prosocial behavior social psychology chapter 10 november 12, 2004 class #11

Prosocial BehaviorProsocial Behavior

Social PsychologySocial PsychologyChapter 10Chapter 10

November 12, 2004November 12, 2004Class #11Class #11

Types of Prosocial Types of Prosocial BehaviorBehavior

• Prosocial behavior (bProsocial behavior (broadest term)roadest term) – Action intended to benefit another Action intended to benefit another – Can be done to gain either external or internal Can be done to gain either external or internal

rewardreward• BenevolenceBenevolence (slightly narrower (slightly narrower term)term)

– Action intended to benefit another, but Action intended to benefit another, but not to not to gain external rewardgain external reward))

• Pure altruismPure altruism – Action intended to solely benefit anotherAction intended to solely benefit another– No external reward to the helper No external reward to the helper – No internal reward to the helperNo internal reward to the helper

• Some argue there is no such thing as Some argue there is no such thing as pure pure altruismaltruism

Type of Type of BehaviorBehavior

Defining Prosocial Behavior

Prosocial Prosocial

BehaviorBehavior

BenevolenceBenevolence

Pure Pure

AltruismAltruism

DefinitionDefinition ExampleExample

Any Any action action

intended intended to benefit to benefit another another

(regardle(regardless of ss of

motive)motive)

Giving a Giving a large tip large tip

to a to a waiter to waiter to impress impress

your boss your boss with your with your generositygenerosity


Prosocial Prosocial

BehaviorBehavior


Pure Pure

AltruismAltruism


Benefits Benefits another another

intentionintentionally for ally for

no no external external rewardreward

Sending Sending $20 to a $20 to a charity charity to make to make yourself yourself feel good feel good

insideinside


Defining Prosocial Behavior

Prosocial Prosocial

BehaviorBehavior


Pure Pure

AltruismAltruism


Benefits Benefits another another

intentionaintentionally for no lly for no external external

or or internalinternal rewardreward

Jumping Jumping on a on a

railroad railroad track to track to help a help a

stranger stranger who has who has fallenfallen

Helping requires investment of Helping requires investment of time, energy, attention, funds…so time, energy, attention, funds…so

why do we do it?why do we do it? • Goals of Prosocial BehaviorGoals of Prosocial Behavior

– Gaining Genetic and Material BenefitsGaining Genetic and Material Benefits• Inclusive FitnessInclusive Fitness• Reciprocal AidReciprocal Aid

– Gaining Social Status and ApprovalGaining Social Status and Approval– Managing Self-ImageManaging Self-Image– Managing Our Moods and EmotionsManaging Our Moods and Emotions

Evolutionary Factors in Evolutionary Factors in Helping: Helping:

The “Selfish Gene”The “Selfish Gene”• What is important is survival of the What is important is survival of the

individual’s genes, not survival of individual’s genes, not survival of the fittest individualthe fittest individual

• Kinship selection is the tendency to Kinship selection is the tendency to help genetic relativeshelp genetic relatives– Strongest when biological stakes are Strongest when biological stakes are

particularly highparticularly high

Insights into the Evolution Insights into the Evolution of Helpof Help

• Inclusive FitnessInclusive Fitness - -– The ability of one’s genes to survive in The ability of one’s genes to survive in

one’s own offspring one’s own offspring ANDAND in any relatives in any relatives one helpsone helps

– Helping a close relative promotes the Helping a close relative promotes the survival of those genessurvival of those genes

80808080

66006600

22002200

0000

HighHigh(parents(parents

, , siblings, siblings, childrenchildren

))



))

Cunningham et al. Cunningham et al. (1995)(1995)


PercentaPercentage ge

VolunteerVolunteering to ing to HelpHelp


VolunteerVolunteering to ing to HelpHelp

44004400

Degree of Degree of RelatednessRelatednessDegree of Degree of

RelatednessRelatedness

Mod. Mod. (grand-(grand-parentsparents

))


))

Low Low (first (first

cousinscousins))


cousinscousins))

None None (attracti(attractive ve strangerstrangers)s)

None None (attracti(attractive ve strangerstrangers)s)

Burnstein, Crandall, & Kitayama (1994)

• There are three people who need you to run a small There are three people who need you to run a small errand to the store:errand to the store:– A cousinA cousin– A sisterA sister– An acquaintanceAn acquaintance

• You have time to help only one… You have time to help only one… – Whose errand do you run? Whose errand do you run?

I made this one up…I made this one up…

• If your house is burning down and there are If your house is burning down and there are several people asleepseveral people asleep

• You only have time to save one person – You only have time to save one person – who of the following would you save?who of the following would you save?– Your Uncle Charlie who owes you $200Your Uncle Charlie who owes you $200– Your step-mother who has raised you since Your step-mother who has raised you since

you were two and you love very muchyou were two and you love very much– Your adopted son who you have raised since Your adopted son who you have raised since

he was 6 months old and you love very muchhe was 6 months old and you love very much– Your biological son who you haven’t spoken Your biological son who you haven’t spoken

to since you kicked out of the house for to since you kicked out of the house for smoking pot smoking pot

Who do you help?Who do you help?

• Burnstein, Crandall, & Kitayama (1994)– Participants in this study were asked to imagine Participants in this study were asked to imagine

scenarios like the following:scenarios like the following:• There are three people asleep in different rooms There are three people asleep in different rooms

of a burning house:of a burning house:– Your 7 year-old female cousinYour 7 year-old female cousin– Your 75 year-old grandfatherYour 75 year-old grandfather– A 21 year-old acquaintanceA 21 year-old acquaintance

• You have time to rescue only one… You have time to rescue only one… – Who do you save? Who do you save?

3.03.03.03.0

2.2.552.2.55

1.51.51.51.5

1.1.001.1.00



))



))

Burnstein, Crandall, & Burnstein, Crandall, & Kitayama (1994)Kitayama (1994)


TendenTendency to cy to HelpHelp


2.2.002.2.00




))


))


cousinscousins))


cousinscousins))

None None (acquaintan(acquaintances)ces)


For For everyday everyday helphelp, people , people

tended to help tended to help close relatives close relatives more than non-more than non-

relativesrelatives

For For everyday everyday helphelp, people , people

tended to help tended to help close relatives close relatives more than non-more than non-

relativesrelatives

3.03.03.03.0

2.2.552.2.55

1.51.51.51.5

1.1.001.1.00



))



))





2.2.002.2.00




))


))


cousinscousins))


cousinscousins))

The difference The difference became even became even

more pronounced more pronounced in in life-or-deathlife-or-death

situationssituations

The difference The difference became even became even

more pronounced more pronounced in in life-or-deathlife-or-death

situationssituations



Burnstein, Crandall, & Kitayama (1994): FindingsFindings

• Kin are helped more than non-kin, especially in life-Kin are helped more than non-kin, especially in life-or-death situationsor-death situations

• Females are helped more than males, except Females are helped more than males, except elderly females (post- menopausal)elderly females (post- menopausal)

• Young are helped more than old Young are helped more than old • Healthy relatives helped more than non-healthy in Healthy relatives helped more than non-healthy in

life-or-death situations life-or-death situations

• In life-or-death helping, relatedness matters (this In life-or-death helping, relatedness matters (this assures that our genes will continue)assures that our genes will continue)

• In everyday helping, we may be guided more by In everyday helping, we may be guided more by social norms and moral rules (e.g., "help the sick")social norms and moral rules (e.g., "help the sick")

•

Scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours…Scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours…

• Reciprocal AidReciprocal Aid– Trivers (1971)Trivers (1971)

•The theory of The theory of reciprocal altruismreciprocal altruism predicts that altruistic behaviors will predicts that altruistic behaviors will also be a function of beliefs about the also be a function of beliefs about the recipient's likelihood of reciprocating…recipient's likelihood of reciprocating…

• Help that occurs in return for prior helpHelp that occurs in return for prior help• Animals will help non-relatives if they live in Animals will help non-relatives if they live in

close proximity and can better survive by sharingclose proximity and can better survive by sharing

Evolutionary Factors in Evolutionary Factors in Helping: Helping:

The Cooperative GroupThe Cooperative Group• Humans can sometimes increase Humans can sometimes increase

their reproductive success in two their reproductive success in two ways:ways:– By protecting their own self-interest in By protecting their own self-interest in

relation to other individualsrelation to other individuals– By protecting their group’s interests in By protecting their group’s interests in

relation to other groupsrelation to other groups

• Helping based on social connections Helping based on social connections rather than genetic relationshipsrather than genetic relationships

Rewards of Helping:Rewards of Helping:Helping Others to Help Helping Others to Help

OneselfOneself• More likely to help when the More likely to help when the

potential rewards of helping seem potential rewards of helping seem high relative to the potential costs.high relative to the potential costs.

• Arousal: Cost-Reward ModelArousal: Cost-Reward Model– What are the costs and rewards What are the costs and rewards

associated with helping?associated with helping?

Rewards of Helping: Rewards of Helping: Helping Helping

to Feel Goodto Feel Good• More likely to help:More likely to help:

– If self-esteem has been threatened by If self-esteem has been threatened by failurefailure

– Feeling guilty about somethingFeeling guilty about something

• Relationship between helping and Relationship between helping and feeling better.feeling better.

• Helping others to feel good is often Helping others to feel good is often not a conscious decision, but it can benot a conscious decision, but it can be

Rewards of Helping: Rewards of Helping: Helping to Be or Appear Helping to Be or Appear

GoodGood• Social Responsibility Norm Social Responsibility Norm

– Societal rule that people should help those who need Societal rule that people should help those who need their assistancetheir assistance

– May help because motivated to behave in May help because motivated to behave in ways that are consistent with moral ways that are consistent with moral principles.principles.

– Sometimes help for the appearance of Sometimes help for the appearance of morality but really have selfish motives.morality but really have selfish motives.• Moral hypocrisyMoral hypocrisy• OverhelpingOverhelping

Costs of Helping or of Costs of Helping or of Not HelpingNot Helping

• Helping has its costs as well as its Helping has its costs as well as its rewards.rewards.

• Helping can also be more sustained Helping can also be more sustained and deliberate.and deliberate.– Courageous resistanceCourageous resistance

• Helping can have negative health Helping can have negative health effects if involves constant and effects if involves constant and exhausting demands.exhausting demands.

Altruism or Egoism: Altruism or Egoism: The Great DebateThe Great Debate

• Is helping motivated by altruistic or Is helping motivated by altruistic or egoistic concerns?egoistic concerns?– Altruistic: Motivated by the desire to Altruistic: Motivated by the desire to

increase another’s welfareincrease another’s welfare– Egoistic: Motivated by the desire to Egoistic: Motivated by the desire to

increase one’s own welfareincrease one’s own welfare

• Batson: The motivation behind some Batson: The motivation behind some helpful actions is truly altruistichelpful actions is truly altruistic

The Empathy-Altruism The Empathy-Altruism HypothesisHypothesis

C. D. Batson, The Altruism Question. Copyright © 1991 by Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Reprinted by permission.

From C.D. Batson, The Altruism Question, 1991. Reprinted with permission of Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Telling the Difference Telling the Difference Between Egoistic and Between Egoistic and

Altruistic MotivesAltruistic Motives• How easy it to escape from a helping How easy it to escape from a helping

situation?situation?– If egoistic motive, helping should If egoistic motive, helping should

decline when escape from the situation decline when escape from the situation is easyis easy

– If altruistic motive, help is given If altruistic motive, help is given regardless of ease of escaperegardless of ease of escape

Batson et al. (1981)Batson et al. (1981)

• Students in one experiment were given Students in one experiment were given the opportunity to help a suffering student the opportunity to help a suffering student (Elaine) by taking her place in an electric (Elaine) by taking her place in an electric shock experimentshock experiment– Half could Half could easily escapeeasily escape the whole situation the whole situation

by leaving immediatelyby leaving immediately

– The other half would have to The other half would have to stay and watchstay and watch as she received the remaining shocksas she received the remaining shocks

Batson et al. (1981)Batson et al. (1981)

• Students given the easy Students given the easy opportunity to escape opportunity to escape usually took it…usually took it…

• But if they felt But if they felt high high empathyempathy for Elaine they for Elaine they were more likely to help her were more likely to help her outout

• Dan Batson and colleagues Dan Batson and colleagues argue that argue that empathy engages empathy engages pure altruism,pure altruism, and overrides and overrides selfish motivationsselfish motivations

Egoistic AlternativesEgoistic Alternatives

• Empathy encourages helping Empathy encourages helping because of concern about the costs because of concern about the costs to the self of not helpingto the self of not helping

• Empathy highlights the potential Empathy highlights the potential rewards for helping othersrewards for helping others– Negative state relief modelNegative state relief model

• Helper experiences empathic joy by Helper experiences empathic joy by helping another personhelping another person

Altruism vs. Egoism: Altruism vs. Egoism: Limits and ConvergenceLimits and Convergence

• Strong evidence for the empathy-Strong evidence for the empathy-altruism hypothesisaltruism hypothesis

• Limitations to empathy-altruism Limitations to empathy-altruism hypothesis:hypothesis:– Not all helping is altruistically motivatedNot all helping is altruistically motivated– Motives do not guarantee behaviorMotives do not guarantee behavior– Is the assumption that there is a clear Is the assumption that there is a clear

divide between the self and the other a divide between the self and the other a valid one?valid one?

An egoistic alternative?An egoistic alternative?

• Cialdini and his colleagues argue that there is Cialdini and his colleagues argue that there is an egoistic explanation of these findings:an egoistic explanation of these findings:– Empathy causes an observer to feel Empathy causes an observer to feel kinship with kinship with

the victim,the victim, thus tapping into a basic selfish thus tapping into a basic selfish motivation – to serve myself by serving those who motivation – to serve myself by serving those who share my genesshare my genes

““I didn’t want to get I didn’t want to get involved…”involved…”

• Kitty Genovese Kitty Genovese Tragedy (March Tragedy (March 13, 1964)13, 1964)– We watched video We watched video

clips on this last clips on this last week…week…

– Kew Gardens Kew Gardens apartment in apartment in Queens, NYC where Queens, NYC where Kitty lived Kitty lived

Winston Moseley , Winston Moseley , mugshotmugshot

She might still be alive She might still be alive today…today…

Bystander EffectBystander Effect

• The tragic story of Kitty Genovese.The tragic story of Kitty Genovese.– Why did no one help?Why did no one help?– Latané & Darley: Latané & Darley:

•Were social psychological processes Were social psychological processes at work?at work?

Diffusion of ResponsibilityDiffusion of Responsibility • ““Bystander Effect”Bystander Effect”

– Tendency for each group member to dilute Tendency for each group member to dilute personal responsibility for acting by spreading it personal responsibility for acting by spreading it among all other group membersamong all other group members

Taking ResponsibilityTaking Responsibility• Moriarty (1975)Moriarty (1975)

– Jones Beach study - confederate steals a radioJones Beach study - confederate steals a radio• DV: % who intervene to stop theftDV: % who intervene to stop theft• IVIV11: question asked: question asked

– ““Would you watch my things?” or “ Do you have a light?”Would you watch my things?” or “ Do you have a light?”

• IVIV22: sex: sex

– Results:Results:• A percentage of subjects who intervened to stop a thief A percentage of subjects who intervened to stop a thief

at Jones Beach, New York, varied according to whether at Jones Beach, New York, varied according to whether the subjects felt they had a responsibility to stop the the subjects felt they had a responsibility to stop the thiefthief

• Asking subjects to ''watch my things" proved very Asking subjects to ''watch my things" proved very effective, although certainly not by reducing fear of the effective, although certainly not by reducing fear of the thiefthief

Latané & Darley (1970) Latané & Darley (1970)

• Helping is the last step of a process Helping is the last step of a process involving multiple decisions:involving multiple decisions:– Helping Decision TreeHelping Decision Tree

•1. Notice the incident 1. Notice the incident •2. Interpret incident as emergency2. Interpret incident as emergency•3. Assume responsibility3. Assume responsibility•4. Know the appropriate response4. Know the appropriate response•5. Implement decision to help5. Implement decision to help

Bystander Helping on Bystander Helping on ComputerComputer

From P.M. Markey, Computers in Human Behavior, 16 (2002) 183-188.

Time Costs…Time Costs…

• Darley and Batson (1973)Darley and Batson (1973)– 40 students from Princeton Theological 40 students from Princeton Theological

Seminary Seminary •Researchers asked half of the Researchers asked half of the

subjects to prepare themselves for a subjects to prepare themselves for a brief talk on the parable of the Good brief talk on the parable of the Good Samaritan and half were told that Samaritan and half were told that they would be asked questions they would be asked questions concerning employment prospects for concerning employment prospects for seminary studentsseminary students

IV’sIV’s

• Some subjects were put in the “early” Some subjects were put in the “early” condition…condition…– ““It will be a few minutes before they are ready It will be a few minutes before they are ready

for you but why don’t you head over there for you but why don’t you head over there anyway…”anyway…”

• Some subjects were put in the “on time” Some subjects were put in the “on time” condition…condition…– ““They’re just about ready for you…if you leave They’re just about ready for you…if you leave

now you’ll be right on time”now you’ll be right on time”• Some subjects were put in the “late” Some subjects were put in the “late”

condition…condition…– ““They were expecting you a few minutes ago, They were expecting you a few minutes ago,

better hurry…”better hurry…”

Personality Measure was also Personality Measure was also

included…included… • Before all this was done, subjects Before all this was done, subjects

were given a questionnaire intended were given a questionnaire intended to measure their basis for interest in to measure their basis for interest in religion… religion…

• They were asked: Did their religious They were asked: Did their religious interest primarily have to do with:interest primarily have to do with:– assuring their personal salvationassuring their personal salvation

oror

– their concern for helping otherstheir concern for helping others

Is there time enough to be a Good Is there time enough to be a Good Samaritan? Samaritan?

• On their way to the next building On their way to the next building they passed a poorly dressed man they passed a poorly dressed man slumped in a doorway, head down, slumped in a doorway, head down, eyes closed, not moving…eyes closed, not moving…

• As the subject moved past him, the As the subject moved past him, the man coughed twice and began man coughed twice and began groaninggroaning

Pitting Dispositions Against Pitting Dispositions Against SituationsSituations

• Darley and Batson (1973) compared Darley and Batson (1973) compared the strength of a seemingly the strength of a seemingly important dispositional factor important dispositional factor (primarily altruistic or not) with a (primarily altruistic or not) with a relatively small situational variable relatively small situational variable (early or late)…(early or late)…

Darley & Batson’s (1973) Darley & Batson’s (1973) ResultsResults

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Percentage who helped

Ahead ofSchedule

On Time Late

Pluralistic IgnorancePluralistic Ignorance

• Phenomenon that occurs when bystanders to Phenomenon that occurs when bystanders to an emergency, trying to look poised, give an emergency, trying to look poised, give misleading cues to others that no help is misleading cues to others that no help is neededneeded

Bystanders as sources of Bystanders as sources of information about information about

helpinghelping• Results suggest that people look to others to Results suggest that people look to others to

provide information…provide information…– If no one else seems upset, that suggests this isn’t If no one else seems upset, that suggests this isn’t

an emergencyan emergency

• In this study, researchers pumped smoke into a In this study, researchers pumped smoke into a lab while students filled out a questionnaire…lab while students filled out a questionnaire…

– Some students were left aloneSome students were left alone

– Some with 2 other real participantsSome with 2 other real participants

– Some with 2 other confederates who Some with 2 other confederates who pretended nothing was wrongpretended nothing was wrong

Latane & Darley (1968):Latane & Darley (1968):Smoke studySmoke study

80808080

66006600

22002200

0000

AloneAlone AloneAlone

Latane & Darley Latane & Darley (1968)(1968)

Latane & Darley Latane & Darley (1968)(1968)


ReportinReporting Smokeg Smoke


ReportinReporting Smokeg Smoke

44004400

With With 2 2

other other real real

subjecsubjectsts

With With 2 2

other other real real

subjecsubjectsts

With 2 With 2 calm calm

confederaconfederatestes

With 2 With 2 calm calm

confederaconfederatestes

Informational influence?Informational influence?

• Being around others made people Being around others made people less likely to interpret smoke as an less likely to interpret smoke as an emergency emergency

Location and CultureLocation and Culture

• Do individuals have a worse chance Do individuals have a worse chance of being helped in an emergency in a of being helped in an emergency in a big city than in a small town?big city than in a small town?

• Greater population density is Greater population density is associated with less helping.associated with less helping.

Evans & Lepore, 1993Evans & Lepore, 1993Milgram, 1970Milgram, 1970

• Helping is less likely in densely packed Helping is less likely in densely packed cities…cities…

• Part of the problem is that people living in Part of the problem is that people living in dense urban environments pay less attention to dense urban environments pay less attention to those around themthose around them

Helping in the U.S.A.Helping in the U.S.A.

From "Helpfulness Index: How U.S. Cities Rank," The Boston Globe, July 7, 1994.

Managing Our Moods and Emotions Managing Our Moods and Emotions

Dovidio, Dovidio, Piliavin, Gaertner, Schroeder, & Clark (1991)Piliavin, Gaertner, Schroeder, & Clark (1991)

• Arousal/Cost-reward modelArousal/Cost-reward model– View that observers of suffering help to relieve View that observers of suffering help to relieve

their own personal distress their own personal distress – We will help in emergency if: We will help in emergency if:

• We feel We feel negative arousal,negative arousal, and other conditions and other conditions suggest that suggest that helping will alleviate the helping will alleviate the unpleasant feelingunpleasant feeling

Cialdini et al. (1982)Cialdini et al. (1982)Schaller & Cialdini (1990)Schaller & Cialdini (1990)

• Mood management hypothesisMood management hypothesis– Idea that people use helping tactically to Idea that people use helping tactically to

manage their moodsmanage their moods

– Throughout life, we learn that helping others Throughout life, we learn that helping others can lead to rewardscan lead to rewards

– This reward makes us feel good, and we This reward makes us feel good, and we learn to use helping to manage our moodlearn to use helping to manage our mood

Scents and SensibilitiesScents and Sensibilities

From R.A. Baron, "The Sweet Smell of ...Helping: Effects of Pleasant Ambient Fragrance on Prosocial Behavior in Shopping Malls," Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 23, pp. 498-503. Copyright (c) 1997 by Sage Publications, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications, Inc.

Good Moods Lead to Good Moods Lead to Helping: ReasonsHelping: Reasons

• Why feeling good leads to doing Why feeling good leads to doing good:good:– Desire to maintain one’s good moodDesire to maintain one’s good mood– Positive expectations about helpingPositive expectations about helping– Positive thoughtsPositive thoughts– Positive thoughts and expectations Positive thoughts and expectations

about social activitiesabout social activities

Good Moods Lead to Good Moods Lead to Helping: LimitationsHelping: Limitations

• Why feeling good might not lead to Why feeling good might not lead to doing good:doing good:– Costs of helping are highCosts of helping are high– Positive thoughts about other social Positive thoughts about other social

activities that conflict with helpingactivities that conflict with helping

Bad Moods and HelpingBad Moods and Helping

• When negative moods make us more When negative moods make us more likely to help others:likely to help others:– If we take responsibility for what If we take responsibility for what

caused our bad mood (i.e., feel guilty)caused our bad mood (i.e., feel guilty)– If we focus on other peopleIf we focus on other people– If we are made to think about our If we are made to think about our

personal values that promote helpingpersonal values that promote helping


0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Percentage who helped next person

Believed Broke Camera No Broken Camera

Best to wait until after Best to wait until after confession…confession…

• Harris, Benson, & Hall (1975) Harris, Benson, & Hall (1975) – Higher percentage of Higher percentage of CatholicCatholic subjects subjects

donated money to a charity afterdonated money to a charity after confessionconfession

– Guilt seems to lead to Guilt seems to lead to altruismaltruism

Bad Moods and HelpingBad Moods and Helping

• When negative moods make us less When negative moods make us less likely to help others:likely to help others:– If we blame others for our bad moodIf we blame others for our bad mood– If we become very self-focusedIf we become very self-focused– If we are made to think about our If we are made to think about our

personal values that do not promote personal values that do not promote helpinghelping

Effects of Those Around UsEffects of Those Around Us

• Observing another giving help can teach Observing another giving help can teach young children about the helping normyoung children about the helping norm

• For adults, a model can remind them of the For adults, a model can remind them of the helping normhelping norm

Awareness of the Helping NormAwareness of the Helping Norm

• Froming, Allen, & Jensen (1985)Froming, Allen, & Jensen (1985)– Very young children are not aware of the norm Very young children are not aware of the norm

requiring people to help those in needrequiring people to help those in need– Between 6 and 9 years of age, theyBetween 6 and 9 years of age, they become aware become aware

of the normof the norm– At this age, they will helpAt this age, they will help ifif an adult is present an adult is present

Essential Qualities for an Essential Qualities for an

Altruistic PersonalityAltruistic Personality• EmpathyEmpathy• Internalized and advanced moral Internalized and advanced moral

reasoningreasoning• AttractivenessAttractiveness

– Physical AppearancePhysical Appearance•I think we’ve talked enough about that I think we’ve talked enough about that

effect alreadyeffect already– CharismaCharisma

•Penner and Fritzsche (1993)Penner and Fritzsche (1993)– Example: Earvin JohnsonExample: Earvin Johnson

Magic’s Influence on Magic’s Influence on Helping OthersHelping Others

Penner & Fritzsche, 1993.

Attributions of Attributions of ResponsibilityResponsibility

• Beliefs about the needy person’s Beliefs about the needy person’s responsibility influences helpingresponsibility influences helping

• Effect particularly strong among Effect particularly strong among those who believe in a just worldthose who believe in a just world

Does it matter if he’s Does it matter if he’s drunk? drunk?

• Piliavin (1981): The New York Subway Piliavin (1981): The New York Subway ExperimentExperiment– Teams of 4 traveling on NY subways Teams of 4 traveling on NY subways

(Victim/model/2 observers)(Victim/model/2 observers)– Recorded number of people in car, gender, Recorded number of people in car, gender,

race, etc.race, etc.– Victim: always male, either white or African-Victim: always male, either white or African-

American/sometimes with a cane, sometimes American/sometimes with a cane, sometimes drunkdrunk

– Victim collapses/model instructed to help after Victim collapses/model instructed to help after exactly 70 secondsexactly 70 seconds•Results???Results???

Similarity and FamiliaritySimilarity and Familiarity

• Dovidio (1984)Dovidio (1984)

– In 34 studies, 29 found significantly higher In 34 studies, 29 found significantly higher helping for similar over dissimilar othershelping for similar over dissimilar others

• Gaertner & Dovidio (1986)Gaertner & Dovidio (1986)

– However, people will often help people of However, people will often help people of other races but only if other races but only if notnot helping might helping might make them appear prejudicedmake them appear prejudiced

Similarity and FamiliaritySimilarity and Familiarity

• Familiarity may also be a cue to genetic relatednessFamiliarity may also be a cue to genetic relatedness– Our ancestors encountered their relatives on a Our ancestors encountered their relatives on a

daily basisdaily basis– In animal and human societies, familiarity In animal and human societies, familiarity

increases helpingincreases helping• Schroeder, Penner, Dovidio, & Piliavin, 1995Schroeder, Penner, Dovidio, & Piliavin, 1995

– If familiarity is associated with shared genes, If familiarity is associated with shared genes, helping familiar others would have generally helping familiar others would have generally helped relativeshelped relatives

Gender and HelpingGender and Helping

• Classic male-helper scenario: Classic male-helper scenario: “Knight in shining armor”“Knight in shining armor”

• Classic female-helper scenario: Classic female-helper scenario: “Social support”“Social support”

• Gender differences in willingness to Gender differences in willingness to seek helpseek help

Gender and HelpGender and Help

• Williams & Best (1990)Williams & Best (1990)– Women are universally perceived as kinder, more Women are universally perceived as kinder, more

soft-hearted, and more helpful soft-hearted, and more helpful – But over 90% of Carnegie Hero awards go to men But over 90% of Carnegie Hero awards go to men

(for saving, or attempting to save, the life of (for saving, or attempting to save, the life of another)another)• Why?Why?

Threat-to-Self-Esteem Threat-to-Self-Esteem ModelModel

• Help is experienced as self-Help is experienced as self-supportive when recipient feels supportive when recipient feels appreciated and cared forappreciated and cared for

• Help is experienced as self-Help is experienced as self-threatening when recipient feels threatening when recipient feels inferior and overly dependentinferior and overly dependent

When Is Receiving Help When Is Receiving Help Perceived as Perceived as Threatening?Threatening?

• Those with high self-esteem tend to Those with high self-esteem tend to react more negatively than those react more negatively than those with low self-esteemwith low self-esteem

• Being helped by a similar other may Being helped by a similar other may imply that recipient is inferiorimply that recipient is inferior

• Help from a significant other on an Help from a significant other on an ego-relevant task can threaten one’s ego-relevant task can threaten one’s self-esteemself-esteem

Shotland & Straw (1976)Shotland & Straw (1976)

• Sometimes people assume help would be seen Sometimes people assume help would be seen as an unwelcome intrusion…as an unwelcome intrusion…– When a woman fighting with a man shouted: When a woman fighting with a man shouted: “I “I

don’t even know you!”don’t even know you!” - help was more likely than - help was more likely than if she shouted: if she shouted: “I don’t know why I married you!”“I don’t know why I married you!”

prosocial behavior social psychology chapter 10 november 12, 2004 class #11

Documents

pure altruism slide

high slide

generosity slide

internal reward benevolence

pure altruismsome

children high parents

individuals genes

investment of time