened to an emotionally arousing story. With the mood congruence theory, experimenters

measure the emotional states of the participants by the type of information that is presented.

Participants are usually induced into an emotional state and then are told to participate in an

apparently unrelated study during which information is presented. The function theory states that

the effect of emotional states on encoding is related to the functions of the basic emotions. In

studies that have used the function theory directly investigated the effects of happiness, anger,

and sadness on the encoding of the different types of information in a narrative. (Tesoriero &

Rickards, 2012) Overall, there are several theories that can lead an experiment trying to find


results about mood and emotions. In our experiment, we used the mood congruence theory to

conclude how mood effects picture recall.

A study reported in 2002 by Knight, Maines and Robinson was conducted to

discover whether or not mood congruence operated differently in older adults rather than in

younger adults. For their procedures, their participants were extracted from Leisure Village

which is where the older participants were from or the University of Southern California which

is where the younger participants were from. The study itself was help in quiet meeting rooms in

both places. To induce the participant’s mood, they were instructed to read phrases that were

given to them silently, twice to themselves. The mood that was supposed to be induced was a sad

mood. The phrases were presented for fifteen seconds each and then following the presentation,

music was used to further maintain a sad or neutral mood. The music was played throughout the

entire study and then halted at the final task. Results of this study showed that younger

participants tended to show less change in emotion over time and finished with scores that were

not different than the baseline, whereas, older adults showed more change after induction and

those changes stayed elevated the entire time until the end of the study. Another result that was

found was older adults recalled 47% of positive words in the neutral group but only 40% in the

sad mood induced group. The younger adults recalled 43% positive words in the neutral group

and 46% in the sad mood induced group. These results suggest it is particularly challenging to

induce mood in younger adults and subsequent influence their recall. (Knight, Maines &

Robinson, 2002)

Tesoriero and Rickard (2012) looked at mood congruence from emotion arousal and

emotion-function to explain emotion-related recall. They wanted to find the effect of emotion-

inducing music on the short term recall of information about narratives. This study was an online


study where the participants were required to wear headphones the entire study to avoid

distractions, play the music and then administer the stimuli. The participants were told to close

their eyes as they listened to the music as well as the narrative. They were told to open them

when those tasks were completed. After that they were given two distraction tasks to ensure

long-term memory retrieval was used. One was to type out sounds and objects that they noticed

during the last time they went shopping for two minutes. The second was to view emotionally

neutral images for two minutes as well. Finally, they were told to type out what they remembered

from the narrative. The results were as follows: The happy category was singled out as the

highest rated emotion that the music excerpts evoked. (Tesoriero, & Rickard, 2012) Overall,

after listening to negative and positive music, the participants were able to recall both positive

and negative stories, but the mean recall of the positive stories was overall higher than the mean

recall of the negative stories.

Stalinski, and Schellenberg (2013) studied if listeners remember music that they like.

They studied the participants’ initial ratings of how much they liked a variety of musical excerpts

that were examined in conjunction to their subsequent recognition ratings. The listeners were

told to make a rating scale from 1 to 7 after listening to each of the 24 excerpts. There was then a

short delay followed by the liking phase during which the participants completed their

demographic surveys. In the subsequent recognition phase, participants heard 48 excerpts and

then for each they judged if it was presented in the liking phase and rated how confident they

were on a 5-point scale. Finally, they were asked whether any of the excerpts were familiar to

them based on any pre-experiment exposure. The results found, that in “the context of a single

exposure to unfamiliar musical excerpts, high initial liking ratings were associated positively

with subsequent recognition.” (Stalinkski & Schellenberg, 2013 p. 703) If they really liked a new


song never heard before 1st time hearing it, they were more likely to later recognize it. In our

study, we had the participants rate their familiarity with the song that was playing throughout

their study, and how much they liked or disliked it as well to see if maybe that had an influence

on the results.

Finally a study was conducted to find the role of mood congruency memory effects

in dream recall. Schredl, Hebel, Klutsch and Liehe (2009) were especially interested in linking a

recent negative mood and negative dream content with the ability to recall positive vs. negative

story details.. To begin the procedure, the participants completed a dream questionnaire and a

mood checklist, regarding the past two weeks. The first half of participants received the mood

induction instructions and the other half had a short period without any task. They were then

asked to complete the mood checklist which was used as a manipulation check. A story was then

presented for six minutes and during this time, the participants also had a hard copy to follow

along. Then, a distraction task was administered to all participants. The participants had to record

as many details as they could remember regardless of the order of details from the story. The

results showed that 49 participants recorded dream emotions and only four participants stated

that they did not remember any dreams from the past two weeks. Of the 49 positive and negative

dream emotions did not differ significantly. Overall there was no difference found between

positive and negative emotions and evoking different types of dreams. (Schredl, et al, 2009) In

conclusion to this experiment, mood congruence did not occur because the experimenters did not

succeed in inducing different moods to get their results.

There are many similarities and differences relevant to what is expected to be

discovered in this current study. Many studies have examined the role of music inducing mood to

recall words or dreams from long term memory. Fewer studies have focused on mood


congruence effects on specific type of picture recall. An interesting difference found in the study

conducted by Zetner, Grandjean and Scherer, (2008) in their experiment they had their

participants rate an adjective and connect each to a color. “Participants were asked to rate each

term accoriding to the following criterion: “According to you, does this adjective describe an

internal affective state with a specific affective color so that, to describe this feeling you would

choose to use this adjective over another one?” (Zetner, et al. p. 497) This compares to our study

in the sense that we used music to induce the moods of our participants and pictures to verify that

mood instead of use colors and words. Finally, a study that was extremely different than ours is

the one conducted by Garrido and Schubert (2013). In their experiment they used a 120 question

survey to gain information about depression and mood. Their procedures included, “The opening

screen requested information about symptoms of depression that participants might be

experiencing and this was followed by 120 questions grouped according to the various

inventories used, as described in the measurements section.” (Garrido & Schubert, 2013, p.151-

152) In the study that participants were to rate an adjective and connect to it to a color, they use

the mood congruence theory in the sense that they wanted to induce a mood using an adjective.

Then, in the study that had they focused on gaining information about depression and mood,

helped us to screen out those with a mood disorder such as depression or bipolar. The reason

why our study is so unique is because there are not any findings of the direct experiment that we

conducted. Usually only one of the variables is being tested instead of both picture recall and

mood congruence with music. In other studies, they have used words to induce mood with their

participants whereas we used pictures along with music and a video clip to keep their mood the

same throughout the whole study. We chose pictures over words to induce the mood because we


felt as if there is more of a response to visual scenes and images rather than just seeing a word or

a description when having to recall them afterwards.

They were instructed into three possible sub groups according to the type of music

that they were supposed to listen to and be induced by. The three sub groups were a positive

mood group, a negative mood group and a control group with a neutral mood induction. All

participants were exposed to either a positive or a negative or neutral brief video clip to help

induce their mood, along with the corresponding emotion of music playing in the background. A

30 slide PowerPoint presentation with a single positive or negative picture on each slide was then

shown to all participants after mood induction. They were then asked to recall as many pictures

as they could in two minutes after completing a distractor task to empty working memory. The

main point of our experiment was to find how positive and negative mood affects the emotions

of people and how that emotion then affects their long memory recall of visual images.

Throughout this experiment we expected to find that when participants were induced

with a positive video clip and a positive background music it would then affect their mood

enough to elicit greater recall of positive photos than negative ones. In contrast, we expected to

find that when participants were induced with a negative video clip and negative background

music it would then affect their mood enough to recall more negative than positive pictures from

the PowerPoint presentation. As far as the neutral group goes, we expected no certain type of

picture would be recalled more than the other. We expected this to happen because several past

studies have shown that the mood congruence effect occurs for words, therefore we wanted to

extend this and change the words to pictures instead. For example, one of our positive pictures

that was shown is a baby smiling and one of the negative pictures included a scene from a

funeral of the casket being lowered. (See appendix 2)


Method

Participants

Within this study there were a total number of participants that replied of 41 (37 females and 4

males). These participants were college undergraduates from a rural Catholic university in

central Pennsylvania. The response rate after all students on campus were invited was 17%. The

participants were obtained using an e-mail invitation to participate in this study. We also had to

result to some being a convenient sample. They were also given an incentive to participate,

which was a chance to win a thirty dollar gift card to Sheetz (a local convenience store/fast food

restaurant), as well as refreshments after the study was complete. The participants were screened

out if they had any of the following special characteristics: blind, color blind, dyslexic, have any

hearing disability or mood disorder, unable to speak English or were graduate students. We

screened those with these characteristics out because of there being pictures to be recalled that

would have to be seen as well as music and videos to hear at a volume of 32. Any mood disorder

would affect the outcome of the mood induction taking place. Finally graduate students were

screened out because their age would exceed the range we used.

Materials

There were various materials used in this study. A classroom Optoma video projector and a 6ft

7inches by 3ft 9 inch projector screen was used to display the Microsoft PowerPoint 2011

presentation of 30 photographs. In the presentation there are pictures from Google Images and

music from YouTube as well. (See Appendix 1) Following the consent form, the participants

were then induced into assigned mood further with a video clip along with music, which was

positive, negative or neutral depending on the group they were in. The positive video clip is a

clip from YouTube version 2014 from the movie Titanic where Jack holds Rose on the ledge of


the ship romantically. The negative video clip is a short movie clip played for three minutes,

retrieved from YouTube version 2014 but from the movie, Titanic. (See Appendix 1) A mass E-

mail was sent out to invite all undergraduate students on the Saint Francis University campus

using Novell, GroupWise 8.00. (See Appendix 2) A self-made demographic survey was

distributed to gain basic information about our participants. (See Appendix 3)

Also, a pretest for the positive and negative stimuli was created to be rated on a 5

point rating scale by 5 people not later in study. 1 most negative and 5 equaled most positive.

(See Appendix 4) The average for the ratings is as follows: 4.34 for the positive photos and 1.37

for the negative photos. Repeated-measures t-test was ran to analyze the pre-test results.

Design and Procedure

The percent of mood congruent items recalled depends on the type of music and current level of

education. This is a One-factor multiple-condition, between-subjects design experiment. The

participants were randomly assigned into a positive music group, negative music group, or

neutral group as control. We randomly assigned music conditions to one of the multiple possible

small group testing times. The photos were also randomized between all of the groups of

participants so that it eliminated any order effects. This experiment was designed to go quickly

and efficiently to keep the participants active and alert. There were about ten participants per

group and the amount of time it took from start to finish was approximately fifteen to twenty

minutes all together before refreshments. The experiment began at six o’clock in the evening but

five minutes was left to give others a chance to show up. As soon as those five minutes were up,

the experiment officially began. From the minute the administrators started giving instructions it

was three minutes of giving those instructions. Then, the demographic survey took about two

minutes and then, the one three minute video clip was shown. Then, the PowerPoint began and it


was two and a half minutes to view the slides on an automatic timer setting. Each slide was

numbered and had a title explaining what each photo was of. After that, the administrators gave

more instructions for thirty seconds about recalling the items and that took two minutes and

thirty seconds after the PowerPoint ended. One of the final tasks that the participants were asked

to complete was a distractor task which was to complete a word find in two minutes. (See

Appendix 5) Then, the participants took the final survey to use as a manipulation check and each

participant wrote their name on a slip of paper which took about three minutes to complete. The

participants were then released and told to enjoy the refreshments.

From the minute the participants entered the classroom; either a positive song or a

negative song was playing on repeat the entire time to help maintain mood induced by video clip.

The music that was played excluded the neutral group which did not have any music. The

administrators had them take a seat wherever they wished and advised them to stay quiet the

entire time as well. When they took their seat they saw two pieces of paper, and a pencil on their

desk. One piece of paper was the demographic survey (See Appendix 3) and the second one was

a blank sheet of paper for them to write all 30. As soon as all participants arrived, the

administrators read the instructions to them:

Thank you all for coming today and participating in our study. Please remain quiet until

this experiment is finished and you all are dismissed. We need you to be completely

honest in all responses and on the surveys for us to be able to retrieve and use good data.

You can now remove the top paper and begin filling out the survey underneath. After you

have completed your survey please wait patiently. One of us will be around to collect it

once everyone finishes. (Collect data) Now we will be presenting you with a thirty slide


presentation. On each slide there will be one item each. You will have five seconds to

study each slide. Once the PowerPoint ends, we will advise you when to start recalling.

Before recollection of the pictures, please work on this word find within two minutes.

The two minutes are up, please put that paper aside and take the blank piece of paper out.

Please try to recall as many items as you can remember when we say go on the blank

piece of paper for two minutes until we say stop. Once you are finished, please remain

seated and quiet until advised to do otherwise. (After the two minute distractor task)

(After all are finished)

Thank you for your participation, we need two more things from you, please fill out

this last survey with complete honesty and write your name on the small slip of paper for

the $30 gift card to Sheetz. After you are finished, you can leave all pieces of paper on

your desk. Please stay quiet for just a few more minutes to watch this short video clip.

(As the negative music groups were done, they were showed the positive video clip to

bring their mood to a stable happy mood) Now you are all set to go, please help yourself

to refreshments. Thank you and have a good day.

Results

To interpret all of our results as significant or insignificant, we set the priori alpha level at p >

.05. We ran two post hoc tests on top of the One-way ANOVA. We used the SNK and the

Dunnett’s T3 tests just in case we had equal variances. All of the means we used were based on

subject means. Although, we had to drop our first five participants because instructions were

not followed as planned. The fault was the instructors because we did not follow what we

originally had planned to keep our conditions constant.


For our statistical analysis, we used a One-way ANOVA. After running this analysis we received

M= -.70 for our first condition, M=.10 for our second condition and M=.18. SE= .687 for our first

condition, SE= .687 for our second condition, and SE= .661 for our third condition. The df=2, p-

value = .760. The positive group recalled more negative stimuli than the negative group recalled

and the control group recalled more positive stimuli than negative.

In Table 1. It shows the means and the standard error between all of the conditions labeled as

positive, negative and control. (See Table 1.) In Figure 1. It shows the comparison of the total

number of positive and negative pictures that were recalled by each condition. ( See Figure 1.)

Discussion

After completing all relevant statistical analyses on the results from our experiment, we found

that our hypothesis was rejected. It was rejected because the results did not show a significant

difference in total recall of the positive and negative pictures between the three conditions. We

can infer that the music or the movie clip that we chose to try and induce the participants’

mood did not work. Therefore we can infer that it is harder to change someone’s mood by just

presenting certain stimuli. This leads into another theoretical explanation as to why the results

were what they were. Also, we believe that it may depend on the different personalities or that

in general people remember negative objects more than positive objects. With the different

personality’s explanation, different people may react differently to positive or negative stimuli.

Some people also may just be generally negative people so therefore, they would remember

more of the negative pictures. With the in general people remember negative objects more

than positive objects explanation, this could be used because negative objects/stimuli are more

traumatic and it is proven from many different resources that people tend to remember more


traumatic experiences and memories. Another theoretical explanation that can be used to

explain why our results turned out the way they did was because when we checked our

manipulation checks, most people had our hypothesis correct. The participants knowing this

could have swayed what they wrote down when they were to recall the positive and negative

stimuli.

From all of our past studies that we looked at and analyzed only one study did an experiment

close to what we did. That experiment had their participants recall words instead of pictures.

We had many flaws in our experiment that if they were not present the results could have been

more significantly different. To begin, we lost five participants at the beginning of our study due

to not following the instructions we previously planned to use. Instead of playing the music clip

while they were watching the PowerPoint, it was turned off accidently without remembering to

turn it back on after the talking was over. This flaw would make our sample size even small than

it already was with them included in the results. Unfortunately, our response rate was generally

small and seeing if we had more participants reply, we could have had a bigger sample size.

Another flaw that we found was that we did not have our pretest group rate the movie clip or the

music clip. We just had them rate the title of the slide.

In the study reported in 2002 by Knight, Maines and Robinson, they inferred that it is difficult to

induce young people into a different mood than they are already in. These results would be

consistent with our results due to the fact that we inferred the same thing. In another study done

by Tesoriero and Rickard (2002) they found that after listening to negative and positive music,

the participants were able to recall both positive and negative stories, but the mean recall of the

positive stories was overall higher than the mean recall of the negative stories. These results

would be inconsistent with ours because they say that the positive stories were recalled more


overall than the negative whereas with ours, the negative stimuli were recalled more than the

positive. Stalinski, and Schellenberg (2013) did a study and had their participants rate how much

they liked 24 excerpts and their results concluded that in the context of a single exposure to

unfamiliar musical excerpts, high initial liking ratings were associated positively with subsequent

recognition. This would also be inconsistent with our results because it is saying that their

participants recognized more positive music rather than the negative ones. In one of our final

sources, the authors found that there was no difference found between positive and negative

emotions and evoking different types of dreams. Mood congruence did not occur because the

experimenters did not succeed in inducing different moods to get their results. These results are

consistent with our results because mood congruence did not occur in ours either.

Above and beyond the results, we can conclude that it is harder to manipulate the mood of

younger adults by simply just showing them a video clip or a song and the keep the mood

constant. We may be able to make them feel bad for a few seconds by showing them sad stimuli

but that does not necessarily mean that they will stay in that mood long enough to recall items

that we thought they would. Applying this to the real world, it is harder to manipulate someone’s

mood unless it is something so drastically tragic or on the other end of the spectrum something

that is so positive or happy. In general in the real world when you propose a negative or positive

situation many people will remember the negative situations over the positive.

In the future, we would need a bigger population and more time to induce the mood to make sure

that it stays at what mood we are trying to induce. Also, we would need more drastic images to

induce the mood more in depth. Overall, this experiment has shown that more people will

remember more negative images compared to positive images and their mood should have been


manipulated stronger and for a longer period of time to make sure the results was accurate and

came closer to meeting our hypothesis.


References

Garrido, S. & Schubert, E. (2013). Adaptive and maladaptive attraction to negative emotions in

music. Musicae Scientiae, 17(147), 147-166. Retrieved from SAGEPUB database.

Google Images (n.d.) Positive and Negative pictures. Retrieved: December 5, 2013 from

http://www.google.com/

Katrina & The Waves. (2007). Walking On Sunshine. YouTube Podcast Retrieved December 5,

2013 from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CKh0dLIuIu8

Kellogg, R. T. (2003). Cognitive Psychology: Learning, Knowing, and Remembering (2nd Ed.,

pp. 169). California, CA: Sage Publications.

Knight, B.G., Maines, M.L., & Robinson, G. S. (2002). The Effects of Sad Mood on Memory in

Older Adults: A Test of the Mood Congruence Effect. Psychology and Aging 17(4),

653-661. Retrieved from OVID database.

Konecni, V.J. (2008). Does Music Induce Emotion? A Theoretical and Methodological

Analysis. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 2(2), 115-129. Retrieved

from OVID database.

Landau, J. (Producer), & Cameron, J. (Director). (1997). Titanic [Motion Picture]. England:

Studio.

McLaughlin, S. (2008, Jan. 18). In The Arms Of an Angel. YouTube Podcast Retrieved

December 5, 2013 from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jVbkz_3lO3c

Schredl, M., Hebel, M.E., Klutsch, R.C., & Liehe, L.J. (2009). The Role of Mood Congruency

Memory Effects in Dream Recall: A Pilot Study. Dreaming, 19(2), 113-118. Retrieved

from OVID database.


Stalinski, S. M. & Schellenberg, E. G. (2013). Listeners Remember Music They Like. Journal of

Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 39(3), 700-716.

Retrieved from OVID database.

Tesoriero, M. & Rickard, N.S. (2012). Music-enhanced recall: An effect of mood congruence,

emotion arousal or emotion function? Musicae Scientiae, 16(340), 340-356. Retrieved

from SAGEPUB database.

The Best Scene in Titanic. (2012). YouTube Podcast Retrieved January 27, 2014 from

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JrEzEkZJGIs

Titanic Jack’s Death and Come Back Scene. (2013). YouTube Podcast Retrieved December 5,

2013 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R1CW9ZoouA0

Zentner, M., Grandjean, D., & Scherer, K. R. (2008). Emotions Evoked by the Sound of Music:

Characterization, Classification, and Measurement. Emotion, 8(4), 494-521. Retrieved

from OVID database.


Appendix 1

Movie clips

Don’t Worry Be Happy. (2012). YouTube Podcast Retrieved January 22, 2014 from

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8I6DlVjZOSA – positive movie clip played at the

beginning of experiment

Titanic Jack’s Death and Come Back Scene. (2013). YouTube Podcast Retrieved December 5,

2013 from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R1CW9ZoouA0 – negative movie clip

played at the beginning of experiment

Song links

http://youtu.be/CKh0dLIuIu8 - Positive song that will be playing throughout whole entire study.

http://youtu.be/jVbkz_3lO3c - Negative song that will be playing throughout whole entire study.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8I6DlVjZOSA

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R1CW9ZoouA0

http://youtu.be/CKh0dLIuIu8

http://youtu.be/jVbkz_3lO3c


Appendix 2

Subject: Attention SFU community!

Do you like refreshments? Do you like the chance of winning a $30 Sheetz gift card? If so, this

opportunity may be for you.

My name is Brittany Kirk and my partner is Hanna Reimer. We are currently enrolled in PSYC

202: Research Methods and Statistics II. We are in need of participants for a research study

regarding how music influences completion of a few different tasks.

If you are an undergraduate student between the ages of 18 and 22, and have just 30-40 minutes

of your time to spare, we would very much appreciate your help!

There are different times to participate. If you are willing to volunteer, please reply to this

message with the time that suits your schedule best.

The times to participate are as follows: Day of week at X:XX-X:XX; Day of week at X:XX-

X:XX and Day of week at X:XX-X:XX.

Warning: There will be some happy and sad stimuli, which may affect your mood.

If you can make any of these times, please volunteer to participate in our experiment as soon as

possible, as it is a requirement to complete this course.

If there are any questions, comments or concerns, feel free to e-mail me or Hanna at

[email protected] or [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]


Positive picture example

Negative picture example


Appendix 3

Instructions: Please read the following questions carefully and answer them accordingly. When

finished please sit quietly and take out the blank sheet of paper and wait for further instructions.

1. Gender: Female or Male (please circle one)

2. Age ________

3. Race: (please circle one)

White/Caucasian

Black/African American

Hispanic/Latino

Asian/Asian-American/Pacific Islander

Native American/Alaskan Native

Other: (Please describe) _________________________________________

4. Current level of education (circle one)

College Freshman

College Sophomore

College Junior

College Senior

Graduate

5. Do you currently have any hearing disabilities? (circle one)

Yes

No

6. Do you currently have any vision disabilities? (circle one)

Yes


No

7. Please rate how much you like the song currently playing. 1 being I hate this song 3 being love

this song.

1 2 3

8. Please rate how familiar you are with this song. 1 being never heard this song in my life and 3

being I have heard it many times.

1 2 3


Appendix 4

Instructions: Please rate each title of a photo on its positivity from 1-5. 1 being the least positive

and 5 being the most positive

Happy Baby

1 2 3 4 5

Instructions: Please rate each photo on its negativity from 1-5. 1 being the least negative and 5

being the most negative.

Funeral

1 2 3 4 5


Table 1.

Difference of Positive

and Negative Items

Recalled

Positive Negative Control

Type of Stimuli

Presented

Mean -.70 .10 .18

Standard Error .687 .687 .661

Figure 1.

65

70

75

80

85

90

Positive Condition Negative Condition Control Group

Nu

mb

er

of

Re

calle

d S

tim

uli

Condition

Figure 1. Total Number of Recall Within Each Condition of Positive and Negative

Stimuli

Total Positive Recall

Total Negative Recall