Purity

of

Heart

EssaysontheBuddhistPath

by

ThanissaroBhikkhu

(GeoffreyDeGraff)

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copyright2006ThanissaroBhikkhuThisworkislicensedundertheCreativeCommonsAttribution-NonCommercial4.0Unported.Toseeacopyofthislicensevisithttp://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/.“Commercial”shallmeananysale,whetherforcommercialornon-profitpurposesorentities.

QuestionsaboutthisbookmaybeaddressedtoMettaForestMonasteryValleyCenter,CA92082-1409U.S.A.

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Acknowledgements

Manypeoplehavereadearlierversionsoftheseessaysandhavekindlyofferedsuggestionsforimprovements.Inparticular,Iwouldliketothankthemonkshereatthemonastery,aswellasJaneYudelman,BarbaraWright,OliviaVaz,MaryTalbot,DonaldSwearer,ClarkStrand,RalphSteele,LarryRosenberg,XiaoquanOsgood,NateOsgood,HopeMillholland,Bok-LimKim,GilFronsdal,EugeneCash,JohnBullitt,andMichaelBarber.Anymistakesthatremain,ofcourse,aremyownresponsibility.

Someoftheseessays,inearlierincarnations,haveappearedinTricycle,Buddhadharma,InquiringMind,andInsightJournal.Iwouldliketothanktheeditorsofthesejournalsfortheirhelpinmakingthewritingclearerandmorecoherent.Thefactthattheessayswereoriginallyintendedfordifferentaudiencesexplainstheoverlapthatoccasionallyoccursamongthem,aswellastheinconsistentuseofSanskritandPaliterms:dharma,karma,andnirvanainsomeessays;dhamma,kamma,andnibbanainothers.Ihopethatthisposesnodifficulties.

TheseandotheressaysonBuddhistpracticeareavailableontheInternetatwww.accesstoinsight.organdwww.dhammatalks.org.

ThanissaroBhikkhu(GeoffreyDeGraff)

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PurityofHeart

Duringmyfirstweekswithmyteacher,AjaanFuang,Ibegantorealizethathehadpsychicpowers.Henevermadeashowofthem,butIgraduallysensedthathecouldreadmymindandanticipatefutureevents.Ibecameintrigued:Whatelsedidheknow?Howdidheknowit?Hemusthavedetectedwheremythoughtsweregoing,foroneeveninghegentlyheadedmeoff:“Youknow,”hesaid,“thewholeaimofourpracticeispurityofheart.Everythingelseisjustgames.”

Thatonephrase—purityofheart—morethanintriguedme.Itreverberateddeepdowninside.AlthoughIwasextremelydisillusionedwithChristianity,IstillvaluedKierkegaard’sdictum:Purityofheartistowillonething.Ididn’tagreewithKierkegaardastowhatthat“onething”was,butIdidagreethatpurityofheartisthemostimportanttreasureoflife.AndhereAjaanFuangwasofferingtoteachmehowtodevelopit.That’soneofthereasonswhyIstayedwithhimuntilhedied.

Hisbasicdefinitionofpurityofheartwassimpleenough:ahappinessthatwillneverharmanyone.Butahappinesslikethatishardtofind,forordinaryhappinessrequiresthatweeat.AsthefirstoftheNovice’sQuestionssays:“Whatisone?Allbeingssubsistonfood.”ThisishowtheBuddhaintroducedthetopicofcausalitytoyoungpeople:Theprimarycausalrelationshipisn’tsomethinggentlelikelightreflectingoffmirrors,orjewelsilluminatingjewels.It’sfeeding.Ourbodiesneedphysicalfoodfortheirwell-being.Ourmindsneedthefoodofpleasantsensorycontacts,intentions,andconsciousnessitselfinordertofunction.Ifyoueverwantproofthatinterconnectednessisn’talwayssomethingtocelebrate,justcontemplatehowthebeingsoftheworldfeedononeanother,physicallyandemotionally.Interbeingisinter-eating.AsAjaanSuwat,mysecondteacheroncesaid,“IftherewereagodwhocouldarrangethatbymyeatingIcouldmakeeveryoneintheworldfull,I’dbowdowntothatgod.”Butthat’snothoweatingworks.

Ordinarily,evenwell-intentionedpeoplemaynotseeeatingasharmful.We’resocompelledtoeatthatweblindourselvestoitslargerimpact.Ourfirstpleasure,aftertheterrorofbeingborn,wasgettingtofeed.Wediditwithoureyesclosed,andmostpeoplekeeptheireyes

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closedtotheimpactoftheirfeedingthroughoutlife.Butwhenyougotoaquiet,secludedplaceandstartexaminingyour

life,youbegintoseewhatanenormousissueitisjusttokeepthebodyandmindwellfed.Ontheonehand,youseethesufferingyoucreateforotherssimplyinyourneedtofeed.Ontheother,youseesomethingevenmoredismaying:theemotionsthatarisewithinyouwhenyoudon’tfeelthatyourbodyandmindaregettingenoughtoeat.Yourealizethataslongasyoursourceofphysicalormentalfoodisunreliable,you’reunreliable,too.Youseewhyevengoodpeoplecanreachapointwherethey’recapableofmurder,deceit,adultery,ortheft.Beingbornwithabodymeansthatwe’rebornwithahugebundleofneedsthatcompelsandcanoverwhelmourminds.

Fortunately,wehumanbeingshavethepotentialtocivilizeoureatinghabitsbylearningtoweanourselvesfromourpassionforthejunkfoodofsights,sounds,smells,etc.,andlookinsteadforgoodfoodwithin.Whenwelearntoappreciatethejoythatcomesfromgenerosity,honor,compassion,andtrust,weseethatit’smuchmorefulfillingthanthepleasurethatcomessimplyfromgrabbingwhatwecanforourselves.Werealizethatourhappinesscan’tbeindependentofthehappinessofothers.Wecangiveoneanotherourbelongings,ourtime,ourlove,ourselves,andseeitnotasalossbutasamutualgain.

Unfortunately,thesequalitiesoftheheartareconditional,fortheydependonatenderwebofbeliefsandfeelings—beliefinjusticeandthebasicgoodnessofhumannature,feelingsoftrustandaffection.Whenthatwebbreaks,asitsoeasilycan,theheartcanturnvicious.Weseethisindivorce,brokenfamilies,andsocietyatlarge.Whenthesecurityofourfoodsource—thebasisofourmentalandmaterialwell-being—getsthreatened,thefinerqualitiesofthemindcanvanish.Peoplewhobelieveinkindnesscansuddenlyseekrevenge.Thosewhoespousenon-violencecansuddenlycallforwar.Andthosewhorulebydivisiveness—bymakingamockeryofcompassion,prudence,andourcommonhumanity—findawillingfollowingfortheirlaw-of-the-jungleagenda.

Thisiswhycompassionbasedonlyonbelieforfeelingisnotenoughtoguaranteeourbehavior—andwhythepracticeoftrainingthemindtoreachanunconditionedhappinessisnotaselfishthing.Ifyouvaluecompassionandtrust,it’sanimperative,foronlyanunconditionedhappinesscanguaranteethepurityofyourbehavior.Independentofspaceandtime,it’sbeyondalteration.Noonecanthreatenitsfoodsource,forithasnoneedtofeed.Whenyou’vehadevenjustaglimpseofthishappiness,yourbeliefingoodnessbecomesunshakable.Thatwayother

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peoplecantotallytrustyou,andyoucangenuinelytrustyourself.Youlackfornothing.

Purityofheartistoknowthisonething.

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FaithinAwakening

TheBuddhaneverplacedunconditionaldemandsonanyone’sfaith.Forpeoplefromaculturewherethedominantreligionsdomakesuchdemands,thisisoneofBuddhism’smostattractivefeatures.It’sespeciallyappealingtothosewho—inreactiontothedemandsoforganizedreligion—embracetheviewofscientificempiricismthatnothingdeservesourtrustunlessitcanbemeasuredagainstphysicaldata.Inthislight,theBuddha’sfamousinstructionstotheKalamasareoftenreadasaninvitationtobelieve,ornot,whateverwelike.

Don’tgobyreports,bylegends,bytraditions,byscripture,bylogicalconjecture,byinference,byanalogies,byagreementthroughponderingviews,byprobability,orbythethought,“Thiscontemplativeisourteacher.”Whenyouknowforyourselvesthat,“Thesementalqualitiesareskillful;thesementalqualitiesareblameless;thesementalqualitiesarepraisedbythewise;thesementalqualities,whenadopted&carriedout,leadtowelfareandtohappiness”—thenyoushouldenterandremaininthem.(AN3:65)

Pointingtothispassage,manymodernwritershavegonesofarastosaythatfaithhasnoplaceintheBuddhisttradition,thattheproperBuddhistattitudeisoneofskepticism.ButeventhoughtheBuddharecommendstoleranceandahealthyskepticismtowardmattersoffaith,healsonotesaconditionalimperative:Ifyousincerelywanttoputanendtosuffering—that’sthecondition—youshouldtakecertainthingsonfaith,asworkinghypotheses,andthentestthemthroughfollowinghispathofpractice.TheadvicetotheKalamas,infact,containsthecrucialcaveatthatyoumusttakeintoaccountwhatwisepeoplevalue.

ThiscaveatgivesbalancetotheBuddha’sadvice:Justasyoushouldn’tgiveunreservedtrusttooutsideauthority,youcan’tgiveunreservedtrusttoyourownlogicandfeelingsiftheygoagainstexperienceandthegenuinewisdomofothers.Asotherearlydiscoursesmakeclear,wisepeoplecanberecognizedbytheirwordsandbehaviorasmeasuredagainststandardssetbytheBuddhaandhisawakeneddisciples.Theproperattitudetowardthosewhomeetthesestandardsisfaith:

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ForadisciplewhohasconvictionintheTeacher’smessageandlivestopenetrateit,whataccordswiththeDhammaisthis:“TheBlessedOneistheTeacher,Iamadisciple.Heistheonewhoknows,notI”(MN70)

RepeatedlytheBuddhastatedthatfaithinateacheriswhatleadsyoutolearnfromthatteacher.FaithintheBuddha’sownAwakeningisarequisitestrengthforanyoneelsewhowantstoattainAwakening.Asitfosterspersistence,mindfulness,concentration,anddiscernment,thisfaithcantakeyouallthewaytothedeathless.

Sothere’satensionintheBuddha’srecommendationsaboutfaithandempiricism.FewofAsianBuddhistsIknowfindthetensionuncomfortable,butWesternBuddhists—raisedinaculturewherereligionandfaithhavelongbeenatwarwithscienceandempiricism—finditverydisconcerting.Inmydiscussionswiththem,theyoftentrytoresolveitinthesamewaysthat,historically,thetensionbetweenChristianfaithandscientificempiricismhasbeenresolvedinourownculture.ThreegeneralpositionsstandoutbecausetheyareatthesametimesocommonandsoclearlyWestern.Consciouslyornot,theyattempttounderstandtheBuddha’spositiononfaithandempiricisminawaythatcanbeeasilymappedontothemodernWesternbattlelinesbetweenreligionandscience.

ThefirstinterpretationhasitsrootsinthesideofWesternculturethattotallyrejectsthelegitimacyoffaith.Inthisview,theBuddhaembodiestheVictorianidealoftheheroicagnostic,onewhoeschewedthechildishconsolationsoffaithinfavorofapurelyscientificmethodforstrengtheningone’sownmind.Becausehismethodfocusedentirelyonthepresentmoment,questionsofpastandfutureweretotallyirrelevanttohismessage.Thusanyreferencestofaithinsuchissuesaspastkarma,futurerebirth,oranunconditionedhappinessseparatefromthesensesarelaterinterpolationsinthetexts,whichBuddhistagnostics,followingtheBuddha’sexample,shoulddotheirbesttoreject.

ThesecondinterpretationhasrootsinthesideofWesternculturethathasrejectedeitherthespecificsofChristianfaithortheauthorityofanyorganizedreligion,buthasappreciatedfaithasanessentialrequirementformentalhealth.ThisviewpresentstheBuddhaasaherofromtheRomanticera,appreciatingthesubjectivevalueoffaithinestablishingasenseofwholenesswithinandinterconnectednesswithout,regardlessofwhattheobjectofthatfaithmightbe.Inotherwords,itdoesn’tmatterwherefaithisdirected,aslongasit’sdeeplyfeltandpersonallynourishing.FaithintheBuddha’sAwakening,inthisview,meanssimply

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believingthathefoundwhatworkedforhimself,whichcarriesnoimplicationsforwhatwillworkforyou.Ifyoufindtheteachingonkarmaandrebirthcomforting,fine:Believeit.Ifnot,don’t.What’simportantisthatyourelatetoyourfaithinawaythat’semotionallyhealing,nourishing,andempowering.

Athirdinterpretationencompassesthefirsttwo,but—insteadofpresentingtheBuddhaasahero—depictshimasavictimtrappedinhishistoricalsituation.Muchlikeus,hewasfacedwithfindingameaningfullifeinlightoftheworldviewofhisday.HisviewsonkarmaandrebirthweresimplyassumptionspickedupfromtheprimitivescienceofancientIndia,whilehispathofpracticewasanattempttonegotiateasatisfyinglifewithinthoseassumptions.Ifhewerealivetoday,hewouldtrytoreconcilehisvalueswiththediscoveriesofmodernscience,inthesamewaythatsomeWesternershavedonewiththeirfaithinmonotheism.

Theunderlyingassumptionofthispositionisthatscienceisconcernedwithfacts,religionwithvalues.Scienceprovidestheharddatatowhichreligionshouldprovidemeaning.ThuseachBuddhistwouldbeperformingtheworkofaBuddhabyacceptingthehardfactsthathavebeenscientificallyprovenforourgenerationandthensearchingtheBuddhisttradition—aswellasothertraditions,whereappropriate—formythsandvaluestogivemeaningtothosefacts,andintheprocessforginganewBuddhismforourtimes.

EachofthesethreeinterpretationsmaymakeeminentsensefromaWesternpointofview,butnoneofthemdojusticetowhatweknowoftheBuddhaorofhisteachingontheroleoffaithandempiricismonthepath.AllthreearecorrectinemphasizingtheBuddha’sunwillingnesstoforcehisteachingsonotherpeople,but—byforcingourownassumptionsontohisteachingsandactions—theymisreadwhatthatunwillingnessmeans.Hewasn’tanagnostic;hehadstrongreasonsfordeclaringsomeideasasworthyoffaithandothersasnot;andhisteachingsonkarma,rebirth,andnirvanabrokeradicallywiththedominantworldviewofhistime.HewasneitheraVictoriannoraRomantichero,norwasheavictimofcircumstances.Hewasaherowho,amongotherthings,masteredtheissueoffaithandempiricisminaradicalway.Buttoappreciatethatway,wefirsthavetostepbackfromtheWesternculturalbattlefieldandlookatfaithandempiricisminamorebasiccontext,simplyasprocesseswithintheindividualmind.

Althoughweliketothinkthatwebaseourdecisionsonhardfacts,we

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actuallyusebothfaithandempiricismineverydecisionwemake.Eveninourmostempiricallybaseddecisions,ourvisionishamperedbyourpositionintime.AsKierkegaardnoted,weliveforwardsbutunderstandbackwards.Anyhard-headedbusinessentrepreneurwilltellyouthatthefuturehastobetakenonfaith,nomatterhowmuchweknowofthepast.What’smore,we’reoftenforcedintomomentousdecisionswherethere’snotimeoropportunitytogatherenoughpastfactsforaninformedchoice.Atothertimeswehavetoomanyfacts—aswhenadoctorisfacedwithmanyconflictingtestsonapatient’scondition—andwehavetogoonfaithindecidingwhichfactstofocusonandwhichonestoignore.

However,faithalsoplaysadeeperroleinmanyofourdecisions.AsWilliamJamesonceobserved,therearetwokindsoftruthsinlife:thosewhosevalidityhasnothingtodowithouractions,andthosewhoserealitydependsonwhatwedo.Truthsofthefirstsort—truthsoftheobserver—includefactsaboutthebehaviorofthephysicalworld:howatomsformmolecules,howstarsexplode.Truthsofthesecondsort—truthsofthewill—includeskills,relationships,businessventures,anythingthatrequiresyourefforttomakeitreal.Withtruthsoftheobserver,it’sbesttostayskepticaluntilreasonableevidenceisin.Withtruthsofthewill,though,thetruthwon’thappenwithoutyourfaithinit,ofteninthefaceofunpromisingodds.Forexample,ifyoudon’tbelievethatbecomingapianistisworthwhile,orthatyouhavethemakingsofagoodpianist,itwon’thappen.Truthsofthewillaretheonesmostrelevanttoourpursuitoftruehappiness.Manyofthemostinspiringstoriesinlifeareofpeoplewhocreatetruthsofthissortwhenamountainofempiricalevidence—racism,poverty,physicaldisability—isagainstthem.Incaseslikethis,thetruthrequiresthatfaithactivelydiscounttheimmediatefacts.

Ifwedigevendeeperintothepsychologyofdecision-making,werunintoanareaforwhichnoscientificevidencecanofferproof:Doweactuallyact,orareactionsanillusion?Areouractsalreadypredeterminedbyphysicallawsoranexternalintelligence,ordowehavefreewill?Arecausalrelationshipsreal,oronlyafiction?Eventhemostcarefullyplannedscientificexperimentcouldneversettleanyoftheseissues,andyetoncewebecomeawareofthemwehavetotakeastandonthemifwewanttoputenergyintoourthoughts,words,anddeeds.

TheseweretheareaswheretheBuddhafocusedhisteachingsonempiricismandfaith.Althoughthefirstnobletruthrequiresthatweobservesufferinguntilwecomprehendit,wehavetotakeonfaithhisassertionthatthefactsweobserveaboutsufferingarethemostimportantguideformakingdecisions,momentbymoment,throughoutlife.Because

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thethirdnobletruth,thecessationofsuffering,isatruthofthewill,wehavetotakeitonfaiththatit’saworthwhileandattainablegoal.Andbecausethefourthnobletruth—thepathtothecessationofsuffering—isapathofactionandskill,wehavetotakeitonfaiththatouractionsarereal,thatwehavefreewill,andyetthatthere’sacausalpatterntotheworkingsofthemindfromwhichwecanlearninmasteringthatskill.AstheBuddhasaid,thepathwillleadtoadirectexperienceofthesetruths,butonlyifyoubringfaithtothepracticewillyouknowthisforyourself.Inotherwords,“faith”intheBuddhistcontextmeansfaithintheabilityofyouractionstoleadtoadirectexperienceoftheendofsuffering.

TheBuddhaofferedtheseteachingstopeopleseekingadviceonhowtofindtruehappiness.That’swhyhewasabletoavoidanycoercionofothers:Histeachingsassumedthathislistenerswerealreadyinvolvedinasearch.Whenweunderstandhisviewsonwhatitmeanstosearch—whypeoplesearch,andwhatthey’researchingfor—wecanunderstandhisadviceonhowtousefaithandempiricisminasuccessfulsearch.Thebestwaytodothisistoexaminefiveofhissimilesillustratinghowasearchshouldbeconducted.

Thefirstsimileillustratessearchinitsmostrawandunfocusedform:Twostrongmenhavegrabbedanothermanbythearmsandaredragging

himtoapitofburningembers.TheBuddhanotes,“Wouldn’tthemantwisthisbodythiswayandthat?”

Thetwistingofhisbodystandsforthewaywereacttosuffering.Wedon’tbothertoaskifoursufferingispredeterminedorouractionshaveanyhopeofsuccess.Wesimplyputupastruggleanddowhatwecantoescape.It’sournaturalreaction.

TheBuddhataughtthatthisreactionistwofold:We’rebewildered—“Whyisthishappeningtome?”—andwesearchforawaytoputanendtothesuffering.Whenhestatedthathetaughtnothingbutsufferingandtheendofsuffering,hewasrespondingtothesetworeactions,providinganexplanationofsufferinganditsendsoastodoawaywithourbewilderment,atthesametimeshowingthewaytotheendofsufferingsoastosatisfyoursearch.Hehadnousefortheideathatoursufferingcomesfromourstruggletoresistsuffering;thatthesearchforanendtosufferingispreciselywhatkeepsusfromseeingthepeacealreadythere.Inlightoftheabovesimile,simplyrelaxingintoatotalacceptanceofthemomentmeansrelaxingintotheprospectofbeingburnedalive.

Thesecondsimile:Amansearchingforfruitclimbsupintoatreetoeathisfillandtostuffhis

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garmentswithfruittotakehome.Whileheisthere,anothermansearchingforfruitcomesalong.Thesecondmancan’tclimbthetreebuthehasanaxe,sohechopsthetreedown.Ifthefirstmandoesn’tquicklygetoutofthetree,hemaybreakanarmoraleg,orevendie.

Thissimileshowstheperilsoflookingfortruehappinessinthewrongplace:sensualpleasures.Ifyourhappinessdependsonanythingotherpeoplecantakeawayfromyou,you’reputtingyourselfindanger.AstheBuddhanotes,wehopeforhappinessinsensualpleasuresnotbecausethey’veeverreallysatisfiedusbutbecausewecan’timagineanyotherescapefrompainandsuffering.Ifweallowedourselvestobelievethatthereisanotheralternative,we’dbemorewillingtoquestionourstrongfaithinourcravingsandattachments,morewillingtolookforthatalternativeandgiveitatry.And,asthethirdsimileargues,ifwelookintherightway,we’llfindit.

Apersonsearchingformilktriestogetmilkoutofacowbytwistingitshorn.Anotherpersonsearchingformilktriestogetmilkoutofthecowbypullingatitsudder.

Thissimileisaresponsetotheassertionthatnohumanactioncanbringreleasefromsuffering.Wecanattainrelease,theBuddhasaid,aslongaswefollowtherightmethod,likethepersonpullingattheudderofthecow.

Therightmethodstartswithrightunderstanding,andthisiswherefaithintheBuddha’sAwakeningcomesin.AstheBuddhaoncestated,hedidn‘ttelluseverythingheawakenedto.Whathetoldwaslikeahandfulofleaves;whathelearnedwaslikealltheleavesintheforest.Still,theleavesinthehandfulcontainedallthelessonsthatwouldhelpotherstoawaken.Rightunderstandingbeginswithlearningwhatthosespecificlessonsare.

Themostimportantlesson,andthemostimportantitemoffaith,issimplythefactoftheAwakeningitself.TheBuddhaachieveditthroughhisownefforts,andhedidso,notbecausehewasmorethanhuman,butbecausehedevelopedmentalqualitiesweallhavethepotentialtodevelop.TohavefaithinhisAwakeningthusmeanshavingfaithinyourownpotentialforAwakening.

However,thespecificsofwhathelearnedinhisAwakeningareimportantaswell.It’snotsimplythecasethathefoundwhatworkedforhim,whilewhatworksforyoumaybesomethingelseentirely.Nomatterhowmuchyoutwistacow’shorn,it’llneverproducemilk.TheBuddha’sinsightspenetratedintohowthingswork,whatitmeansforthemtowork.

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Theseinsightsapplytoeveryonethroughouttime.WhensummarizinghisAwakeninginthemostcondensedform,the

Buddhafocusedonaprincipleofcausalitythatexplainshowweliveinaworldwherepatternsofcausalityfashionevents,andyetthoseeventsarenottotallypredeterminedbythepast.

Theprincipleisactuallyadualone,fortherearetwokindsofcausalityinterweavinginourlives.Thefirstisthatofacausegivingresultsintheimmediatepresent:Whenthisis,thatis;whenthisisn’t,thatisn’t.Whenyouturnonastereo,forexample,thenoisecomesout;whenyouturnitoff,thenoisestops.Thesecondtypeofcausalityisthatofacausegivingresultsovertime:Fromthearisingofthiscomesthearisingofthat;fromthecessationofthiscomesthecessationofthat.Ifyoustudynow,you’llhaveknowledgelongintothefuture.Ifyoudamageyourbrain,thenegativeeffectswillbelong-termaswell.

Appliedtokarma,orintentionalaction,thedualprinciplemeansthis:Anymomentofexperienceconsistsofthreethings:(1)pleasuresandpainsresultingfrompastintentions,(2)presentintentions,and(3)pleasuresandpainsimmediatelyresultingfrompresentintentions.Thusthepresentisnottotallyshapedbythepast.Infact,themostimportantelementshapingyourpresentexperienceofpleasureorpainishowyoufashion,withyourpresentintentions,therawmaterialprovidedbypastintentions.Andyourpresentintentionscanbetotallyfree.

Thisishowthereisfreewillinthemidstofcausality.Atthesametime,thepatterninthewayintentionsleadtoresultsallowsustolearnfrompastmistakes.Thisfreedomwithinapatternopensthewaytoapathofmentaltraining,masteredthroughexperience,thatcanleadtotheendofsuffering.Wepracticegenerosity,virtue,andmeditationtolearnthepowerofourintentionsandinparticulartoseewhathappensasourintentionsgrowmoreskillful.Tofullytestthepowerofintention,weworkatmakingthemsoskillfulthatpresentintentionsactuallystop.Onlywhentheystopcanyouproveforyourselfhowpowerfulthey’vebeen.Andwheretheystopiswheretheunconditioned—theendofsuffering—isfound.Fromthereyoucanreturntointentions,butyou’renolongertheircaptiveorslave.

Inpresentinghisteachingsonkarmaandsuffering,theBuddhaofferedempiricalevidencetocorroboratethem—noting,forinstance,howyourreactiontoanotherperson’smiserydependsonhowattachedyouaretothatperson—butheneverattemptedafull-scaleempiricalproof.Infact,heheapedridiculeonhiscontemporaries,theJains,whotriedto

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provetheirmoredeterministicteachingonkarmabyclaimingthatallthosewhokill,steal,lie,orengageinillicitsexwillsufferfromtheiractionshereandnow.“Haven’tyouseenthecase,”theBuddhaasked,“whereamanisrewardedbyakingforkillingtheking’senemy,forstealingfromtheking’senemy,foramusingthekingwithacleverlie?”Eventhoughthebasicprincipleofkarmaissimpleenough—skillfulintentionsleadtopleasure,unskillfulintentionstopain—thedualprincipleofcausalitythroughwhichkarmaoperatesissocomplex,likeaMandelbrotset,thatyouwouldgocrazytryingtonailthewholethingdownempirically.

Soinsteadofanempiricalproofforhisteachingonkarma,theBuddhaofferedapragmaticproof:Ifyousincerelybelieveinhisteachingsoncausality,karma,rebirth,andthefournobletruths,howwillyouact?Whatkindoflifewillyoulead?Won’tyoutendtobemoreresponsibleandcompassionate?If,ontheotherhand,youweretobelieveinanyofthealternatives—suchasadoctrineofanimpersonalfateoradeitywhodeterminedthecourseofyourpleasureandpain,oradoctrinethatallthingswerecoincidentalandwithoutcause—whatwouldthosebeliefslogicallyleadyoutodo?Ifyouactedconsistentlyinlinewiththem,wouldtheyallowyoutoputanendtosufferingthroughyourownefforts?Wouldtheyallowanypurposeforeffortatall?If,ontheotherhand,yourefusedtocommittoacoherentideaofwhathumanactioncando,wouldyoubelikelytopursueademandingpathofpracticeallthewaythroughtotheend?

ThiswasthekindofreasoningthattheBuddhausedtoinspirefaithinhisAwakeningandinitsrelevancetoourownsearchfortruehappiness.

Thefourthsimilestressestheimportanceofnotsettlingforanythinglessthanthegenuinething:

Amansearchingforheartwoodgoesintoaforestandcomestoatreecontainingheartwood,butinsteadoftakingtheheartwood,hetakeshomesomesapwood,branches,orbark.

Faithinthepossibilityofnirvana—theheartwoodofthepath—iswhatkeepsyoufromgettingwaylaidbythepleasuresofthesapwoodandbark:thegratificationthatcomesfrombeinggenerousandvirtuous,thesenseofpeace,interconnectedness,andonenessthatcomeswithstrongconcentration.Yet,nirvanaisn’tconnectedtoanythingwe’veeverexperienced.It’salreadythere,buthiddenbyallourdesiresforphysicalandmentalactivity.Totouchit,wehavetoabandonourhabitualattachmenttoactivity.Tobelievethatsuchathingispossible,andthat

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it’stheultimatehappiness,istotakeamajorleap.ManyintheBuddha’stimemanywerewillingtotaketheleap,while

manyotherswerenot,preferringtocontentthemselveswiththebranchesandsapwood,wantingsimplytolearnhowtolivehappilywiththeirfamiliesinthislifeandgotoheaveninthenext.Nirvana,theysaid,couldwait.Facedwiththishonestandgentleresistancetohisteachingonnirvana,theBuddhawashappytocomply.

ButhewaslesstolerantofthestrongerresistancehereceivedfromBrahmas,heavenlydeitieswhocomplacentlyfeltthattheirexperienceoflimitlessonenessandcompassioninthemidstofsamsara—theirsapwood—wassuperiortotheheartwoodofnirvana.Intheircaseheusedallthepsychicandintellectualpowersathisdisposaltohumbletheirpride,forherealizedthattheirviewstotallyclosedthedoortoAwakening.Ifyouseeyoursapwoodasheartwood,youwon’tlookforanythingbetter.Whenyoursapwoodbreaks,you’lldecidethatheartwoodisalie.Butifyourealizeyou‘reusingbarkandsapwood,youleaveopenthepossibilitythatsomedayyou’llgobackandgivetheheartwoodatry.

Ofcourse,it’sevenbetterifyoucantaketheBuddha’steachingsonnirvanaasadirectchallengeinthislifetime—asifheweresaying,“Here’syourchance.Canyouprovemewrong?”

Thefifthsimile:Anexperiencedelephanthunter,searchingforabigbullelephant,comes

acrossalargeelephantfootprintintheforest.However,hedoesn’tjumptotheconclusionthatit’sthefootprintofabigbullelephant.Why?Becausetherearedwarffemaleelephantswithbigfeet.Itmightbeoneoftheirs.Hefollowsalongandseessomescratchmarksandtuskmarkshighuponthetrees,butstilldoesn’tjumptotheconclusionthathe’sonthetrailofabigbullelephant.Why?Becausetherearetallfemaleelephantswithtusks.Themarksmightbetheirs.Hefollowsalongandfinallyseesabigbullelephantunderatreeorinaclearing.That’swhenheconcludesthathe’sfoundhisbullelephant.

Inexplainingthissimile,theBuddhaidentifiedallthepreliminarystepsofthepractice—goingintothewildernessasamonastic;adheringtotheprecepts;developingrestraint,contentment,andstrongconcentration;seeingpastlivesandgainingvisionofthebeingsofthecosmosdyingandbeingreborninlinewiththeirkarma—assimplyfootprintsandscratchmarksoftheBuddha’sAwakening.OnlywhenyouhaveyourownfirsttasteofAwakening,havingfollowedhispath,doyoureallyknowthatyourfaithinhisAwakeningwaswellplaced.Touchingthedimensionwheresufferingends,yourealizethattheBuddha’s

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teachingsaboutitwerenotonlytruebutalsouseful:Heknewwhathewastalkingaboutandwasabletopointyouthereaswell.

What’sinterestingaboutthissimileisthewayitcombineshealthyfaithwithhonestskepticism.Toactonthisfaithistotestit,thewayyou’dtestaworkinghypothesis.Youneedfaithtokeepfollowingthefootprints,butyoualsoneedthehonestytorecognizewherefaithendsandknowledgebegins.Thisiswhy,intheBuddhistcontext,faithandempiricismareinseparable.Unlikeamonotheisticreligion—wherefaithcentersonthepowerofanother,andskepticismimpliesarejectionofthatpower—faithintheBuddha’sAwakeningkeepspointingbacktothepowerofyourownactions:Doyouhaveenoughpoweroveryourintentionstomakethemharmless?Doharmlessintentionsthengiveyouthefreedomtodropintentionentirely?Theonlywayyoucananswerthesequestionsisbybeingscrupulouslyhonestaboutyourintentions,todetecteventheslightesttracesofharm,eventheslightestmovementofintentionitself.Onlythenwillyouknowthedeathless,totallyunconditionedbyintention,forsure.Butifyouclaimtoknowthingsthatyoudon’t,howcanyoutrustyourselftodetectanyofthesethings?You’vegottomakeyourinnerhonestyworthyofthesubtletruthsyou’retryingtoprove.

ThisiswhysciencewillneverbeabletopassvalidjudgmentonthetruthsofAwakening,forthepathdealsinmattersthatoutsideexperimenterscan’treach.Althoughothersmaysympathizewithyoursuffering,thesufferingitselfisanexperienceyoucansharewithnooneelse.Thehonestyandskillfulnessofyourintentionsisanaffairofyourinternaldialogue,somethingthatisalsopurelyyourown.Scientistscanmeasuretheneurologicaldataindicatingpainorintentionalactivity,butthere’snoexternalmeasurementforhowthepainfeels,orhowhonestyourintentionaldialoguemaybe.Andasforthedeathless,ithasnophysicalcorrelatesatall.Theclosestthatoutsideempiricalmeasurementcangetistopicturesofthefootprintsonthegroundandthemarksinthetrees.

Togettothebullelephant,youhavetodowhattheBuddha’sdiscipleSariputtadid.Hekeptfollowingthepath,withoutjumpingtodishonestconclusions,untilhesawtheelephantwithin.Then,whentheBuddhaaskedhim,“Doyoutakeitonfaiththatthesefivestrengths—faith,persistence,mindfulness,concentration,anddiscernment—leadtothedeathless,”Sariputtacouldanswerhonestly,“No,Idon’ttakeitonfaith.Iknow.”

AsSariputtastatedinanotherdiscourse,hisproofwasexperientialbut

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soinwardthatittouchedadimensionwherenotonlytheexternalsensesbuteventhesenseofthefunctioningofthemindcan’treach.Ifyouwanttoconfirmhisknowledgeyouhavetotouchthatdimensionintheonlyplaceyoucanaccessit,insideyourself.ThisisoneoftwowaysinwhichtheBuddha’smethoddiffersfromthatofmodernempiricism.

Theotherhastodowiththeintegrityofthepersonattemptingtheproof.

Asinscience,faithintheBuddha’sAwakeningactslikeaworkinghypothesis,butthetestofthathypothesisrequiresanhonestydeeperandmoreradicalthananythingsciencerequires.Youhavetocommityourself—everyvariationonwhoyoufeelyouare—totallytothetest.Onlywhenyoutakeapartallclingingtoyourinnerandoutersensescanyouprovewhethertheactivityofclingingiswhathidesthedeathless.TheBuddhaneverforcedanyonetocommittothistest,bothbecauseyoucan’tcoercepeopletobehonestwiththemselves,andbecausehesawthatthepitofburningemberswascoercionenough.

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UntanglingthePresentTheRoleofAppropriateAttention

Ifthewaysofthemindweresimple,itsproblemswouldbesimpleandeasytosolve.TheBuddha,inshowinghowtoputanendtoitsproblems,couldhavekepthisinstructionssimpleandshort—asingleblanketapproachtowhateverhappensinthepresent,anobleone-foldpath:justmindfulness,justconcentration,orjustnon-reactivity.Orhemightnothavebotheredtoteachmuchatall,knowingthatpeoplecouldeasilysolvetheirproblemsontheirown.“Trust,”hemighthavesaid,“yourinnatenature,yourinnateunderstanding,”andleftitatthat.Butthat’snothowthemindworks,andthat’snothowhetaught.

Evenjustafewminutesspentobservingthewaysofthemindcanshowhowcomplexandconvolutedtheyare.Andthismeansthatitsproblemsarecomplexaswell.Inparticular,theproblemofsuffering:AstheBuddhanoted,thecausesofsufferingareknottedandtangledlikeabird’snest,likethethreadinatangledskein.Asanyonewhohassolvedacomplexproblemknows,thetricktofindingitssolutionliesinhowyouframetheissue:identifyingtheproblemandsortingoutthepatternoffactorsrelatedtoit.Seeingthepattern,youcandecidewhichfactorstofocusonascrucialtoitssolution,andwhichonesyouhavetoignoresoasnottogetdistractedandleddownblindalleys.Framingtheissuealsomeansdecidinghowtoapproacheachofthecrucialfactorssothatinsteadofmaintainingorexacerbatingtheproblem,theyaidwithitssolution.Whatthisboilsdowntois,whenfacedwithaproblem,knowingwhichquestionsarehelpfultoaskaboutit,andwhichquestionsaren’t.

TocontinuetheBuddha’sanalogy,theabilitytosolvecomplexproblemsislikeknowinghowtountangleatangledknot.Youneedabasicunderstandingofhowtanglesworksothatyoucanlearnthroughexperience—testingandobserving—whichstrandsinthetangleshouldbepulledinwhichway,andwhichstrandsshouldbeleftalone.

If,forexample,you’readoctorinanemergencyroomfacedwithapatientcomplainingofchestpains,youhavemanyquickdecisionstomake.Youhavetodecidewhichteststoconduct,whichquestionstoaskthepatient,andwhichphysicalsymptomstolookfor,beforeyoucan

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diagnosethepainsasasignofindigestion,anincipientheartattack,orsomethingelseentirely.Youalsohavetodecidewhichquestionsnottoask,soasnottogetwaylaidbyextraneousinformation.Ifyoufocusonthewrongsymptoms,thepatientmightdie—ormightspendaneedlessnightintheintensivecareunit,deprivingapatientwithagenuineheartattackofabed.Onceyou’vemadeyourdiagnosis,youhavetodecidewhichcourseoftreatmenttofollowandhowtokeeptabsonthattreatmenttoseeifit’sreallyworking.Ifyouframethesymptomsinthewronglight,youcandomoreharmthangood.Ifyouframethemintherightlight,youcansavelives.

Thesameprincipleappliesinsolvingtheproblemofsuffering,whichiswhytheBuddhagaveprimeimportancetotheabilitytoframetheissueofsufferingintheproperway.Hecalledthisabilityyonisomanasikara—appropriateattention—andtaughtthatnootherinnerqualitywasmorehelpfulforuntanglingsufferingandgainingrelease.

Ingivinghismostdetailedexplanationofappropriateattention,hestartswithexamplesofinappropriateattention,whichcenteronquestionsofidentityandexistence:“DoIexist?”“DoInot?”“WhatamI?”“DidIexistinthepast?”“WillIexistinthefuture?”Thesequestionsareinappropriatebecausetheyleadto“awildernessofviews,athicketofviews”suchas“Ihaveaself,”or“Ihavenoself,”allofwhichleadtoentanglement,andnonetotheendofsuffering.

Incontrast,theBuddhathendepictsappropriateattentionastheabilitytoidentifythat“Thisissuffering(thePaliworddukkhaherecoversstressandpainaswell),”“Thisistheoriginationofsuffering,”“Thisisthecessationofsuffering,”and“Thisisthepathofpracticeleadingtothecessationofsuffering.”ThesearethefourcategoriesthattheBuddha,inhisfirstdiscourse,calledthefournobletruths.Theabilitytoframetheissueofsufferinginlinewiththesecategoriesiswhatenablesyouultimatelytoputanendtotheproblemofsufferingonceandforall.Thisiswhythey’reappropriate.

Themostobviouslessontobedrawnfromthiswayofdistinguishinginappropriatefromappropriateattentionisthatinappropriateattentionframestheissuesofthemindintermsofabstractcategories,whereasappropriateattentionframesthemintermsofthingsthatcanbedirectlypointedtoinimmediateexperienceas“This…This…This…This.”Ideasofidentityandexistencearebasictoabstractthinking,andmanyphilosophershavemaintainedthattheylieatthebasisofanyspiritualquest.TheBuddha,however,notedthatthethought,“Iamthethinker”liesattherootofallthecategoriesandlabelsofconceptualproliferation,

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thetypeofthinkingthatcanturnandattackthepersonemployingit.Thesecategoriesarenotoriouslyhardtopindown,oftendissolvingintoarbitrarysemantics.“DoIexist?”—Itdependsonwhatyoumeanby“exist.”“DoIhaveaself?”—Itdependsonwhatyoumeanby“self.”Thinkingdrivenbydefinitionsliketheseoftenfallspreytothehiddenmotivesoragendasbehindthedefinitions,whichmeansthatit’sunreliable.

However,sufferingissomethingdirectlyknowable:preverbal,private,butuniversal.Inframingtheissuesofthemindaroundsuffering,theBuddhabaseshisteachingsonanintentiontotallytrustworthy—thedesireforhislistenerstoputanendtoalltheirsuffering—andfocusesonsomethingnotdependentondefinitions.Infact,heneveroffersaformaldefinitionoftheterm“suffering”atall.Instead,heillustratesitwithexamples—suchasthesufferingofbirth,aging,illness,anddeath—andthenpointsoutthefunctionalelementthatallformsofmentalsufferingshare:clingingtothefiveaggregatesofform,feeling,perception,mentalfabrication,andconsciousness.Theclingingisnotthesameasthepainofthesuffering,butit’stheaspectofsufferingmostusefultofocusonforthepurposeofbringingthesufferingtoanend.

AlthoughthereisapassagewheretheBuddhadefinesclingingasdesire-passion,heneverdescribespreciselywhatdesire-passionis.WhendevotingwhatisapparentlytheoldestpartoftheCanon,theAtthakaVagga,tothetopicofclinging,hefillsthediscussionwithpunsandwordplay,astylethatdiscouragessystematicattemptsatsetdefinitionsandtheconceptualproliferationtheycanfoster.Whatthismeansisthatifyouwanttorefineyourunderstandingofclinging,desire-passion,andsuffering,youcan’tclingtowordsortexts.Youhavetolookdeeperintoyourpresentexperience.

Inpointingrepeatedlytodirectexperience,however,theBuddhadoesn’tdiscourageallthoughtandconcepts.Theabilitytodistinguishthefourcategoriesofappropriateattentionrequiresthoughtandanalysis—thetypeofthoughtthatquestionspastunderstandingsandmisunderstandings,andponderswhat’shappeninginthepresent;thetypeofanalysisthatcanferretoutconnectionsbetweenactionsandtheirresultsandcanevaluatethemastowhetherthey’rehelpfulornot.Therearedesires,forinstance,thatactasacauseofsuffering,andotherdesiresthatcanformpartofthepathleadingtoitsend.AlthoughtheBuddhagivesageneraloutlinetotellwhichkindofdesirefunctionsinwhichway,youhavetolearnhowtowatchyourowndesirescarefullyandhonestlytotellwhichkindofdesiretheyare.

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Asyoukeepanalyzingthepresentundertheframeworkofthesefourcategories,you’retracingtheBuddha’sstepsasheapproachedAwakening.Havingfocusedonclingingasthefunctionalhandleonsuffering,helookedfortheconditionsthatformeditsbasis,andfoundtheminthreetypesofcravingorthirst:sensualcraving,cravingforstatesofbeing,andcravingtodestroystatesofbeing.Thenheidentifiedthecessationofsufferingastotaldispassionfor,cessationof,andreleasefromthoseformsofcraving.Andheidentifiedthementalqualitiesandpracticesthatwouldleadtothatcessation—rightview,rightresolve,rightspeech,rightaction,rightlivelihood,righteffort,rightmindfulness,andrightconcentration—allofwhich,inpotentialform,canbefoundinthepresentmoment.

Soinsteadofsimplythrowingthepresentmomentatyouasamonolithicwhole,theBuddhapointsyourattentiontofoursignificantthingsyoumightfindthere.Thisisbecausethere’sapatterntothechangesweexperiencefrommomenttomoment.Changeisneversorandomorradicalthatknowledgegainedfromthepastisuselessinthepresent.Conceptsstillserveanimportantpurposeeventhoughtheymaylackthefreshnessoftheimmediatehereandnow.Whenyoustickyourfingerintofire,it’sboundtoburn.Ifyouspitintothewind,it’sboundtocomebackatyou.Lessonslikethesearegoodtokeepinmind.Althoughthepatternsunderlyingsufferingmaybemoretangledthanthoseunderlyingfireandwind,stilltheyarepatterns.Theycanbelearnedandmastered,andthefourcategoriesofappropriateattentionarecrucialforgettingahandleonthosepatternsanddirectingthemtosuffering’send.

Inpracticalterms,distinguishingamongcategoriesisworthwhileonlyifyouhavetotreateachofthedifferentcategoriesinadifferentway.Adoctorwhoformulatesatheoryofsixteentypesofheadachesonlytotreatthemallwithaspirin,forexample,iswastinghertime.Butonewho,notingthatdifferenttypesofheadachesrespondtodifferenttypesofmedications,devisesanaccuratetesttodifferentiateamongtheheadaches,makesagenuinecontributiontomedicalscience.Thesameprincipleappliestothecategoriesofappropriateattention.AstheBuddhastatedinhisfirstaccountofhisAwakening,oncehehadidentifiedeachofthefourcategories,hesawthateachhadtobetreatedinadifferentway.Sufferinghadtobecomprehended,itscauseabandoned,itscessationrealized,andthepathtoitscessationfullydeveloped.

Whatthismeansisthat,asameditator,youcan’ttreateverythinginthepresentmomentinthesameway.Youcan’tsimplystaynon-reactive,orsimplyaccepteverythingthatcomes.Ifmomentsofstillnessandeaseariseinthemind,youcan’tjustnotethemandletthempass.Youshould

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developthemtojhana—thefull-bodypleasureandraptureofrightconcentrationthatformstheheartofthepath.Whenmentalsufferingarises,youcan’tjustletitgo.Youshouldfocuswhateverpowersofconcentrationanddiscernmentyouhavetotrytocomprehendtheclingingthatliesatitsheart.

TheBuddhaexpandsonthispointinthediscourseswhereheshowshowappropriateattentionshouldbeappliedtovariousaspectsofthepresent.Appliedtothefiveaggregatesofform,feeling,andsoforth,appropriateattentionmeansviewingtheminsuchawayastoinduceasenseofdispassionthatwillhelpalleviateclinging.Appliedtoperceptionsofbeautyorirritation,itmeansviewingtheminsuchawayastokeepthemfromfosteringsuchobstaclestorightconcentrationassensualdesireorillwill.Appliedtofeelingsofserenityorthepotentialforrapture,itmeansviewingtheminsuchawaythathelpsdevelopthemintofactorsforAwakening.

Evenwithinaparticularcategory,there’snooneapproachthatworksinallcases.InoneofhisdiscoursesBuddhaobservesthatsomeunskillfulmentalstateswitherawayifyousimplywatchthemwithequanimity,whileothersrequireanactiveefforttotakethemapart.Inanotherdiscourseheexpandsonthisobservationbyrecommendingfivewaysofdealingwithdistractingthoughts:replacingthemwithmoreskillfulthoughts,focusingontheirdrawbacks,consciouslyignoringthem,relaxingthetensionthatgoesintomaintainingthem,andforcefullysuppressingthem.Inneitherdiscourse,though,doeshegivehardandfastrulesfortellingwhichtypeofthoughtwillrespondtowhichapproach.Youhavetofindoutforyourselfbysharpeningyourdiscernmentthroughtrialanderrorastowhatworksandwhatdoesn’tinanygivensituation.

Thesameprincipleappliestoskillfulmentalstates.TheBuddha’sfinalsummaryofhisteachings,thewingstoAwakening,listssevenwaysofconceivingthepathtotheendofsuffering—intermsoffourestablishingsofmindfulness,fourbasesforsuccess,fourrightexertions,fivestrengths,fivefaculties,sevenfactorsforAwakening,andthenobleeightfoldpath.Andagain,it’suptoyoutolearnthroughtrialanderrorwhichwayofconceivingthepathismostusefulatanyparticulartimeinyourpractice.

Thismeansthatapplyingappropriateattentiontoskillfulandunskillfulmentalstatesisnotaone-shotaffair.Thetasksconnectedwitheachofthefourcategoriesofappropriateattentionallhavetobetestedthroughtrialanderror,andmasteredasskills.ToborrowananalogyfromtheCanon,fullAwakeningisnotamatterofpickingupabowandarrowandhopingforaflukebull’seye.TheinsightofAwakeningcomesinthe

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courseofpracticingonastrawmanuntilyou’reable“toshootlongdistances,tofireaccurateshotsinrapidsuccession,andtopiercegreatmasses.”

AstheBuddhanotedinhisfirstdiscourse,hedidn’tclaimtobeawakeneduntilhehadfullymasteredthetasksappropriatetoallfourcategories.Infullydevelopingthefactorsofthepath,hefullycomprehendedthefiveclingingaggregatestothepointofabandoningallpassionandcravingforthem.Thatwaswhenhefullyrealizedtheendofsuffering.Withthat,thecategoriesofappropriateattentionhaddonetheirworkinsolvingtheproblemofsuffering,buteventhentheystillhadtheiruses.AstheBuddhanoted,evenafullyawakenedarahantwouldstillapplythemtoexperiencetoprovideapleasantdwellingforthemindinthehereandnow.

Inallofthesecases,appropriateattentionmeansseeingthingsintermsoftheirfunction—whattheycando—whiletheactofappropriateattentionisitselfatypeofdoing,adoptedforwhatitcandoforthemind.Andthetestforappropriateattentionisthatitactuallyworksinhelpingtoputanendtosuffering.WhenwecontrastthiswiththeBuddha’sexamplesofinappropriateattention,weseethatattentionisinappropriatewhenitframesthingsintermsofbeingandidentity,andappropriatewhenframingthemintermsofactionsandtheirresults.Infact,appropriateattentionlooksatbeingitselfasanaction,witheachactofbeingorassuminganidentitytobeevaluatedbythepleasureorpainitproduces.Whenwelookatourselveswithappropriateattention,wefocusnotonwhatweare,butonwhatwe’redoing—andinparticularonwhetherwhatwe’redoingisunskillful—leadingtosuffering—orskillful,leadingtoitsend.

Thispointisimportanttobearinmindwhenwereflectonthetwocriticismsoftenleveledagainstthefourcategoriesofappropriateattention.Thefirstcriticismisthattheyprovidealimitedviewofthefullnessandvarietyoflife,thattheydon’tencompassthevirtuallyinfinitenumberofskillfulwaysofapproachingexperience.Whenformulatingatheoryofbeing,youcouldarguethatthemorevarietyitcancontain,thebetter.Butwhenchoosingadoctor,youwouldn’twantonewhoinsistsonexploringaninfinitevarietyofapproachestoyourdisease.Youwantonewhofocusesontheapproachesmostlikelytowork.Thesameholdstruewithappropriateattention.Thefourcategories,withtheirattendanttasks,aremeantnottoencompassrealitybuttofocusyourattentionattherightfactorsforcuringthemostbasicprobleminexperience.TheBuddhalimitshisdiscussiontothesefourcategoriesbecausehedoesn’twantyoutoget

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distractedfromtheproblemathand.Thesecondcriticismisthatthefourcategoriesaredualisticandthus

inferiortoanon-dualisticviewoftheworld.Again,whenformulatingatheoryofbeing,youcouldarguethatanon-dualistictheorywouldbesuperiortoadualisticone,onthegroundsthatanon-dualconceptofbeingismoreencompassingthanadualisticone,yieldingamoreunifiedtheory.Butappropriateattentionisnotatheoryofbeing.It’saguidetowhattodointhepresentmoment.Becausethepresentmomentissotangledandcomplex,themultiplecategoriesofferedbyappropriateattentionareastrengthratherthanaweakness.Insteadoflimitingyoutoonewayofunderstandingandapproachingeventsinthepresent,theyprovideyouwithamorediscerningunderstandingandawidevarietyofoptionsfordealingwiththetanglesandcomplexitiesofsuffering.

Whenofferingoptionsforsolvingaproblem,noparticularnumberofoptionsis,onprinciple,superiortoanyother.Whatmattersisthattheoptionsareenoughtobeadequatefortheproblem,butnotsomanyastoobscureitssolutionandbecomeatanglethemselves.Inotherwords,theoptionsaretobejudged,notagainstabstractprinciples,butbywhattheyenableyoutodo.AndalthoughtheBuddhadescribeshispathtotheendofsufferingastheoneformofdoingthatultimatelyputsanendtodoing,aslongasyou’restilldoingsomethinginthepresentmoment,appropriateattentionensuresthatwhatyou’redoingstaysonthepath.Andoncethepathisdevelopedtothepointwhereitcanuntangletheproblemofsuffering,everythingelsegetsuntangledaswell.

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PushingtheLimitsDesire&ImaginationintheBuddhistPath

Allphenomena,theBuddhaoncesaid,arerootedindesire.Everythingwethink,say,ordo—everyexperience—comesfromdesire.Evenwecomefromdesire.Wewererebornintothislifebecauseofourdesiretobe.Consciouslyornot,ourdesireskeepredefiningoursenseofwhoweare.Desireishowwetakeourplaceinthecausalmatrixofspaceandtime.Theonlythingnotrootedindesireisnirvana,forit’stheendofallphenomenaandliesevenbeyondtheBuddha’suseoftheword“all.”Butthepaththattakesyoutonirvanaisrootedindesire—inskillfuldesires.Thepathtoliberationpushesthelimitsofskillfuldesirestoseehowfartheycango.

Thenotionofaskillfuldesiremaysoundstrange,butamaturemindintuitivelypursuesthedesiresitseesasskillfulanddropsthoseitperceivesasnot.Basicineveryoneisthedesireforhappiness.Everyotherdesireisastrategyforattainingthathappiness.YouwantaniPod,asexualpartner,oranexperienceofinnerpeacebecauseyouthinkitwillmakeyouhappy.Becausethesesecondarydesiresarestrategies,theyfollowapattern.Theyspringfromaninchoatefeelingoflackandlimitation;theyemployyourpowersofperceptiontoidentifythecauseofthelimitation;andtheyuseyourpowersofcreativeimaginationtoconceiveasolutiontoit.

Butdespitetheircommonpattern,desiresarenotmonolithic.Eachoffersadifferentperceptionofwhat’slackinginlife,togetherwithadifferentpictureofwhatthesolutionshouldbe.AdesireforasandwichcomesfromaperceptionofphysicalhungerandproposestosolveitwithaSwiss-on-rye.Adesiretoclimbamountainfocusesonadifferentsetofhungers—foraccomplishment,exhilaration,self-mastery—andappealstoadifferentimageofsatisfaction.Whateverthedesire,ifthesolutionactuallyleadstohappiness,thedesireisskillful.Ifitdoesn’t,it’snot.However,whatseemstobeaskillfuldesiremayleadonlytoafalseortransitoryhappinessnotworththeeffortentailed.Sowisdomstartsasameta-desire:tolearnhowtorecognizeskillfulandunskillfuldesiresforwhattheyactuallyare.

Unskillfuldesirescancreatesufferinginavarietyofways.Sometimes

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theyaimattheimpossible:nottogrowoldordie.Sometimestheyfocusonpossibilitiesthatrequiredistastefulmeans—suchaslyingorcheatingtogetaheadinyourjob.Orthegoal,whenyougetit,maynotreallykeepyouhappy.EventhesummitofEverestcanbeadisappointment.Evenwhenit’snot,youcan’tstaythereforever.Whenyouleave,you’releftwithnothingbutmemories,whichcanshiftandfade.Ifyoudidmeanorhurtfulthingstogetthere,theirmemorycanburnawayanypleasurethatmemoriesofthesummitmighthold.

Inaddition,desiresoftenpullinoppositedirections.Yourdesireforsex,forinstance,cangetinthewayofyourdesireforpeace.Infact,conflictamongdesiresiswhatalertsustohowpainfuldesirecanbe.It’salsowhathastaughteachdesirehowtospeak,topersuade,toargueorbullyitswayintopower.Andjustbecauseadesireisskillfuldoesn’tmeanit’smoreskillfulatarguingitscasethantheunskillfulones,forthosecanoftenbethemostintransigent,themoststrident,theslickestinhavingtheirway.Thismeansthatwisdomhastolearnhowtostrategize,too,tostrengthenskillfuldesiressothatlessskillfuldesireswilllistentothem.Thatwaydesirescanbetrainedtoworktogethertowardgreaterhappiness.Thisishowamatureandhealthymindworks:conductingadialoguenotsomuchbetweenreasonanddesireasbetweenresponsibledesiresandirresponsibleones.

Buteveninamaturemind,thedialogueoftenyieldscompromisesthatdon’treallygototheheart:snatchesofsensualpleasure,glimpsesofspiritualpeace,nothingreallysatisfyingandwhole.Somepeople,growingimpatientwithcompromise,turnadeafeartoprudentdesiresandtuneintodemandsforinstantgratification—allthesex,power,andmoneytheycangrab.Butwhentherampageofgratificationwearsitselfout,thedamagecantakelifetimestosetright.Otherpeopletrytheirbesttoacceptthecompromiseamongdesires,tryingtofindameasureofpeaceinnotreachingforwhattheyseeasimpossible.Butthispeace,too,dependsonadeafinnerear,denyingtheunderlyingtruthofalldesires:thatalifeofendlesslimitationsisintolerable.

Bothsortsofpeopleshareacommonassumptionthattrue,unlimitedhappinessliesbeyondreach.Theirimaginationsaresostuntedthattheycan’tevenconceiveofwhatatrue,unlimitedhappinessinthislifetimewouldbe.

WhatmadetheBuddhaspecialwasthatheneverloweredhisexpectations.Heimaginedtheultimatehappiness—onesofreefromlimitandlackthatitwouldleavenoneedforfurtherdesire—andthentreasuredhisdesireforthathappinessashishighestpriority.Bringingallhisother

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desiresintodialoguewithit,heexploredvariousstrategiesuntilfindingonethatactuallyattainedthatunlimitedgoal.Thisstrategybecamehismostbasicteaching:thefournobletruths.

Mostofus,whenlookingatthefournobletruths,don’trealizethatthey’reallaboutdesire.We’retaughtthattheBuddhagaveonlyoneroletodesire—asthecauseofsuffering.Becausehesaystoabandonthecauseofsuffering,itsoundslikehe’sdenyinganypositiveroletodesireanditsconstructivecompanions:creativity,imagination,andhope.Thisperception,though,missestwoimportantpoints.Thefirstisthatallfourtruthsspeaktothebasicdynamicofdesireonitsownterms:perceptionoflackandlimitation,theimaginationofasolution,andastrategyforattainingit.Thefirsttruthteachesthebasiclackandlimitationinourlives—theclingingthatconstitutessuffering—whilethesecondtruthpointstothetypesofdesiresthatleadtoclinging:desiresforsensuality,becoming,andannihilation.Thethirdtruthexpandsourimaginationtoencompassthepossibilitythatclingingcanbetotallyovercome.Thefourthtruth,thepathtotheendofsuffering,showshowtostrategizesoastoovercomeclingingbyabandoningitscause.

Thesecondpointthat’softenmissedisthatthenobletruthsgivetworolestodesire,dependingonwhetherit’sskillfulornot.Unskillfuldesireisthecauseofsuffering;skillfuldesireformspartofthepathtoitscessation.Skillfuldesireundercutsunskillfuldesire,notbyrepressingit,butbyproducinggreaterandgreaterlevelsofsatisfactionandwell-beingsothatunskillfuldesirehasnoplacetostand.Thisstrategyofskillfuldesireisexplicitinthepathfactorofrighteffort:

“Whatisrighteffort?Thereisthecasewhereamonk(heremeaninganymeditator)generatesdesire,endeavors,arousespersistence,upholdsandexertshisintentforthesakeofthenon-arisingofevil,unskillfulmentalqualitiesthathavenotyetarisen…forthesakeoftheabandoningofevil,unskillfulqualitiesthathavearisen…forthesakeofthearisingofskillfulqualitiesthathavenotyetarisen…forthemaintenance,non-confusion,increase,plenitude,development,andculminationofskillfulqualitiesthathavearisen.Thisiscalledrighteffort.”(DN22)

Asthisformulashows,thecrucialelementsforreplacingunskillfulmentalqualitieswithskillfulonesaredesire,persistence,andintent.Desiregivestheinitialimpetusandfocusforrighteffort,whilepersistenceprovidesstayingpower.Intentisthemostcomplexfactorofthethree.ThePaliwordhere,citta,alsomeans“mind,”andinthiscontextitmeans

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givingyourwholemindtotheworkathand:allyourpowersofsensitivity,intelligence,discernment,andingenuity.Youdon’twantyourmindtobesplitonthisissue;youwantallofitspowersworkingtogetheronthesameside.

Thesethreequalities—desire,persistence,andintent—underlieeveryattempttomasteraskill.Soit’suseful,inundertakingthepath,toreflectonhowyou’veusedthesequalitiestomasterskillsinthepast.TheBuddhamadethispointinhismanysimilescomparingthepersononthepathtoamastercraftsman—amusician,carpenter,surgeon,acrobat,cook.Aswithanyskill,therearemanystepstodevelopingthepath,butfourstandout.

Thefirstistouseyouringenuitytofightoffthechorusofinnervoicestryingtodissuadeyoufrommakingtheefforttobeskillfulinthefirstplace.Thesevoicesarelikedeviouslawyersrepresentingstronglyentrenchedinterests:allyourthreatenedunskillfuldesires.Youhavetobequickandalertincounteringtheirarguments,fortheycancomefromallsides,soundinghonestandwiseeventhoughthey’renot.Herearesomeoftheargumentsthesevoicesmaypropose,alongwithafeweffectiveresponses:

Tryingtomanipulateyourdesireslikethisisunnatural.Actually,you’realreadymanipulatingyourdesiresallthetime,whenyouchooseonedesireoveranother,soyoumightaswelllearntodoitskillfully.Andthereareplentyofpeopleoutthereonlytoohappytomanipulateyourdesiresforyou—thinkofalltheadvertisementsclamoringforyourattention—soit’sbettertoputthemanipulationinmoretrustworthyhands:yourown.

Tryingtochangeyourdesiresisanattackonyourveryself.Thisargumentworksonlyifyougiveyoursenseofself—whichisreallyjustagrabbagofdesires—moresoliditythanitdeserves.Youcanturntheargumentonitsheadbynotingthatsinceyour“self”isaperpetuallychangingline-upofstrategiesforhappiness,youmightaswelltrychangingitinadirectionmorelikelytoachievetruehappiness.

Tothinkof“skillful”and“unskillful”desiresisdualisticandjudgmental.Youdon’twantnon-dualisticmechanicsworkingonyourcar,ornon-dualisticsurgeonsoperatingonyourbrain.Youwantpeoplewhocantellwhat’sskillfulfromwhat’snot.Ifyoureallyvalueyourhappiness,you’lldemandthesamediscernmentinthepersonmostresponsibleforit:yourself.

It’stoogoal-oriented.Justacceptthingsastheyareinthepresent.Everydesiretellsyouthatthingsinthepresentarelimitedandlacking.Youeitheracceptthedesireoracceptthelack.Toacceptbothatonceistodeny

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thateitherhasanyrealtruth.Totrytodwellpeacefullyinthetensionbetweenthetwo—ina“pathofnocraving”toberidofeither—iswhattheBuddhacalledlimitedequanimity,andwhatoneThaiforestmastercalledtheequanimityofacow.

It’safutileattempttoresistsuchadivineandmysteriouspower.Desireseemsoverwhelmingandmysterioussimplybecausewedon’tknowourminds.Andwherewouldwebeifwekeptslappingtheterm“divine”or“cosmic“onforceswedidn’tunderstand?

Arguingwithunskillfuldesiresistoomuchwork.Considerthealternative:anendlesswanderingfromonesetoflimitationstoanother,continuallyseekinghappinessandyetfindingitalwaysslippingfromyourgrasp,repeatedlytakingastanceforonedesireonemomentandshiftingtoanotherdesirethenext.Righteffortatleastgivesyouonesteadyplacetostand.It’snotaddingamoredemandingdesiretothechaoticmix;it’sofferingawaytosortoutthemess.AndtheBuddha’spathholdsopenthehopeofanunlimitedhappiness,precededbyincreasinglyrefinedandreliablelevelsofhappinessallalongthepath.Inshort,hisalternativeisactuallytheonethat’smoreenjoyableandinvolveslesswork.

Onceyou’vesilencedthesevoices,thenextstepistotakeresponsibilityforyouractionsandtheirconsequences.Thisrequiresbeingwillingtolearnfromyourmistakes.Severalyearsago,asociologiststudiedstudentsinaneurosurgeryprogramtoseewhatqualitiesseparatedthosewhosucceededfromthosewhofailed.Hefoundultimatelythattwoquestionsinhisinterviewspointedtothecrucialdifference.Hewouldaskthestudents,“Doyouevermakemistakes?Ifso,whatistheworstmistakeyou’veevermade?”Thosewhofailedtheprogramwouldinevitablyanswerthattheyrarelymademistakesorelsewouldblametheirmistakesonfactorsbeyondtheircontrol.Thosewhosucceededintheprogramnotonlyadmittedtomanymistakesbutalsovolunteeredinformationonwhattheywoulddonottorepeatthosemistakesinthefuture.

TheBuddhaencouragedthissamematureattitudeinhisfirstinstructionstohisson,Rahula.HetoldRahulatofocusonhisintentionsbeforeacting,andontheresultsofhisactionsbothwhilehewasdoingthemandaftertheyweredone.IfRahulasawthathisintentionswouldleadtoharmforhimselforothers,heshouldn’tactonthem.Ifhesawthathisthoughts,words,ordeedsactuallyproducedharm,heshouldstopthemandresolvenevertorepeatthem,withoutatthesametimefallingintoremorse.If,ontheotherhand,hesawnoharmfulconsequencesfrom

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hisactions,heshouldtakejoyinhisprogressonthepath,andusethatjoytonourishhiscontinuedpractice.

AlthoughtheBuddhaaimedtheseinstructionsataseven-year-oldchild,thepatterntheyoutlineinformseverylevelofthepractice.Thewholepathtoawakeningconsistsofstickingtothedesirealwaystodothemostskillfulthing;itdevelopsasyoursenseof“skillful”getsmorerefined.Ifyouactonanunskillfuldesire,takeresponsibilityfortheconsequences,usingthemtoeducatethatdesireastowhereitwentwrong.Althoughdesirescanberemarkablystubborn,theyshareacommongoal—happiness—andthiscanformthecommongroundforaneffectivedialogue:Ifadesiredoesn’treallyproducehappiness,itcontradictsitsreasonforbeing.

Thebestwaytomakethispointistokeeptracingthethreadfromthedesiretoitsresultingactions,andfromtheactionstotheirconsequences.Ifthedesireaimedatahappinessthatcausedsufferingtoothers,noticehowtheircorrespondingdesireforhappinessleadsthemtounderminethehappinessyousought.Ifthedesireaimedatahappinessbasedonthingsthatcanage,growill,die,orleaveyou,noticehowthatfactsetsyouupforafall.Thennoticehowthedistressthatcomesfromactingonthissortofdesireisuniversal.It’snotjustyou.Everyonewhohasacted,isacting,orwillactonthatdesirehassufferedinthepast,issufferingrightnow,andwillsufferinthefuture.There’snowayaroundit.

Reflectingthiswayhelpstoweakenthe“whyme?”tendencythataggravatessufferingandmakesyouclingfiercelytothedesirecausingit.Italsohelpsdeveloptwoimportantattitudesthatstrengthenskillfuldesires:asenseofdismay(samvega)overtheuniversalityofsuffering,andanattitudeofheedfulness(appamada)toavoidbeingdupedbythatparticulartypeofdesireagain.

Unskillfuldesiresdon’treallygiveway,though,untilyoucanshowthatother,lesstroublesomedesiresactuallycanproducegreaterhappiness.ThisiswhytheBuddhaemphasizeslearninghowtoappreciatetherewardsofavirtuous,generouslife:thejoyinfosteringthehappinessofothers,thesoliddignityandself-worthindoingthehardbuttherightthing.It’salsowhyhispathcentersonstatesofblissful,refreshingconcentration.Accessingthisrefreshmentinyourmeditationgivesyouimmediate,visceralproofthattheBuddhawasnokilljoy.Thedesiresherecommendsreallydoproduceahappinessthatcangiveyouthestrengthtokeeponchoosingtheskillfulpath.

That’sthenextstep:patientlyandpersistentlystickingwiththedesire

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todotheskillfulthinginallsituations.Thisisn’tamatterofsheereffort.Asanygoodsportscoachwilltellyou,hoursofpracticedon’tnecessarilyguaranteeresults.Youhavetocombineyourpersistencewithintent:sensitivity,discernment,ingenuity.Keepaneyeoutforhowtodothingsmoreefficiently.Trytoseepatternsinwhatyoudo.Atthesametime,introduceplayandvarietyintoyourpracticesothattheplateausdon’tgetboring,andthedownsdon’tgetyoudown.

TheBuddhamakessimilarpointsinhismeditationinstructions.Onceyou’vemasteredastateofconcentration,seewhereitstillcontainselementsofstress.Thenlookforpatternstothatstress:whatareyoudoingtocauseit?Findwaystogladdenthemindwhenit’sdown,toliberateitfromitsconfinements,tosteadyitwhenitgetsrestless.Inthisway,asyoulearntoenjoyrisingtothechallengesofmeditation,youalsogainfamiliaritywithsubtlepatternsofcauseandeffectinthemind.

Thefourthstep,onceyou’vemasteredthosepatterns,istopushtheirlimits.Again,thisisn’tsimplyamatterofincreasedeffort.It’smorearekindlingofyourimaginationtoexploretheunexpectedside-alleysofcauseandeffect.Afamouscellistoncesaidthathismostexhilaratingconcertwasoneinwhichhebrokeastringonhiscelloanddecidedtofinishthepiecehewasplayingontheremainingstrings,refingeringitonthespot.Themostobviousstringsinmeditationarethespecifictechniquesforfosteringstillnessandinsight,butthemoreinterestingonesaretheassumptionsthatunderliethequestforskill:lack,strategy,dialogue,yoursenseofself.Canyoulearntodowithoutthem?Therecomesapointinyourmeditationwhentheonlywayforgreaterhappinessistobeginquestioningtheseassumptions.Andthisleadstosomeintriguingparadoxes:Ifdesirespringsfromasenseoflackorlimitation,whathappenstodesirewhenitproducesahappinesswithnolackorlimitationatall?What’sitlikenottoneeddesire?Whatwouldhappentoyourinnerdialogue,yoursenseofself?Andifdesireishowyoutakeyourplaceinspaceandtime,whathappenstospaceandtimewhendesireisabsent?

TheBuddhaencouragedthesequeriesbydescribingtheawakenedpersonassoundefinedandunlimitedthatheorshecouldn’tbelocatedinthepresentlifeorbedescribedafterthislifeasexisting,notexisting,neither,orboth.Thismaysoundlikeanabstractandunreachablegoal,buttheBuddhademonstrateditshumanfaceintheexampleofhisperson.Havingpushedpastthelimitsofcauseandeffect,hewasstillabletofunctionadmirablywithinthem,inthislife,happyineventhemostdifficultcircumstances,compassionatelyteachingpeopleofeverysort.

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Andthere’shistestimonythatnotonlymonksandnuns,butalsolaypeople—evenchildren—haddevelopedtheirskillfuldesirestothepointwheretheygainedatasteofawakeningaswell.

Soimaginethat.Andlistentoanydesirethatwouldtakeyouinthatdirection,forthat’syourpathtotruehappiness.

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AllAboutChange

ChangeisthefocalpointforBuddhistinsight—afactsowellknownthatithasspawnedafamiliarsoundbite:“Isn’tchangewhatBuddhismisallabout?”What’slesswellknownisthatthisfocushasaframe,thatchangeisneitherwhereinsightbeginsnorwhereitends.Insightbeginswithaquestionthatevaluateschangeinlightofthedesirefortruehappiness.Itendswithahappinessthatliesbeyondchange.Whenthisframeisforgotten,peoplecreatetheirowncontextsfortheteachingandoftenassumethattheBuddhawasoperatingwithinthosesamecontexts.TwoofthecontextscommonlyattributedtotheBuddhaatpresentarethese:

Insightintochangeteachesustoembraceourexperienceswithoutclingingtothem—togetthemostoutoftheminthepresentmomentbyfullyappreciatingtheirintensity,infullknowledgethatwewillsoonhavetoletthemgotoembracewhatevercomesnext.

Insightintochangeteachesushope.Becausechangeisbuiltintothenatureofthings,nothingisinherentlyfixed,notevenourownidentity.Nomatterhowbadthesituation,anythingispossible.Wecandowhateverwewanttodo,createwhateverworldwewanttolivein,andbecomewhateverwewanttobe.

Thefirstoftheseinterpretationsofferswisdomonhowtoconsumethepleasuresofimmediate,personalexperiencewhenyou’drathertheynotchange;thesecond,onhowtoproducechangewhenyouwantit.Althoughsometimespresentedascomplementaryinsights,theseinterpretationscontainapracticalconflict:Ifexperiencesaresofleetingandchangeable,aretheyworththeeffortneededtoproducethem?Howcanwefindgenuinehopeintheprospectofpositivechangeifwecan’tfullyrestintheresultswhentheyarrive?Aren’twejustsettingourselvesupfordisappointment?

Oristhisjustoneoftheunavoidableparadoxesoflife?Ancientfolkwisdomfrommanycultureswouldsuggestso,advisingusthatweshouldapproachchangewithcautiousjoyandstoicequanimity:trainingourselvestonottogetattachedtotheresultsofouractions,andaccepting

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withoutquestiontheneedtokeeponproducingfleetingpleasuresasbestwecan,fortheonlyalternativewouldbeinactionanddespair.Thisviewpoint,too,isoftenattributedtotheBuddha.

ButtheBuddhawasnotthesortofpersontoacceptthingswithoutquestion.Hiswisdomlayinrealizingthattheeffortthatgoesintotheproductionofhappinessisworthwhileonlyiftheprocessesofchangecanbeskillfullymanagedtoarriveatahappinessresistanttochange.Otherwise,we’relife-longprisonersinaforced-laborcamp,compelledtokeeponproducingpleasurableexperiencestoassuageourhunger,andyetfindingthemsoemptyofanyrealessencethattheycanneverleaveusfull.

Theserealizationsareimplicitinthequestionthat,accordingtotheBuddha,liesatthebeginningofinsight:

“What,whenIdoit,willleadtomylong-termwell-beingandhappiness?”

Thisisaheartfeltquestion,motivatedbythedesirebehindallaction:toattainlevelsofpleasureworthyoftheeffortthatgoesintothem.Itspringsfromtherealizationthatliferequireseffort,andthatifwearen’tcarefulwholelifetimescanbelivedinvain.Thisquestion,togetherwiththerealizationsanddesiresbehindit,providesthecontextfortheBuddha’sperspectiveonchange.Ifweexamineitclosely,wefindtheseedsforallhisinsightsintotheproductionandconsumptionofchange.

Thefirstphraseinthequestion—“What,whenIdoit,willleadto….”—focusesontheissuesofproduction,onthepotentialeffectsofhumanaction.PriortohisAwakening,theBuddhahadlefthomeandgoneintothewildernesstoexplorepreciselythisissue:toseehowfarhumanactioncouldgo,andwhetheritcouldleadtoadimensionbeyondthereachofchange.HisAwakeningwasconfirmationthatitcould—ifdevelopedtotheappropriatelevelofskillfulness.Hethustaughtthattherearefourtypesofaction,correspondingtofourlevelsofskill:threethatproducepleasant,unpleasant,andmixedexperienceswithinthecyclesofspaceandtime;andafourththatleadsbeyondactiontoalevelofhappinesstranscendingthedimensionsofspaceandtime,thuseliminatingtheneedtoproduceanyfurtherhappiness.

Becausetheactivitiesofproducingandconsumingrequirespaceandtime,ahappinesstranscendingspaceandtime,byitsverynature,isneitherproducednorconsumed.Thus,whentheBuddhareachedthathappinessandsteppedoutsidethemodesofproducingandconsuming,hewasabletoturnbackandseeexactlyhowpervasivearoletheseactivitiesplayinordinaryexperience,andhowimprisoningtheynormally

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are.Hesawthatourexperienceofthepresentisanactivity—somethingfabricatedorproduced,momenttomoment,fromtherawmaterialprovidedbypastactions.Weevenfabricateouridentity,oursenseofwhoweare.Atthesametime,wetrytoconsumeanypleasurethatcanbefoundinwhatwe’veproduced—althoughinourdesiretoconsumepleasure,weoftengobbledownpain.Witheverymoment,productionandconsumptionareintertwined:Weconsumeexperiencesasweproducethem,andproducethemasweconsume.Thewayweconsumeourpleasuresorpainscanproducefurtherpleasuresorpains,nowandintothefuture,dependingonhowskillfulweare.

ThethreepartsofthelatterphraseintheBuddha’squestion—“my/long-term/well-beingandhappiness”—providestandardsforgaugingthelevelofourskillinapproachingtruepleasureorhappiness.(ThePaliword,here—sukha—canbetranslatedaspleasure,happiness,ease,orbliss.)Weapplythesestandardstotheexperiencesweconsume:iftheyaren’tlong-term,thennomatterhowpleasanttheymightbe,theyaren’ttruehappiness.Ifthey’renottruehappiness,there’snoreasontoclaimthemas“mine.”

ThisinsightformsthebasisfortheThreeCharacteristicsthattheBuddhataughtforinducingasenseofdispassionfornormaltime-andspace-boundexperience.Anicca,thefirstofthethree,ispivotal.Aniccaappliestoeverythingthatchanges.Oftentranslatedas“impermanent,”it’sactuallythenegativeofnicca,whichmeansconstantordependable.Everythingthatchangesisinconstant.Now,thedifferencebetween“impermanent”and“inconstant”mayseemsemantic,butit’scrucialtothewayaniccafunctionsintheBuddha’steachings.Astheearlytextsstaterepeatedly,ifsomethingisaniccathentheothertwocharacteristicsautomaticallyfollow:it’sdukkha(stressful)andanatta(not-self),i.e.,notworthytobeclaimedasmeormine.

Ifwetranslateaniccaasimpermanent,theconnectionamongtheseThreeCharacteristicsmightseemdebatable.Butifwetranslateitasinconstant,andconsidertheThreeCharacteristicsinlightoftheBuddha’soriginalquestion,theconnectionisclear.Ifyou’reseekingadependablebasisforlong-termhappinessandease,anythinginconstantisobviouslyastressfulplacetopinyourhopes—liketryingtorelaxinanunstablechairwhoselegsareliabletobreakatanytime.Ifyouunderstandthatyoursenseofselfissomethingwilledandfabricated—thatyouchoosetocreateit—there’snocompellingreasontokeepcreatinga“me”or“mine”aroundanyexperiencethat’sinconstantandstressful.Youwantsomethingbetter.Youdon’twanttomakethatexperiencethegoalofyour

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practice.Sowhatdoyoudowithexperiencesthatareinconstantandstressful?

Youcouldtreatthemasworthlessandthrowthemaway,butthatwouldbewasteful.Afterall,youwenttothetroubletofabricatetheminthefirstplace;and,asitturnsout,theonlywayyoucanreachthegoalisbyutilizingexperiencesofjustthissort.Soyoucanlearnhowtousethemasmeanstothegoal;andtheroletheycanplayinservingthatpurposeisdeterminedbythetypeofactivitythatwentintoproducingthem:thetypethatproducesapleasureconducivetothegoal,orthetypethatdoesn’t.Thosethatdo,theBuddhalabeledthe“path.”Theseactivitiesincludeactsofgenerosity,actsofvirtue,andthepracticeofmentalabsorption,orconcentration.EventhoughtheyfallundertheThreeCharacteristics,theseactivitiesproduceasenseofpleasurerelativelystableandsecure,moredeeplygratifyingandnourishingthantheactofproducingandconsumingordinarysensualpleasures.Soifyou’reaimingathappinesswithinthecyclesofchange,youshouldlooktogenerosity,virtue,andmentalabsorptiontoproducethathappiness.Butifyou’dratheraimforahappinessgoingbeyondchange,thesesameactivitiescanstillhelpyoubyfosteringtheclarityofmindneededforAwakening.Eitherway,they’reworthmasteringasskills.They’reyourbasicsetoftools,soyouwanttokeepthemingoodshapeandreadytohand.

Asforotherpleasuresandpains—suchasthoseinvolvedinsensualpursuitsandinsimplyhavingabodyandmind—thesecanserveastheobjectsyoufashionwithyourtools,asrawmaterialsforthediscernmentleadingtoAwakening.BycarefullyexaminingtheminlightoftheirThreeCharacteristics—toseeexactlyhowthey’reinconstant,stressful,andnot-self—youbecomelessinclinedtokeeponproducingandconsumingthem.Youseethatyouraddictivecompulsiontofabricatethemcomesentirelyfromthehungerandignoranceembodiedinstatesofpassion,aversion,anddelusion.Whentheserealizationsgiverisetodispassionbothforfabricatedexperiencesandfortheprocessesoffabrication,youenterthepathofthefourthkindofkamma,leadingtotheDeathless.

Thispathcontainstwoimportantturns.Thefirstcomeswhenallpassionandaversionforsensualpleasuresandpainshasbeenabandoned,andyouronlyremainingattachmentistothepleasureofconcentration.Atthispoint,youturnandexaminethepleasureofconcentrationintermsofthesameThreeCharacteristicsyouusedtocontemplatesensualexperiences.Thedifficultyhereisthatyou’vecometorelysostronglyonthesolidityofyourconcentrationthatyou’drathernotlookforitsdrawbacks.Atthesametime,theinconstancyofaconcentratedmindis

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muchmoresubtlethanthatofsensualexperiences.Butonceyouovercomeyourunwillingnesstolookforthatinconstancy,thedayissuretocomewhenyoudetectit.AndthenthemindcanbeinclinedtotheDeathless.

That’swherethesecondturnoccurs.Asthetextspointout,whenthemindencounterstheDeathlessitcantreatitasamind-object—adhamma—andthenproduceafeelingofpassionanddelightforit.Thefabricatedsenseoftheselfthat’sproducingandconsumingthispassionanddelightthusgetsinthewayoffullAwakening.SoatthispointthelogicoftheThreeCharacteristicshastotakeanewturn.Theiroriginallogic—“Whateverisinconstantisstressful;whateverisstressfulisnot-self”—leavesopenthepossibilitythatwhateverisconstantcouldbe(1)easefuland(2)self.Thefirstpossibilityisinfactthecase:whateverisconstantiseaseful;theDeathlessisactuallytheultimateease.Butthesecondpossibilityisn’taskillfulwayofregardingwhat’sconstant:ifyoulatchontowhat’sconstantasself,you’restuckonyourattachment.Togobeyondspaceandtime,youhavetogobeyondfabricatingtheproducingandconsumingself,whichiswhytheconcludinginsightofthepathis:“Alldhammas”—constantornot—“arenot-self.”

WhenthisinsighthasdoneitsworkinovercominganypassionordelightfortheDeathless,fullAwakeningoccurs.Andatthatpoint,eventhepathisrelinquished,andtheDeathlessremains,althoughnolongerasanobjectofthemind.It’ssimplythere,radicallypriortoandseparatefromthefabricationofspaceandtime.Allconsumingandproducingforthesakeofyourownhappinesscomestoanend,foratimelesswellbeinghasbeenfound.Andbecauseallmind-objectsareabandonedinthishappiness,questionsofconstantorinconstant,stressorease,selfornot-selfarenolongeranissue.

This,then,isthecontextofBuddhistinsightintochange:anapproachthattakesseriouslyboththepotentialeffectsofhumaneffortandthebasichumandesirethateffortnotgotowaste,thatchangehavethepotentialtoleadtoahappinessbeyondthereachofchange.Thisinsightisfocusedondevelopingtheskillsthatleadtotheproductionofgenuinehappiness.ItemploystheThreeCharacteristics—ofinconstancy,stress,andnot-self—notasabstractstatementsaboutexistence,butasinducementformasteringthoseskillsandasguidelinesformeasuringyourprogressalongtheway.Whenusedinthisway,theThreeCharacteristicsleadtoahappinesstranscendingtheThreeCharacteristics,theactivitiesofproducingandconsuming,andspaceandtimeasawhole.

WhenweunderstandthiscontextfortheThreeCharacteristics,we

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canclearlyseethehalf-truthscontainedintheinsightsontheproductionandconsumptionofchangethatarecommonlymisattributedtotheBuddha.Withregardtoproduction:Althoughitmaybetruethat,withenoughpatienceandpersistence,wecanproducejustaboutanythingfromtherawmaterialofthepresentmoment,includinganamazingarrayofself-identities,thequestionis:what’sworthproducing?We’veimprisonedourselveswithourobsessionforproducingandconsumingchangeablepleasuresandchangeableselves,andyetthere’sthepossibilityofusingchangetoescapefromthisprisontothefreedomofahappinesstranscendingtimeandspace.Dowewanttotakeadvantageofthatpossibility,orwouldweratherspendoursparehoursblowingbubblesinthesunlightcomingthroughourprisonwindowsandtryingtoderivehappinessfromtheirswirlingpatternsbeforetheyburst?

Thisquestiontiesinwithwisdomonconsumption:Gettingthemostoutofourchangingexperiencesdoesn’tmeanembracingthemormilkingthemoftheirintensity.Insteaditmeanslearningtoapproachthepleasuresandpainstheyoffer,notasfleetingendsinthemselves,butastoolsforAwakening.Witheverymomentwe’resuppliedwithrawmaterials—someofthemattractive,someofthemnot.Insteadofembracingthemindelightorthrowingthemawayindisgust,wecanlearnhowtousethemtoproducethekeysthatwillunlockourprisondoors.

Andasforthewisdomofnon-attachmenttotheresultsofouractions:intheBuddha’scontext,thisnotioncanmakesenseonlyifwecaredeeplyabouttheresultsofouractionsandwanttomastertheprocessesofcauseandeffectthatleadtogenuinefreedom.Inotherwords,wedon’tdemandchildishlythatouractions—skillfulornot—alwaysresultinimmediatehappiness,thateverythingwestickintothelockwillautomaticallyunlatchthedoor.Ifwhatwehavedonehasbeenunskillfulandledtoundesirableresults,wewanttoadmitourmistakesandfindoutwhytheyweremistakessothatwecanlearnhowtocorrectthemthenexttimearound.Onlywhenwehavethepatiencetolookobjectivelyattheresultsofouractionswillwebeabletolearn,bystudyingthekeysthatdon’tunlockthedoors,howfinallytomaketherightkeysthatdo.

Withthisattitudewecanmakethemostoftheprocessesofchangetodeveloptheskillthatreleasesusfromtheprisonofendlessproducingandconsuming.Withrelease,weplungeintothefreedomofahappinesssotruethatittranscendsthetermsoftheoriginalquestionthatledusthere.There’snothingfurtherwehavetodo;oursenseof“my”and“mine”isdiscarded;andeventhe“long-term,”whichimpliestime,iserasedbythetimeless.Thehappinessremainingliesradicallybeyondtherangeofour

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time-andspace-boundconceptionsofhappiness.Totallyindependentofmind-objects,it’sunadulteratedandunalterable,unlimitedandpure.Asthetextstellus,itevenliesbeyondtherangeof“totality”and“theAll.”

Andthat’swhatBuddhistpracticeisallabout.

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TheRootsofBuddhistRomanticism

ManyWesterners,whennewtoBuddhism,arestruckbytheuncannyfamiliarityofwhatseemtobeitscentralconcepts:interconnectedness,wholeness,ego-transcendence.Butwhattheymaynotrealizeisthattheconceptssoundfamiliarbecausetheyarefamiliar.Toalargeextent,theycomenotfromtheBuddha’steachingsbutfromtheDharmagateofWesternpsychology,throughwhichtheBuddha’swordshavebeenfiltered.TheydrawlessfromtherootsourcesoftheDharmathanfromtheirownhiddenrootsinWesternculture:thethoughtoftheGermanRomantics.

TheGermanRomanticsmaybedeadandalmostforgotten,buttheirideasarestillverymuchalive.Theirthoughthassurvivedbecausetheywerethefirsttotackletheproblemofhowitfeelstogrowupinamodernsociety.Theiranalysisoftheproblem,togetherwiththeirproposedsolution,stillringstrue.

Modernsociety,theysaw,isdehumanizinginthatitdenieshumanbeingstheirwholeness.Thespecializationoflaborleadstofeelingsoffragmentationandisolation;thebureaucraticstate,tofeelingsofregimentationandconstriction.Theonlycureforthesefeelings,theRomanticsproposed,isthecreativeartisticact.Thisactintegratesthedividedselfanddissolvesitsboundariesinanenlargedsenseofidentityandinterconnectednesswithotherhumanbeingsandnatureatlarge.Humanbeingsaremostfullyhumanwhenfreetocreatespontaneouslyfromtheheart.Theheart’screationsarewhatallowpeopletoconnect.AlthoughmanyRomanticsregardedreligiousinstitutionsanddoctrinesasdehumanizing,someofthemturnedtoreligiousexperience—adirectfeelingofonenesswiththewholeofnature—asaprimarysourceforre-humanization.

WhenpsychologyandpsychotherapydevelopedasdisciplinesintheWest,theyabsorbedmanyoftheRomantics’ideasandbroadcastthemintothecultureatlarge.Asaresult,conceptssuchasintegrationofthepersonality,self-fulfillment,andinterconnectedness,togetherwiththehealingpowersofwholeness,spontaneity,playfulness,andfluidityhavelongbeenpartoftheairwebreathe.Sohastheideathatreligionisa

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primarilyaquestforafeeling-experience,andreligiousdoctrinesareacreativeresponsetothatexperience.

Inadditiontoinfluencingpsychology,theseconceptionsinspiredliberalChristianityandreformJudaism,whichproposedthattraditionaldoctrineshadtobecreativelyrecasttospeaktoeachnewgenerationinordertokeepreligiousexperiencevitalandalive.SoitwasonlynaturalthatwhentheDharmacamewest,peopleinterpreteditinlinewiththeseconceptionsaswell.Asianteachers—manyofwhomhadabsorbedRomanticideasthroughWesternizededucationbeforecominghere—foundtheycouldconnectwithWesternaudiencesbystressingthemesofspontaneityandfluidityinoppositiontothe“bureaucracyoftheego.”Westernstudentsdiscoveredthattheycouldrelatetothedoctrineofdependentco-arisingwhenitwasinterpretedasavariationoninterconnectedness;andtheycouldembracethedoctrineofnot-selfasadenialoftheseparateselfinfavorofalarger,moreencompassingidentitywiththeentirecosmos.

Infact,theRomanticviewofreligiouslifehasshapedmorethanjustisolatedDharmateachings.ItcolorstheWesternviewofthepurposeofDharmapracticeasawhole.WesternteachersfromalltraditionsmaintainthattheaimofBuddhistpracticeistogainthecreativefluiditythatovercomesdualities.Asoneauthorhasputit,theBuddhataughtthat“dissolvingthebarriersthatweerectbetweenourselvesandtheworldisthebestuseofourhumanlives….[Egolessness]manifestsasinquisitiveness,asadaptability,ashumor,asplayfulness…ourcapacitytorelaxwithnotknowing.”Orasanotherhassaid,“Whenouridentityexpandstoincludeeverything,wefindapeacewiththedanceoftheworld.”Addsathird:“Ourjobfortherestofourlifeistoopenupintothatimmensityandtoexpressit.”

JustastheChinesehadTaoismastheirDharmagate—thehome-growntraditionprovidingconceptsthathelpedthemunderstandtheDharma—weintheWesthaveRomanticismasours.TheChineseexperiencewithDharmagates,though,containsanimportantlessonthatisoftenoverlooked.AfterthreecenturiesofinterestinBuddhistteachings,theybegantorealizethatBuddhismandTaoismwereaskingdifferentquestions.Astheyrootedoutthesedifferences,theystartedusingBuddhistideastoquestiontheirTaoistpresuppositions.ThiswashowBuddhism,insteadofturningintoadropintheTaoistsea,wasabletoinjectsomethinggenuinelynewintoChineseculture.ThequestionhereintheWestiswhetherwewilllearnfromtheChineseexampleandstartusingBuddhistideastoquestionourDharmagate,toseeexactlyhowfar

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thesimilaritiesbetweenthegateandtheactualDharmago.Ifwedon’t,werunthedangerofmistakingthegatefortheDharmaitself,andofnevergoingthroughittotheotherside.

Takenbroadly,RomanticismandtheDharmaviewspirituallifeinasimilarlight.Bothregardreligionasaproductofhumanactivity,ratherthandivineintervention.Bothregardtheessenceofreligionasexperientialandpragmatic;anditsroleastherapeutic,aimedatcuringthediseasesofthehumanmind.Butifyouexaminethehistoricalrootsofbothtraditions,youfindthattheydisagreesharplynotonlyonthenatureofreligiousexperience,butalsoonthenatureofthementaldiseasesitcantreatandonthenatureofwhatitmeanstobecured.

Thesedifferencesaren’tjusthistoricalcuriosities.Theyshapethepresuppositionsthatmeditatorsbringtothepractice.Evenwhenfullypresent,themindcarriesalongitspastpresuppositions,usingthemtojudgewhichexperiences—ifany—shouldbevalued.ThisisoneoftheimplicationsoftheBuddhistdoctrineonkarma.Aslongasthesepresuppositionsremainunexamined,theyholdanunknownpower.Sotobreakthatpower,weneedtoexaminetherootsoftheBuddhistRomanticism—theDharmaasseenthroughtheRomanticgate.AndfortheexaminationtojibewithBuddhistideasofcausality,wehavetolookforthoserootsintwodirections:intothepastfortheoriginofRomanticideas,andintothepresentfortheconditionsthatkeepRomanticideasattractiveinthehereandnow.

TheRomanticstooktheiroriginalinspirationfromanunexpectedsource:Kant,thewizenedoldprofessorwhosedailywalksweresopunctualthathisneighborscouldsettheirclocksbyhim.InhisCritiqueofJudgmenthetaughtthataestheticcreationandfeelingwerethehighestactivitiesofthehumanmind,inthattheyalonecouldhealthedichotomiesofhumanexperience.FriedrichSchiller(1759-1805),perhapsthemostinfluentialRomanticphilosopher,elaboratedonthisthesiswithhisnotionoftheaesthetic“playdrive”astheultimateexpressionofhumanfreedom,beyondboththecompulsionsofanimalexistenceandthelawsofreason,bringingbothintointegration.Man,hesaid,“isfullyahumanbeingonlywhenheplays.”

InSchiller’seyes,thisplaydrivenotonlyintegratedtheself,butalsohelpeddissolveone’sseparationfromotherhumanbeingsandthenaturalenvironmentasawhole.Apersonwiththeinternalfreedomneededforself-integrationwouldinstinctivelywantotherstoexperiencethesame

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freedomaswell.ThisconnectionexplainstheRomanticpoliticalprogramofofferinghelpandsympathyfortheoppressedofallnationsinoverthrowingtheiroppressors.Thevalueofinternalunity,intheireyes,wasprovenbyitsabilitytocreatebondsofunityintheworldofsocialandpoliticalaction.

Schillersawtheprocessofintegrationasunending:perfectunitycouldneverbeachieved.Ameaningfullifewasonecontinuallyengagedintheprocessofintegration.Thepathwasthegoal.

Itwasalsototallyunpatternedandunconstrained.Giventhefreenatureoftheplaydrive,eachperson’spathtointegrationwasindividualandunique.

Schiller’scolleague,FriedrichSchleiermacher(1768-1834),appliedtheseideastoreligion,concludingthatit,likeanyotherartform,wasahumancreation,andthatitsgreatestfunctionlayinhealingthesplitsbothwithinthehumanpersonalityandinhumansocietyatlarge.Hedefinedtheessenceofreligionas“thesensibilityandtastefortheinfinite,”whichbeginsinthereceptivemindstatewhereawarenessopenstotheinfinite.Thisfeelingfortheinfiniteisfollowedbyanactofthecreativeimagination,whicharticulatesthatfeelingtooneselfandothers.Becausethesecreativeacts—andthusallreligiousdoctrines—areastepremovedfromtherealityoftheexperience,theyareconstantlyopentoimprovementandchange.

Afewquotationsfromhisessays,OnReligion,willgiveasenseofSchleiermacher’sthought.

“Theindividualisnotjustpartofawhole,butanexhibitionofit.Themind,liketheuniverseiscreative,notjustreceptive.Whoeverhaslearnedtobemorethanhimselfknowsthatheloseslittlewhenheloseshimself.Ratherthanalignthemselveswithabeliefofpersonalimmortalityafterdeath,thetrulyreligiouswouldprefertostrivetoannihilatetheirpersonalityandliveintheoneandintheall.”

“Whereisreligionchieflytobesought?Wherethelivingcontactofahumanbeingwiththeworldfashionsitselfasfeeling.Trulyreligiouspeoplearetolerantofdifferenttranslationsofthisfeeling,eventhehesitationofatheism.Nottohavethedivineimmediatelypresentinone’sfeelingshasalwaysseemedtothemmoreirreligiousthansuchahesitation.Toinsistononeparticularconceptionofthedivinetobetrueisfarfromreligion.”

SchillerandSchleiermacherbothhadastronginfluenceonRalph

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WaldoEmerson,whichcaneasilybeseeninthelatter’swritings.We’resometimestoldthatEmersonwasinfluencedbyEasternreligions,butactuallyhisreadingsinBuddhismandHinduismsimplyprovidedchapterandverseforthelessonshehadalreadylearnedfromtheEuropeanRomantics.

“Bringthepastintothe1000-eyedpresentandliveeverinanewday.Withconsistencyagreatsoulhassimplynothingtodo.Theessenceofgenius,ofvirtue,andoflifeiswhatiscalledSpontaneityorInstinct.Everymanknowsthattohisinvoluntaryperceptionsaperfectfaithisdue.”

“Thereasonwhytheworldlacksunityisbecausemanisdisunitedwithhimself….Weliveinsuccession,indivision,inparts,inparticles.Meanwhile,withinmanisthesoulofthewhole,thewisesilence,theuniversalbeauty,towhicheverypartandparticleisequallyrelated,theeternalOne.Andthisdeeppowerinwhichweexist,andwhosebeatitudeisallaccessibletous,isnotonlyself-sufficingandperfectineveryhour,buttheactofseeingandthethingseen,theseerandthespectacle,thesubjectandtheobject,areone.”

Atpresent,theRomanticsandTranscendentalistsarerarelyreadoutsideofliteratureortheologyclasses.Theirideashavelivedoninthegeneralculturelargelybecausetheywereadoptedbythedisciplineofpsychologyandtranslatedintoavocabularythatwasbothmorescientificandmoreaccessibletothepublicatlarge.OneofthemostcrucialtranslatorswasWilliamJames,whogavethepsychologicalstudyofreligionitsmodernformacenturyago,in1902,withthepublicationofTheVarietiesofReligiousExperience.James’broadsympathiesextendedbeyondWesternculturetoincludeBuddhismandHinduism,andbeyondthe“acceptable”religionsofhistimetoincludetheMentalCulturemovement,the19thcentury’sversionoftheNewAge.Hisinterestindiversitymakeshimseemamazinglypost-modern.

Still,Jameswasinfluencedbytheintellectualcurrentsaliveinhistime,whichshapedthewayheconvertedhislargemassofdataintoapsychologyofreligion.Althoughhespokeasascientist,thecurrentwiththedeepestinfluenceonhisthoughtwasRomanticism.

HefollowedtheRomanticsinsayingthatthefunctionofreligiousexperiencewastohealthesenseof“dividedself,”creatingamoreintegratedself-identitybetterabletofunctioninsociety.However,tobescientific,thepsychologyofreligionmustnotsidefororagainstanytruthclaimsconcerningthecontentofreligiousexperiences.Forinstance,

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manyreligiousexperiencesproduceastrongconvictionintheonenessofthecosmosasawhole.Althoughscientificobserversshouldacceptthefeelingofonenessasafact,theyshouldn’ttakeitasproofthatthecosmosisindeedone.Instead,theyshouldjudgeeachexperiencebyitseffectsonthepersonality.Jameswasnotdisturbedbythemanymutuallycontradictorytruth-claimsthatreligiousexperienceshaveproducedoverthecenturies.Inhiseyes,differenttemperamentsneeddifferenttruthsasmedicinetohealtheirpsychologicalwounds.

DrawingonMethodismtoprovidetwocategoriesforclassifyingallreligiousexperiences—conversionandsanctification—JamesgaveaRomanticinterpretationtoboth.FortheMethodists,thesecategoriesappliedspecificallytothesoul’srelationshiptoGod.ConversionwastheturningofthesoultoGod’swill;sanctification,theattunementofthesoultoGod’swillinallitsactions.Toapplythesecategoriestootherreligions,JamesremovedthereferencestoGod,leavingamoreRomanticdefinition:conversionunifiesthepersonality;sanctificationrepresentstheon-goingintegrationofthatunificationintodailylife.

Also,JamesfollowedtheRomanticsinjudgingtheeffectsofbothtypesofexperiencesinthis-worldlyterms.Conversionexperiencesarehealthywhentheyfosterhealthysanctification:theabilitytomaintainone’sintegrityintheroughandtumbleofdailylife,actingasamoralandresponsiblememberofhumansociety.Inpsychologicalterms,Jamessawconversionassimplyanextremeexampleofthebreakthroughsordinarilyencounteredinadolescence.AndheagreedwiththeRomanticsthatpersonalintegrationwasaprocesstobepursuedthroughoutlife,ratherthanagoaltobeachieved.

OtherwriterswhotookupthepsychologyofreligionafterJamesdevisedamorescientificvocabularytoanalyzetheirdata.Still,theymaintainedmanyoftheRomanticnotionsthatJameshadintroducedintothefield.

Forexample,inModernManinSearchofaSoul(1933),CarlJungagreedthatreligion’sproperrolelayinhealingofdivisionswithinthepersonality,althoughhesawthesamebasicsplitineveryone:thenarrow,fearfulegovs.thewiser,morespaciousunconscious.Thusheregardedreligionasaprimitiveformofpsychotherapy.Infact,heactuallylaycloserthanJamestotheRomanticsinhisdefinitionofpsychichealth.QuotingSchiller’sassertionthathumanbeingsaremosthumanwhentheyareatplay,Jungsawthecultivationofspontaneityandfluiditybothasameansforintegratingthedividedpersonalityandasanexpressionofthehealthypersonalityengagedintheunendingprocessofintegration,internaland

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external,throughoutlife.UnlikeJames,Jungsawtheintegratedpersonalityaslyingabovethe

rigidconfinesofmorality.And,althoughhedidn’tusetheterm,heextolledwhatKeatscalled“negativecapability”:theabilitytodealcomfortablywithuncertaintiesandmysterieswithouttryingtoimposeconfiningcertaintiesonthem.ThusJungrecommendedborrowingfromreligionsanyteachingsthatassisttheprocessofintegration,whilerejectinganyteachingsthatwouldinhibitthespontaneityoftheintegratedself.

InReligions,Values,andPeak-Experiences(1970),AbrahamMaslow,theAmerican“fatheroftranspersonalpsychology,”dividedreligiousexperiencesintothesametwocategoriesusedbyJames.Butinanattempttodivorcethesecategoriesfromanyparticulartradition,henamedthemaftertheshapetheywouldassumeifgraphedovertime:peak-experiencesandplateau-experiences.Thesetermshavenowenteredthecommonvernacular.Peak-experiencesareshort-livedfeelingsofonenessandintegrationthatcancome,notonlyintheareaofreligion,butalsoinsport,sex,andart.Plateau-experiencesexhibitamorestablesenseofintegrationandlastmuchlonger.

Maslowhadlittleusefortraditionalinterpretationsofpeakexperiences,regardingthemasculturaloverlaysthatobscuredthetruenatureoftheexperience.Assumingallpeakexperiences,regardlessofcauseorcontext,tobebasicallythesame,hereducedthemtotheircommonpsychologicalfeatures,suchasfeelingsofwholeness,dichotomy-transcendence,playfulness,andeffortlessness.Thusreduced,hefound,theyweren’toflastingvalueunlesstheycouldbetransformedintoplateauexperiences.Tothisendhesawpsychotherapyasnecessaryfortheirperfection:integratingthemintoaregimeofcounselingandeducationthatwouldactualizethefullpotentialofthehumanbeing—intellectual,physical,social,sexual—inasocietywhereallareasoflifearesacred,andplateau-experiencescommonplaceforall.

Thesethreewritersonthepsychologyofreligion,despitetheirdifferences,keptRomanticideasaboutreligionaliveintheWestbygivingthemthescientificstampofapproval.Throughtheirinfluence,theseideashaveshapedhumanisticpsychologyand—throughhumanisticpsychology—theexpectationsmanyAmericansbringtotheDharma.

However,whenwecomparetheseexpectationswiththeoriginalprinciplesoftheDharma,wefindradicaldifferences.Thecontrastbetweenthemisespeciallystrongaroundthethreemostcentralissuesof

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spirituallife:Whatistheessenceofreligiousexperience?Whatisthebasicillnessthatreligiousexperiencecancure?Andwhatdoesitmeantobecured?

Thenatureofreligiousexperience.Forhumanisticpsychology,asfortheRomantics,religiousexperienceisadirectfeeling,ratherthanthediscoveryofobjectivetruths.Theessentialfeelingisaonenessovercomingallinnerandouterdivisions.Theseexperiencescomeintwosorts:peakexperiences,inwhichthesenseofonenessbreaksthroughdivisionsanddualities;andplateauexperiences,where—throughtraining—thesenseofonenesscreatesashealthysenseofself,informingallofone’sactivitiesineverydaylife.

However,theDharmaasexpoundedinitsearliestrecordsplacestraininginonenessandahealthysenseofselfpriortothemostdramaticreligiousexperiences.Ahealthysenseofselfisfosteredthroughtrainingingenerosityandvirtue.Asenseofoneness—peakorplateau—isattainedinmundanelevelsofconcentration(jhana)thatconstitutethepath,ratherthanthegoalofpractice.Theultimatereligiousexperience,Awakening,issomethingelseentirely.Itisdescribed,notintermsoffeeling,butofknowledge:skillfulmasteryoftheprinciplesofcausalityunderlyingactionsandtheirresults,followedbydirectknowledgeofthedimensionbeyondcausalitywhereallsufferingstops.

Thebasicspiritualillness.Romantic/humanisticpsychologystatesthattherootofsufferingisasenseofdividedself,whichcreatesnotonlyinnerboundaries—betweenreasonandemotion,bodyandmind,egoandshadow—butalsoouterones,separatingusfromotherpeopleandfromnatureandthecosmosasawhole.TheDharma,however,teachesthattheessenceofsufferingisclinging,andthatthemostbasicformofclingingisself-identification,regardlessofwhetherone’ssenseofselfisfiniteorinfinite,fluidorstatic,unitaryornot.

Thesuccessfulspiritualcure.Romantic/humanisticpsychologymaintainsthatatotal,finalcureisunattainable.Instead,thecureisanongoingprocessofpersonalintegration.Theenlightenedpersonismarkedbyanenlarged,fluidsenseofself,unencumberedbymoralrigidity.Guidedprimarilybywhatfeelsrightinthecontextofinterconnectedness,onenegotiateswithease—likeadancer—therolesandrhythmsoflife.Havinglearnedthecreativeanswertothequestion,“Whatismytrueidentity?”,oneisfreedfromtheneedforcertaintiesaboutanyoflife’sothermysteries.

TheDharma,however,teachesthatfullAwakeningachievesatotal

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cure,openingtotheunconditionedbeyondtimeandspace,atwhichpointthetaskisdone.Theawakenedpersonthenfollowsapath“thatcan’tbetraced,”butisincapableoftransgressingthebasicprinciplesofmorality.Suchapersonrealizesthatthequestion,“Whatismytrueidentity?”wasill-conceived,andknowsfromdirectexperiencethetotalreleasefromtimeandspacethatwillhappenatdeath.

Whenthesetwotraditionsarecomparedpoint-by-point,it’sobviousthat—fromtheperspectiveofearlyBuddhism—Romantic/humanisticpsychologygivesonlyapartialandlimitedviewofthepotentialsofspiritualpractice.ThismeansthatBuddhistRomanticism,intranslatingtheDharmaintoRomanticprinciples,givesonlyapartialandlimitedviewofwhatBuddhismhastooffer.

Now,formanypeople,theselimitationsdon’tmatter,becausetheycometoBuddhistRomanticismforreasonsrootedmoreinthepresentthaninthepast.ModernsocietyisnowevenmoreschizoidthananythingtheRomanticseverknew.Ithasmadeusmoreandmoredependentonwiderandwidercirclesofotherpeople,yetkeepsmostofthosedependencieshidden.Ourfoodandclothingcomefromthestore,buthowtheygotthere,orwhoisresponsibleforensuringacontinualsupply,wedon’tknow.Wheninvestigativereporterstrackdownthewebofconnectionsfromfieldtofinalproductinourhands,thebarefactsreadlikeanexposé.Oursweatshirts,forexample,comefromUzbekistanicottonwoveninIran,sewninSouthKorea,andstoredinKentucky—anunstablewebofinterdependenciesthatinvolvenotalittlesufferingbothfortheproducersandforthosepushedoutoftheproductionwebbycheaperlabor.

Whetherornotweknowthesedetails,weintuitivelysensethefragmentationanduncertaintycreatedbytheentiresystem.Thusmanyofusfeelaneedforasenseofwholeness.Forthosewhobenefitfromthehiddendependenciesofmodernlife,acorollaryneedisasenseofreassurancethatinterconnectednessisreliableandbenign—or,ifnotyetbenign,thatfeasiblereformscanmakeitthatway.Theywanttohearthattheycansafelyplacetheirtrustintheprincipleofinterconnectednesswithoutfearthatitwillturnonthemorletthemdown.WhenBuddhistRomanticismspeakstotheseneeds,itopensthegatetoareasofDharmathatcanhelpmanypeoplefindthesolacethey’relookingfor.Indoingso,itaugmentstheworkofpsychotherapy,whichmayexplainwhysomanypsychotherapistshaveembracedDharmapracticefortheirownneedsandfortheirpatients,andwhysomehavebecomeDharmateachers

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themselves.However,BuddhistRomanticismalsohelpsclosethegatetoareasof

theDharmathatwouldchallengepeopleintheirhopeforanultimatehappinessbasedoninterconnectedness.TraditionalDharmacallsforrenunciationandsacrifice,onthegroundsthatallinterconnectednessisessentiallyunstable,andanyhappinessbasedonthisinstabilityisaninvitationtosuffering.Truehappinesshastogobeyondinterdependenceandinterconnectednesstotheunconditioned.Inresponse,theRomanticargumentbrandstheseteachingsasdualistic:eitherinessentialtothereligiousexperienceorinadequateexpressionsofit.Thus,itconcludes,theycansafelybeignored.Inthisway,thegateclosesoffradicalareasoftheDharmadesignedtoaddresslevelsofsufferingremainingevenwhenasenseofwholenesshasbeenmastered.

ItalsoclosesofftwogroupsofpeoplewhowouldotherwisebenefitgreatlyfromDharmapractice.

1)Thosewhoseethatinterconnectednesswon’tendtheproblemofsufferingandarelookingforamoreradicalcure.

2)Thosefromdisillusionedanddisadvantagedsectorsofsociety,whohavelessinvestedinthecontinuationofmoderninterconnectednessandhaveabandonedhopeformeaningfulreformorhappinesswithinthesystem.

Forbothofthesegroups,theconceptsofBuddhistRomanticismseemPollyannaish;thecureitoffers,toofacile.AsaDharmagate,it’smorelikeadoorshutintheirfaces.

Likesomanyotherproductsofmodernlife,therootsourcesofBuddhistRomanticismhavefortoolongremainedhidden.Thisiswhywehaven’trecognizeditforwhatitisorrealizedthepricewepayinmistakingthepartforthewhole.BarringmajorchangesinAmericansociety,BuddhistRomanticismissuretosurvive.What’sneededisformorewindowsanddoorstothrowlightontotheradicalaspectsoftheDharmathatBuddhistRomanticismhassofarleftinthedark.

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Reconciliation,Right&Wrong

“Thesetwoarefools.Whichtwo?Theonewhodoesn’tseehis/hertransgressionasatransgression,andtheonewhodoesn’trightfullypardonanotherwhohasconfessedhis/hertransgression.Thesetwoarefools.

“Thesetwoarewise.Whichtwo?Theonewhoseeshis/hertransgressionasatransgression,andtheonewhorightfullypardonsanotherwhohasconfessedhis/hertransgression.Thesetwoarewise.”—AN2:21

“It’sacauseofgrowthintheDhammaandVinayaofthenobleoneswhen,seeingatransgressionassuch,onemakesamendsinaccordancewiththeDhammaandexercisesrestraintinthefuture.”—DN2

TheBuddhasucceededinestablishingareligionthathasbeenagenuineforceforpeaceandharmony,notonlybecauseofthehighvalueheplacedonthesequalitiesbutalsobecauseofthepreciseinstructionshegaveonhowtoachievethemthroughforgivenessandreconciliation.Centraltotheseinstructionsishisinsightthatforgivenessisonething,reconciliationissomethingelse.

InPali,thelanguageofearlyBuddhism,thewordforforgiveness—khama—alsomeans“theearth.”Amindliketheearthisnon-reactiveandunperturbed.Whenyouforgivemeforharmingyou,youdecidenottoretaliate,toseeknorevenge.Youdon’thavetolikeme.Yousimplyunburdenyourselfoftheweightofresentmentandcutthecycleofretributionthatwouldotherwisekeepusensnarledinanuglysamsaricwrestlingmatch.Thisisagiftyoucangiveusboth,totallyonyourown,withoutmyhavingtoknoworunderstandwhatyou’vedone.

Reconciliation—patisaraniya-kamma—meansareturntoamicability,andthatrequiresmorethanforgiveness.Itrequiresthereestablishingoftrust.IfIdenyresponsibilityformyactions,ormaintainthatIdidnowrong,there’snowaywecanbereconciled.Similarly,ifIinsistthatyourfeelingsdon’tmatter,orthatyouhavenorighttoholdmetoyourstandardsofrightandwrong,youwon’ttrustmenottohurtyouagain.To

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regainyourtrust,Ihavetoshowmyrespectforyouandforourmutualstandardsofwhatisandisnotacceptablebehavior;toadmitthatIhurtyouandthatIwaswrongtodoso;andtopromisetoexerciserestraintinthefuture.Atthesametime,youhavetoinspiremytrust,too,intherespectfulwayyouconducttheprocessofreconciliation.Onlythencanourfriendshipregainasolidfooting.

Thustherearerightandwrongwaysofattemptingreconciliation:thosethatskillfullymeettheserequirementsforreestablishingtrust,andthosethatdon’t.Toencouragerightreconciliationamonghisfollowers,theBuddhaformulateddetailedmethodsforachievingit,alongwithacultureofvaluesthatencouragesputtingthosemethodstouse.

ThemethodsarecontainedintheVinaya,theBuddha’scodeofmonasticdiscipline.LongpassagesintheVinayaaredevotedtoinstructionsforhowmonksshouldconfesstheiroffensestooneanother,howtheyshouldseekreconciliationwithlaypeopletheyhavewronged,howtheyshouldsettleprotracteddisputes,andhowafullsplitintheSangha—themonasticcommunity—shouldbehealed.Althoughdirectedtomonks,theseinstructionsembodyprinciplesthatapplytoanyoneseekingreconciliationofdifferences,whetherpersonalorpolitical.

Thefirststepineverycaseisanacknowledgementofwrongdoing.Whenamonkconfessesanoffense,suchashavinginsultedanothermonk,hefirstadmitstohavingsaidtheinsult.Thenheagreesthattheinsultreallywasanoffense.Finally,hepromisestorestrainhimselffromrepeatingtheoffenseinthefuture.Amonkseekingreconciliationwithalaypersonfollowsasimilarpattern,withanothermonk,onfriendlytermswiththelayperson,actingasmediator.IfadisputehasbrokentheSanghaintofactionsthathavebothbehavedinunseemlyways,thenwhenthefactionsseekreconciliationtheyareadvisedfirsttocleartheairinaprocedurecalled“coveringoverwithgrass.”Bothsidesmakeablanketconfessionofwrongdoingandapromisenottodigupeachother’sminoroffenses.Thisfreesthemtofocusonthemajorwrongdoings,ifany,thatcausedorexacerbatedthedispute.

TohealafullsplitintheSangha,thetwosidesareinstructedfirsttoinquireintotherootintentionsonbothsidesthatledtothesplit,forifthoseintentionswereirredeemablymaliciousordishonest,reconciliationisimpossible.Ifthegrouptriestopatchthingsupwithoutgettingtotherootofthesplit,nothinghasreallybeenhealed.OnlywhentherootintentionshavebeenshowntobereconcilableandthedifferencesresolvedcantheSanghaperformthebriefceremonythatreestablishesharmony.

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Pervadingtheseinstructionsistherealizationthatgenuinereconciliationcannotbebasedsimplyonthedesireforharmony.Itrequiresamutualunderstandingofwhatactionsservedtocreatedisharmony,andapromisetotrytoavoidthoseactionsinthefuture.Thisinturnrequiresaclearlyarticulatedagreementabout—andcommitmentto—mutualstandardsofrightandwrong.Evenifthepartiestoareconciliationagreetodisagree,theiragreementneedstodistinguishbetweenrightandwrongwaysofhandlingtheirdifferences.

Thisisoneofthereasonswhygenuinereconciliationhasbeensohardtoachieveinthemodernworld.Theglobalvillagehasmadeinstantneighborsofdeeplyconflictingstandardsofrightandwrong.Inaddition,manywell-fundedgroupsfinditintheirinterest—narrowlydefined—toemphasizethepointsofconflictthatdivideus—race,religion,socialclass,education—andtoheapridiculeonsincereeffortstoestablishawidelyacceptablecommonground.Althoughtheweaponsandmediacampaignsofthesegroupsmaybesophisticated,theimpulseistribal:“Onlythosewholook,think,andactlikeushavetherighttoliveinpeace;everyoneelseshouldbesubjugatedordestroyed.”Butalthoughtheglobalreachofmodernhate-andfear-mongersisunprecedented,theexistenceofclashingvaluesystemsisnothingnew.TheBuddhafacedasimilarsituationinhistime,andthewayheforgedamethodforreconcilingconflictingviewscanbeinstructiveforours.

ThebeliefsheencounteredintheIndiaofhisdayfellintotwoextremecamps:absolutism—thebeliefthatonlyonesetofideasabouttheworldanditsorigincouldberight—andrelativism,therefusaltotakeaclearstandonissuesofrightandwrong.TheBuddhanotedthatneitherextremewaseffectiveinputtinganendtosuffering,sohefoundapragmaticMiddleWaybetweenthem:Rightandwrongweredeterminedbywhatactuallydidanddidn’tworkinputtinganendtosuffering.ThepublicproofofthisMiddleWaywastheSanghathattheBuddhabuiltaroundit,inwhichpeopleagreedtofollowhisteachingsandwereabletodemonstratetheresultsthroughtheinnerandouterpeace,harmony,andhappinesstheyfound.Inotherwords,insteadofforcingotherpeopletofollowhisway,theBuddhaprovidedtheopportunityforthemtojoinvoluntarycommunitiesofmonksandnuns,togetherwiththeirlaysupporters,whoseimpactonsocietyresidedintheexampletheyset.

TheobviousimplicationformodernBuddhistcommunitiesisthatiftheywanttohelpbringpeaceandreconciliationtotheworld,they’llhavetodoitthroughtheexampleoftheirowncommunallife.Thisisonearea,however,wheremodernWesternBuddhistcommunitieshaveoftenbeen

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remiss.IntheirenthusiasmtostriptheBuddhisttraditionofwhattheyviewasitsmonasticbaggage,theyhavediscardedmanyoftheprinciplesofmonasticlifethatwereapowerfulpartoftheBuddha’soriginalteachings.Inparticular,theyhavebeenextremelyallergictotheideaofrightandwrong,largelybecauseofthewaysinwhichtheyhaveseenrightandwrongabusedbytheabsolutistsinourownculture—aswhenonepersontriestoimposearbitrarystandardsormean-spiritedpunishmentsonothers,orhypocriticallydemandsthatothersobeystandardsthathehimselfdoesnot.

Inanattempttoavoidtheabusessocommonintheabsolutistapproach,WesternBuddhistshaveoftenruntotheoppositeextremeoftotalrelativism,advocatinganon-dualvisionthattranscendsattachmenttorightandwrong.Thisvision,however,isopentoabuseaswell.Incommunitieswhereitisespoused,irresponsiblememberscanusetherhetoricofnon-dualityandnon-attachmenttoexcusegenuinelyharmfulbehavior;theirvictimsareleftadrift,withnocommonlyacceptedstandardsonwhichtobasetheirappealsforredress.Eventheactofforgivenessissuspectinsuchacontext,forwhatrightdothevictimshavetojudgeactionsasrequiringforgivenessornot?Alltoooften,thevictimsaretheonesheldatfaultforimposingtheirstandardsonothersandnotbeingabletoriseabovedualisticviews.

Thismeansthatrightandwronghavenotreallybeentranscendedinsuchacommunity.They’vesimplybeenrealigned:Ifyoucanclaimanon-dualperspective,you’reintherightnomatterwhatyou’vedone.Ifyoucomplainaboutanotherperson’sbehavior,you’reinthewrong.Andbecausethisrealignmentisnotopenlyacknowledgedassuch,itcreatesanatmosphereofhypocrisyinwhichgenuinereconciliationisimpossible.

SoifBuddhistcommunitieswanttosetanexamplefortheworld,theyhavetorealizethatthesolutionliesnotinabandoningrightandwrong,butinlearninghowtousethemwisely.ThisiswhytheBuddhabackeduphismethodsforreconciliationwithacultureofvalueswherebyrightandwrongbecomeaidsratherthanhindrancestoreconciliation.Twiceamonth,hearrangedforthemembersoftheSanghatomeetforarecitationoftherulestheyhadallagreedtoobeyandtheprocedurestobefollowedincasedisputesovertherulesarose.Inthisway,thesenseofcommunitywasfrequentlyreinforcedbyclear,detailedremindersofwhattiedthegrouptogetherandmadeitagoodoneinwhichtolive.

Theproceduresforhandlingdisputeswereespeciallyimportant.Topreventthoseintherightfromabusingtheirposition,hecounseledthattheyreflectonthemselvesbeforeaccusinganotherofwrongdoing.The

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checklistofquestionsherecommendedboilsdowntothis:“AmIfreefromunreconciledoffensesofmyown?AmImotivatedbykindness,ratherthanvengeance?AmIreallyclearonourmutualstandards?”Onlyiftheycananswer“yes”tothesequestionsshouldtheybringuptheissue.Furthermore,theBuddharecommendedthattheydeterminetospeakonlywordsthataretrue,timely,gentle,tothepoint,andpromptedbykindness.Theirmotivationshouldbecompassion,solicitudeforthewelfareofallpartiesinvolved,andthedesiretoseethewrong-doerrehabilitated,togetherwithanoverridingdesiretoholdtofairprinciplesofrightandwrong.

Toencourageawrongdoertoseereconciliationasawinningratherthanalosingproposition,theBuddhapraisedthehonestacceptanceofblameasanhonorableratherthanashamefulact:notjustameans,butthemeansforprogressinspiritualpractice.Ashetoldhisson,Rahula,theabilitytorecognizeone’smistakesandadmitthemtoothersistheessentialfactorinachievingpurityinthought,word,anddeed.OrashesaidintheDhammapada,peoplewhorecognizetheirownmistakesandchangetheirways“illuminetheworldlikethemoonwhenfreedfromacloud.”

Inadditiontoprovidingtheseincentivesforhonestlyadmittingmisbehavior,theBuddhablockedthepathstodenial.Modernsociologistshaveidentifiedfivebasicstrategiesthatpeopleusetoavoidacceptingblamewhenthey’vecausedharm,andit’snoteworthythattheearlyBuddhistteachingonmoralresponsibilityservestoundercutallfive.Thestrategiesare:todenyresponsibility,todenythatharmwasactuallydone,todenytheworthofthevictim,toattacktheaccuser,andtoclaimthattheywereactingintheserviceofahighercause.ThePaliresponsestothesestrategiesare:(1)Wearealwaysresponsibleforourconsciouschoices.(2)Weshouldalwaysputourselvesintheotherperson’splace.(3)Allbeingsareworthyofrespect.(4)Weshouldregardthosewhopointoutourfaultsasiftheywerepointingouttreasure.(Monks,infact,arerequirednottoshowdisrespecttopeoplewhocriticizethem,eveniftheydon’tplantoabidebythecriticism.)(5)Thereareno—repeat,no—higherpurposesthatexcusebreakingthebasicpreceptsofethicalbehavior.

Insettingoutthesestandards,theBuddhacreatedacontextofvaluesthatencouragesbothpartiesenteringintoareconciliationtoemployrightspeechandtoengageinthehonest,responsibleself-reflectionbasictoallDhammapractice.Inthisway,standardsofrightandwrongbehavior,insteadofbeingoppressiveorpetty,engenderdeepandlong-lastingtrust.InadditiontocreatingtheexternalharmonyconducivetoDhamma

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practice,theprocessofreconciliationthusalsobecomesanopportunityforinnergrowth.

AlthoughtheBuddhadesignedthiscultureofreconciliationforhismonasticSangha,itsinfluencedidnotendthere.LaysupportersoftheSanghaadopteditfortheirownuse—parliamentaryprocedureinThailand,forinstance,stillusesterminologyfromtheVinaya—andsupportersofotherreligionswhohadcontactwithBuddhismadoptedmanyfeaturesofthiscultureaswell.TheBuddhaneverplacedapatentonhisteachings.Heofferedthemfreelyforallwhofoundthemusefulinanyway.Butregardlessofwhetheranyoneelsefollowedhisexample,hestucktohisprinciplesinallhisactions,secureintheknowledgethattruechangehastobeginbytakingsolidrootwithin.Evenifitsimpactisn’timmediate,asolidinnerchangeissuretohavelong-termresults.IfBuddhistgroupsaretobringreconciliationtomodernsociety,theyhavetomasterthehardworkofreconciliationamongthemselves.Onlythenwilltheirexamplebeaninspirationtoothers.Andeveniftheirimpactisnotenoughtopreventageneraldescentintothemadnessoffascism,terror,andwar,theywillbeplantingseedsofcivilizationthatcansproutwhenthemadness—likeafireacrossaprairie—haspassed.

TheBuddhaadmittedthatnotalldisputescanbereconciled.Therearetimeswhenoneorbothpartiesareunwillingtoexercisethehonestyandrestraintthattruereconciliationrequires.Eventhen,though,forgivenessisstillanoption.Thisiswhythedistinctionbetweenreconciliationandforgivenessissoimportant.Itencouragesusnottosettleformereforgivenesswhenthegenuinehealingofrightreconciliationispossible;anditallowsustobegenerouswithourforgivenessevenwhenitisnot.Andaswemastertheskillsofbothforgivenessandreconciliation,wecanholdtooursenseofrightandwrongwithoutusingittosettheworldablaze.

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GettingtheMessage

TheBuddhaisfamousforhavingrefusedtotakeapositiononmanyofthecontroversialissuesofhisday,suchaswhetherthecosmosisfiniteorinfinite,eternalornot.Infact,manypeople—bothinhistimeandinours—haveassumedthathedidn’ttakeafirmpositiononanyissueatall.Basedonthisassumption,somepeoplehavebeenexasperatedwiththeBuddha,accusinghimofbeingwishy-washyandindecisive,whileothershavebeenpleased,praisinghimforbeingtolerantandrefreshinglyfreefromideasofrightandwrong.

Bothreactions,however,aremisinformed.Theearlytextsreportthatagroupofwanderers,inadiscussionwithoneoftheBuddha’slaydisciples,onceaccusedtheBuddhaofnottakingapositiononanyissue,andthedisciplerepliedthattheyweremistaken.TherewasoneissueonwhichtheBuddha’spositionwasveryclear:whatkindofbehaviorisskillful,andwhatkindofbehaviorisnot.WhenthedisciplelaterreportedtheconversationtotheBuddha,theBuddhaapprovedofwhathehadsaid.ThedistinctionbetweenskillfulandunskillfulbehaviorliesatthebasisofeverythingtheBuddhataught.

Inmakingthisdistinction,theBuddhadrewsomeverysharplines:

“Whatisunskillful?Takinglifeisunskillful,takingwhatisnotgiven…sexualmisconduct…lying…abusivespeech…divisivetale-bearing…idlechatterisunskillful.Covetousness…illwill…wrongviewsareunskillful.Thesethingsarecalledunskillful….

“Andwhatisskillful?Abstainingfromtakinglifeisskillful,abstainingfromtakingwhatisnotgiven…fromsexualmisconduct…fromlying…fromabusivespeech…fromdivisivetale-bearing…abstainingfromidlechatterisskillful.Lackofcovetousness…lackofillwill…rightviewsareskillful.Thesethingsarecalledskillful.”—MN9

Killingisneverskillful.Stealing,lying,andeverythingelseinthefirstlistareneverskillful.Whenaskediftherewasanythingwhosekillingheapprovedof,theBuddhaansweredthattherewasonlyonething:anger.Innorecordedinstancedidheapproveofkillinganylivingbeingatall.Whenoneofhismonkswenttoanexecutionerandtoldthemantokill

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hisvictimscompassionately,withoneblow,ratherthantorturingthem,theBuddhaexpelledthemonkfromtheSangha,onthegroundsthateventherecommendationtokillcompassionatelyisstillarecommendationtokill—somethinghewouldnevercondone.Ifamonkwasphysicallyattacked,theBuddhaallowedhimtostrikebackinself-defense,butneverwiththeintentiontokill.Ashetoldthemonks,

“Evenifbanditsweretocarveyouupsavagely,limbbylimb,withatwo-handledsaw,heamongyouwholethisheartgetangeredevenatthatwouldnotbedoingmybidding.Eventhenyoushouldtrainyourselves:‘Ourmindswillbeunaffectedandwewillsaynoevilwords.Wewillremainsympathetic,withamindofgoodwill,andwithnoinnerhate.Wewillkeeppervadingthesepeoplewithanawarenessimbuedwithgoodwilland,beginningwiththem,wewillkeeppervadingtheall-encompassingworldwithanawarenessimbuedwithgoodwill—abundant,expansive,immeasurable,freefromhostility,freefromillwill.’That’showyoushouldtrainyourselves.”—MN21

Whenformulatinglaypreceptsbasedonhisdistinctionbetweenskillfulandunskillful,theBuddhanevermadeanyallowancesforifs,ands,orbuts.Whenyoupromiseyourselftoabstainfromkillingorstealing,thepowerofthepromiseliesinitsuniversality.Youwon’tbreakyourpromisetoyourselfunderanyconditionsatall.Thisisbecausethissortofunconditionalpromiseisapowerfulgift.Take,forinstance,thefirstprecept,againstkilling:

“Thereisthecasewhereadiscipleofthenobleones,abandoningthetakingoflife,abstainsfromtakinglife.Indoingso,hegivesfreedomfromdanger,freedomfromanimosity,freedomfromoppressiontolimitlessnumbersofbeings.Ingivingfreedomfromdanger,freedomfromanimosity,freedomfromoppressiontolimitlessnumbersofbeings,hegainsashareinlimitlessfreedomfromdanger,freedomfromanimosity,andfreedomfromoppression.Thisisthefirstgift,thefirstgreatgift—original,long-standing,traditional,ancient,unadulterated,unadulteratedfromthebeginning—thatisnotopentosuspicion,willneverbeopentosuspicion,andisunfaultedbyknowledgeablecontemplatives&brahmans.”—AN8:39

Ifyoumakeexceptionsinyourpromisetoyourself—tryingtojustifykillingincaseswhereyoufeelendangeredorinconveniencedbyanotherbeing’sexistence—yourgiftoffreedomislimited,andyouloseyourshareinlimitlessfreedom.Thusthegiftoffreedom,tobefullyeffective,hasto

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beunconditional,withnoroomforexceptions,nomatterhownobletheymaysound,ofanykind.

Thedynamicofthiskindofgift,ofcourse,dependsonanimportantprinciple,theteachingofkarmaandrebirth:Ifyouactonunskillfulmotivations,theactwillresultinyoursuffering,noworinlivestocome;ifyouactonskillfulintentions,theactwillresultinyourpleasurenoworinlivestocome.Ifyoudon‘tkillanyone,youarenotcreatingthecircumstanceswhereanyoneoranythingwillcutshortyourlifespan.Yourpastkarmamaystillleaveanopeningforyourmurderoraccidentaldeath—youcan’tgobackandundowhatyou’vealreadydone—butonceyoumakeandfollowthroughwiththepromisenottokillagain,youarecreatingnonewopeningsforhavingyourlifecutshort.AstheDhammapadasays,

Ifthere’snowoundonthehand,thathandcanholdpoison.Poisonwon’tpenetrate

wherethere’snowound.There’snoevil

forthosewhodon’tdoit.—Dhp124

ThisiswhytheBuddhalistedvirtueasoneofaperson’sgreatesttreasures.Kingsandthievescanstealyourmaterialbelongingsandeventakeyourlife,buttheycan’ttakeyourvirtue.Ifit’suncompromising,yourvirtueprotectsyoufromanytruedangerfromnowuntilyoureachnirvana.

Evenifyou’renotreadytoaccepttheteachingonkarmaandrebirth,theBuddhastillrecommendedanabsolutestandardofvirtue.AshetoldtheKalamas,ifyoudecidetoactskillfullyatalltimes,harmingnoone,thenevenifitturnedoutthattherewasnolifeafterdeath,you’dstillcomeoutahead,foryouwouldhavebeenabletoliveanddiewithaclearconscience—somethingthatnoamountofmoneyorpoliticalinfluencecanbuy.

SotheBuddha’spositiononthepreceptswasuncompromisingandclear.Ifyouwanttofollowhisteachings,there’sabsolutelynoroomforkilling,stealing,orlying,period.However,inourcurrentclimateofterrorismandcounter-terrorism—wheregovernmentshaveclaimedthatit’stheirmoraldutytolie,kill,andtortureinordertopreventothersfromlying,killing,andtorturing—anumberofBuddhistteachershavejoinedintheeffort,tryingtofindevidencethatthereweresomeoccasions,atleast,wheretheBuddhawouldcondonekillingorofferarationalefora

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justwar.Exactlywhytheywouldwanttodothisisuptothemtosay,butthere’saneedtoexaminetheirargumentsinordertosettherecordstraight.TheBuddhanevertaughtatheoryofjustwar;nodecisiontowagewarcanlegitimatelybetracedtohisteachings;nowarveteranhaseverhadtoagonizeovermemoriesofthepeoplehekilledbecausetheBuddhasaidthatwarwasokay.ThesefactsareamongthegloriesoftheBuddhisttradition,andit’simportantforthehumanracethattheynotbemuddiedinanefforttorecasttheBuddhainourownlessthangloriousimage.

BecausethePaliCanonissuchanunpromisingplacetolookforthejustificationofkilling,mostoftheargumentsforaBuddhisttheoryofjustwarlookelsewherefortheirevidence,citingthewordsandbehaviorofpeopletheytakeassurrogatesfortheBuddha.Theseargumentsareobviouslyonshakyground,andcanbeeasilydismissedevenbypeoplewhoknownothingoftheCanon.Forexample,ithasbeenarguedthatbecauseAsiangovernmentsclaimingtobeBuddhisthaveengagedinwarandtorture,theBuddha’steachingsmustcondonesuchbehavior.However,we’vehadenoughexposuretopeopleclaimingtobeChristianwhosebehaviorisveryunchristiantorealizethatthesamethingcanprobablyhappenintheBuddhistworldaswell.TotakekillersandtorturersasyourguidetotheBuddha’steachingishardlyasignofgoodjudgment.

Onasomewhathighernote,onewriterhasnotedthathismeditationteacherhastoldsoldiersandpolicementhatiftheirdutyistokill,theymustperformtheirduty,albeitcompassionatelyandwithmindfulness.ThewriterthengoesontoarguethatbecausehisteacheristhedirectrecipientofanoraltraditiondatingbacktotheBuddha,wemusttakethisasevidencethattheBuddhawouldgivesimilaradviceaswell.Thisstatement,ofcourse,tellsusmoreaboutthewriter’sfaithinhisteacherthanabouttheBuddha;andwhenwereflectthattheBuddhaexpelledfromtheSanghaamonkwhogaveadviceofthissorttoanexecutioner,itcastsseriousdoubtsonhisargument.

Thereare,however,writerswhotrytofindevidenceinthePaliCanonforaBuddhisttheoryofjustwar,notinwhattheBuddhasaid,butinwhathedidn’t.Theargumentsgolikethis:Whentalkingwithkings,theBuddhanevertoldthemnottoengageinwarorcapitalpunishment.Thiswashistacitadmissionthatthekinghadajustifiabledutytoengageintheseactivities,andthekingswouldhaveunderstoodhissilenceassuch.BecausetheseargumentscitethePaliCanonandclaimahistorian’sknowledgeofhowsilencewasinterpretedintheBuddha’sday,theyseem

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tocarrymoreauthoritythantheothers.ButwhenweactuallylookatthePalirecordoftheBuddha’sconversationswithkings,wefindthattheargumentsarebogus.TheBuddhawasabletocommunicatethemessagetokingsthattheyshouldn’tkill,butbecausekingsingeneralwerenotthemostpromisingstudentsoftheDhamma,hehadtobringthemtothismessageinanindirectway.

It’struethatinthePaliCanonsilenceissometimesinterpretedasacquiescence,butthisprincipleholdsonlyinresponsetoarequest.IfsomeoneinvitedtheBuddhatohishouseforamealandtheBuddharemainedsilent,thatwasasignofconsent.However,thereweremanyinstancesinwhichtheBuddha’ssilencewasasign,notofacquiescence,butoftact.AprofessionalsoldieroncewenttotheBuddhaandsaidthathisteachershadtaughttheexistenceofaheavenawaitingsoldierswhodieinbattle.WhatdidtheBuddhahavetosayaboutthat?AtfirsttheBuddhadeclinedtoanswer,butwhenthesoldiershowedthesincerityofhisquestionbypressinghimthreetimesforaresponse,hefinallyreplied:

“Whenawarriorstrives&exertshimselfinbattle,hismindisalreadyseized,debased,&misdirectedbythethought:‘Maythesebeingsbestruckdownorslaughteredorannihilatedordestroyed.Maytheynotexist’:Ifothersthenstrikehimdown&slayhimwhileheisthusstriving&exertinghimselfinbattle,thenwiththebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,heisreborninthehellcalledtherealmofthoseslaininbattle.Butifheholdssuchaviewasthis:‘Whenawarriorstrives&exertshimselfinbattle,ifothersthenstrikehimdown&slayhimwhileheisstriving&exertinghimselfinbattle,thenwiththebreakupofthebody,afterdeath,heisreborninthecompanyofdevasslaininbattle,’thatishiswrongview.Now,therearetwodestinationsforapersonwithwrongview,Itellyou:eitherhellortheanimalwomb.”—SN42:3

Thesoldierthenbrokedownandcried—notbecausehefeltthattheBuddha’swordswerecruel,butbecausehebelievedtheirtruthandwasupsetathisearlierteachersforhavingliedtohim.Inthiscase,theBuddha’sreticenceandtacthelpedtomakehisteachingeffective.AsimilarsetofeventshappenedwhenanactoraskedtheBuddhaifthereisaspecialheavenreservedforactors.TheBuddha’sreticenceandtactininformingtheactorofahellforactorswhoincitetheiraudiencestogreed,anger,anddelusioninspiredtheactortorespondinthesamewayasthesoldier.

Iftheprideofsoldiersandactorsrequiredspecialhandling,evenmorecarewasrequiredinthehandlingofkings,fortheirpridewasoften

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coupledwithanunrestrainedsenseofpower.AremarkablefeatureofthePaliCanonisthateventhoughtheBuddhawasamemberofthenoblewarriorcaste,thediscoursesgenerallyshowalowregardforthespiritualstandingofkings.Inmanypassages,kingsarementionedinthesamebreathwiththieves:Theyconfiscatepropertyandshowlittleregardfortheruleoflaw.TheCanondoesrecognizeexceptions—KingBimbisaraofMagadhaachievesstream-entrythefirsttimehehearstheDhamma,andheneverengagesinwar—butforthemostpart,kingsaredepictedasspirituallystunted.KingAjatasattu,onfirstseeingtheBuddhasittingsurroundedbymonks,can’ttellwhichpersonintheassemblyistheBuddha,asignofhisspiritualblindness;thisblindnessislaterprovenbyhisaskingtheBuddha’sadviceonhowtodefeathisinnocentneighborsinwar.Asoneofthediscoursessuggests,thissortofblindnessisanoccupationalhazardforrulers,inthattheunfairexerciseofpowercanmakeapersonunfitforlearningthetruth.

“Becauseofhavingwronglyinflictedsufferingonanotherpersonthroughbeatingorimprisonmentorconfiscationorplacingblameorbanishment,[withthethought,]‘Ihavepower.Iwantpower,’whentoldwhatisfactual,hedeniesitanddoesn’tacknowledgeit.Whentoldwhatisunfactual,hedoesn’tmakeanardentefforttountangleit[tosee],‘Thisisunfactual.Thisisbaseless.’”—AN3:69

EvenKingPasenadiofKosala,thekingmostcloselyassociatedwiththeBuddha,comesacrossaswell-meaningbutsomewhatdense.Anentirediscourse,MN90,isasatireofhowhisroyalpositionhasthwartedhisabilitytolearntheDhamma.Hecan’tphrasehisquestionsproperly,hastroublefollowingadiscussionformorethanafewsentences,andisunabletocometoanycertainconclusionsaboutthetruth.Still,inotherdiscourseshehashisoccasionalmomentsofspiritualclarity,andtheBuddhausesthosemomentsasopportunitiestoteachtheDhamma.TheBuddha’sapproachhereistwofold:totrytoexpandtheking’sperspectiveonlifeattimeswhenthekingiswillingtobefrank;andtoencouragethekingwhenthelattergainsinsightsonhisown.

Forexample,there’sthefamousdiscourse(SN3:25)wherePasenadicomestovisittheBuddhainthemiddleoftheday.TheBuddhaaskshimwhathe’sbeendoing,andthekingreplies—inamomentofrareandwonderfulfrankness—thathe’sbeeninvolvedinthesortofactivitiestypicalofakingintoxicatedwithhispower.TheBuddhatakesthismomentoffranknessasanopportunitytoteachtheDhamma.Suppose,hesays,thatfourmountainswererollingininexorablyfromthefour

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directions,crushingalllifeintheirpath.Giventhatthehumanbirthissorareandhardtoachieve,whatshouldbedone?Theking’sreply:WhatelseshouldbedonebutlivinginlinewiththeDhamma?TheBuddhathendrawsthelesson:Aginganddeatharerollingininexorably.Giventhatthehumanbirthissorareandhardtoachieve,whatshouldbedone?Thekingdrawstheobviousconclusionthat,again,theonlythingtobedoneistoliveinlinewiththeDhamma.Hethengoesontomaketheobservationthatwhenaginganddeatharerollingininexorably,thereisnoroleforarmies,wars,cleveradvisors,orgreatwealthtopreventtheirrollingin.TheonlythingtodoistoliveinlinewiththeDhamma.

Inanotherdiscourse,PasenadicomestotheBuddhaandreportshisownindependentobservation:

“Thosewhoengageinbodilymisconduct,verbalmisconduct,&mentalmisconductleavethemselvesunprotected.Eventhoughasquadronofelephanttroopsmightprotectthem,asquadronofcavalrytroops,asquadronofchariottroops,asquadronofinfantrytroopsmightprotectthem,stilltheyleavethemselvesunprotected.Whyisthat?Becausethat’sanexternalprotection,notaninternalone.Thereforetheyleavethemselvesunprotected.Butthosewhoengageingoodbodilyconduct,goodverbalconduct,&goodmentalconducthavethemselvesprotected.Eventhoughneitherasquadronofelephanttroops,asquadronofcavalrytroops,asquadronofchariottroops,norasquadronofinfantrytroopsmightprotectthem,stilltheyhavethemselvesprotected.Whyisthat?Becausethat’saninternalprotection,notanexternalone.Thereforetheyhavethemselvesprotected.”—SN3:5

It’shighlyunlikelythatPasenadiwouldhavecometothisconclusionifhehadn’tspenttimeinconversationwiththeBuddha.Fromthatconversation,hewouldhavelearnedthemeaningofgoodbodily,verbal,andmentalconduct:thetenformsofskillfulaction.Asatactfulteacher,theBuddhasimplyconcurredwiththeking’sinsight.Thediscoursessuggestthatthisstrategyencouragedthekingtospendtimeinreflectionofthissort,forinotherdiscoursesthekingreportsmanysimilarinsightsfortheBuddhatoconfirm.

Welearnthatthekingdidnotalwaysfollowthroughwithhisinsights,butthat’snotbecausetheBuddhaencouragedhimtoviewkillingashisduty.Infact,thereisonestrikingexamplewheretheseinsightshadatleastapartialeffect.AjatasattuonceattackedPasenadi’skingdom,andPasenadirespondedbyraisinganarmytofighthimoff.Afteraninitial

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setback,PasenadiwasabletocaptureAjatasattu.Hecouldhavekilledhiminrevenge,forthatwasallowableundertherulesofengagementduringhistime.Buthechosenotto,andit’shardnottoseetheBuddha’simpactonthisdecision.Whentoldofthebattle,theBuddhasaid:

“Amanmayplunderaslongasitserveshisends,butwhenothersareplundered,

hewhohasplunderedgetsplunderedinturn.

Afoolthinks,’Now'smychance,’aslongashisevilhasyettoripen.Butwhenitripens,thefool

fallsintopain.

Killing,yougainyourkiller.

Conquering,yougainonewhowillconqueryou;

insulting,insult;harassing,harassment.Andso,throughthecycleofaction,

hewhohasplunderedgetsplunderedinturn.”—SN3:15

Benightedashewas,Pasenadistillgotthemessage.Thequestionis,whycan’twe?

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EducatingCompassion

Ifyouhaveanyfriendsorfamilymemberswhoaresickordying,Iknowofnoonewhowouldtellyoutotreattheminahardheartedway.Everyonewouldagreethatyoushouldbeascompassionateasyoucan.Theproblemisthatthere’slittleagreementonhowcompassiontranslatesintospecificactions.Forsomepeople,compassionmeansextendinglifeaslongaspossible;forothersitmeansterminatinglife—throughassistedsuicideoreuthanasia—whenqualityoflifefallsbelowacertainlevel.Andneitherofthesetwogroupsseestheotherascompassionateatall.Thefirstseesthesecondascriminal;thesecondseesthefirstasheartlessandcruel.

Forthoseofustryingtonegotiatethemurkyterritorybetweenthesetwoextremes,there’snotmuchreliableguidance.Oursisaculturethatdoesn’tliketothinkaboutillnessanddeath,andasaresult,whenfacedwithsomeonewho’ssickordying,we’reatalossastowhattodo.Somepeoplewilladviseyousimplytodowhatfeelsright,butfeelingshaveawayofturningslipperyanddevious.Somethingsfeelrightsimplybecausetheymakeyoufeelgood,regardlessofwhetherthey’regenuinelyrightfortheotherperson.Adesiretoextendlifemaymaskadeeperfearofyourowndeath;adesiretoterminateamiserableillnessmayrationalizeyourdistressathavingtowitnesssuffering.Evenifyou’retoldtoactfromaplaceofmindfulpresence,youmayfindthatwhatseemtobeyourspontaneousinspirationsareactuallyconditionedbyhidden,unexaminedassumptionsaboutwhatlifeanddeathareallabout.

Thisiswhythesimpleinjunctiontobecompassionateormindfulinthepresenceofasickordyingpersonisn’tenough.Weneedhelpineducatingourcompassion:specificadviceonhowtothinkthroughtheimplicationsofouractionsinthefaceoflifeanddeath,andspecificexamplesofhowpeoplewhohavecontemplatedtheseissuesthoroughlyhaveactuallyactedinthepast.

Withthisthoughtinmind,IsearchedthroughthePaliCanon—theoldestextantrecordoftheBuddha’steachings—toseewhatlessonscouldbedrawnfromtheBuddha’sexample.Afterall,theBuddhaoftenreferredtohimselfasadoctor,andtohisDharmaasmedicineforthesufferingsoftheworld.Fromhispointofview,we’reallsickanddyingonasubtle

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level,sowealldeservecontinualcompassion.Butwhatsortofadvicedidthisdoctorgivewhenface-to-facewiththefleshandbloodsufferingofillnessanddeath?Howdidhetreatpeoplewhowerephysicallysickordying?

Youprobablyknowthestoryofhow,togetherwithVen.Ananda,heoncefoundanunattendedsickmonklyinginhisownfilth.Afterwashingthemonk,heassembledtheothermonks,chidedthemforabandoningtheirbrother,andgavethemstrongincentivetofollowhisexample:“Whoeverwouldtendtome,”hesaid,“shouldtendtothesick.”Hearrangedthatmonksnursingtheirfellowmonksshouldreceivespecialallotmentsoffood,toencouragethemintheirworkandhelplightentheirburden.Buthedidn’tsubscribetothenotionthatmedicaltreatmentshouldtrytoextendlifeatallcosts.TheVinaya,hismonasticdiscipline,imposesonlyaminorpenaltyonamonkwhorefusestocareforafellowmonkwhoissickordying,orwhototallyabandonsasickmonkbeforethelatterrecoversordies.Andthere’snopenaltyforwithholdingordiscontinuingaspecificmedicaltreatment.Sotherulesconveynomessagethatthefailuretokeeplifegoingisanoffenseofanykind.Atthesametime,though,amonkwhodeliberatelyendsthelifeofapatient,evenfromcompassionatemotives,isexpelledfromthemonkhoodandcanneverreordaininthislife,sothere’snoroomforeuthanasiaorassistedsuicide.

Thismeansthatthemiddlegroundiswheretruecompassioncanbeexercised.TheBuddhasetsoutsomeguidelinesforthisareainhisdefinitionoftheidealnurse.You’requalifiedtotendtothesickif(1)youknowhowtopreparemedicines;(2)youknowwhat’samenabletothepatient’scure,takingawaywhatever’sunamenableandprovidingthingsthatareamenable;(3)you’remotivatedbycompassionandnotbymaterialgain;(4)you’renotsqueamishaboutcleaningupurine,excrement,saliva,orvomit;and(5)you’recompetentatencouragingthepatientatthepropertimeswithtalkonDharma.

Ofthesefivequalifications,theonemostdiscussedinthePaliCanonisthefifth:WhatqualifiesasahelpfulandcompassionatetalkonDharmatoapersonwhoissickordying?Whatdoesn’t?

Hereagain,thedon’tsmarkofftheterritoryforthedo’s.TheVinayacitescaseswheremonkstellasickpersontofocushisthoughtsondying,inthebeliefthatdeathwouldbebetterthanthemiserablestateofhislife.Thesickpersondoesastheyadvise,hediesasaresult,andtheBuddhaexpelsthemonksfromthemonkhood.Thus,fromtheBuddha’sperspective,encouragingasickpersontorelaxhergriponlifeortogiveup

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thewilltolivewouldnotcountasanactofcompassion.Insteadoftryingtoeasethepatient’stransitiontodeath,theBuddhafocusedoneasinghisorherinsightintosufferinganditsend.

ThisisbecauseheregardedeverymomentoflifeasanopportunitytopracticeandbenefitfromtheDharma.It’sawell-knownprincipleinallmeditationtraditionsthatamoment’sinsightintothepainofthepresentisfarmorebeneficialthanviewingthepresentmomentwithdisgustandplacingone’shopesonabetterfuture.Thisprincipleappliesasmuchattheendoflifeasitdoesanywhereinthemiddle.Infact,theBuddhaencouragedhismonkstoreflectconstantlyonthepotentialimminenceofdeathateverymoment,evenwheninordinaryhealth,sothattheycouldbringasenseofurgencytotheirpracticeandgivethepresentmomenttheirfullattention.Ifyoulearntotreatallmomentsaspotentiallyyourlast,thenwhenyourlastmomentdoescomeyouwillfaceitprepared.

Mostoften,though,asickordyingpersonhasn’tbeenlivingwiththissortofurgentalertness,sothefirststepinadvisingsuchapersonistoaimatclearingawayanyemotionalobstaclestolearningfromthepresent.ThePalitextsnotetwosuchobstacles:worryovertheresponsibilitiesthepersonisleavingbehind,andfearofdeath.Inonepoignantdiscourse,amanappearstobedyingandhiswifeconsoleshimnottoworry:She’llbeabletoprovideforherselfandtheirchildreninhisabsence;shewon’tgolookingforanotherhusband;andshe’llcontinueinherpracticeoftheDharma.Witheachreassurancesherepeatstherefrain,“Sodon’tbeworriedasyoudie.Deathispainfulforonewhoisworried.TheBlessedOnehaswarnedagainstbeingworriedatthetimeofdeath.”Themanrecoversunexpectedlyand,whilestillfrail,goestovisittheBuddha,tellinghimofhiswife’sreassurances.TheBuddhacommentsonhowfortunatethemanistohavesuchawiseandsympatheticwife.

Asforfearofdeath,theBuddhanotesthatoneoftheprimaryreasonsforthisfearistheremembranceofhurtfulorcruelthingsyou’vedoneinthepast.ThustheVinayashowsthatmonkswouldoftenconsoleafellowmonkonhisdeathbedbyaskinghimtocalltomindsomethingmorepositive—hishighestmeditativeattainment—andtofocushisthoughtsthere.Inasimilarvein,acommonpracticeinAsianBuddhistcountriesistoremindadyingpersonoftheactsofgenerosityorvirtueheorshehasperformedinthislife.Evenifthepersonisunabletomusterthemindfulnessandalertnessneededtogainfurtherinsightintothepresent,anyDharmatalkthathelpsallayworriesandforestallfearsisanactoftruecompassion.

TheBuddhacomments,however,thattherearethreeadditional

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reasonsforfearingdeath:attachmenttothebody,attachmenttosensualpleasures,andalackofdirectinsightintotheunconditionedDharmaoftheDeathless.Hismoreadvancedinstructionsforsickanddyingpeoplethusfocusoncuttingthesereasonsforfearattheroot.Heoncevisitedasickwardandtoldthemonkstheretoapproachthemomentofdeathmindfulandalert.Insteadoffocusingonwhethertheywouldrecover,theyshouldobservethemovementsofthefeelingstheywereexperiencing:painful,pleasant,orneutral.Observingasensationofpain,forinstance,theyshouldnoticehowinconstantitisandthenfocusontherepeateddissolutionofallpains.Theycouldthenapplythesamefocusedalertnesstopleasantandneutralfeelingsaswell.Thesteadinessoftheirfocuswouldgiverisetoasenseofeaseindependentofsensoryfeelings,andfromthispointofindependencetheycoulddevelopdispassionandrelinquishment,bothforthebodyandforfeelingsofanysort.WithrelinquishmentwouldcomeagenuineinsightintotheDharmawhich,beingDeathless,wouldendallfearofdeath.

Onanotheroccasion,Ven.SariputtavisitedthefamoussupporteroftheBuddha,Anathapindika,whowasonhisdeathbed.AfterlearningthatAnathapindika’sdiseasewasworsening,headvisedhimtotrainhimself:“Iwon’tclingtotheeye;myconsciousnesswon’tbedependentontheeye.Iwon’tclingtotheear;myconsciousnesswon’tbedependentontheear,”andsoforththroughallthesixsenses,theirobjects,andanymentaleventsdependentonthem.AlthoughAnathapindikawasunabletodevelopthisindependentconsciousnessinlinewithSariputta’sinstructions,heaskedthattheseinstructionsbegiventootherlaypeopleaswell,fortherewouldbethosewhowouldunderstandandbenefitfromthem.

Obviously,theserecommendationsareallshapedbytheBuddha’steachingsonhowthestateofone’smindinfluencestheprocessofdeathandrebirth,butthatdoesn’tmeanthatthey’reappropriateonlyforthosewhowouldcallthemselvesBuddhist.Regardlessofyourreligiousbeliefs,whenyou’refacedwithobviouspainyou’reboundtoseethevalueofanyinstructionsthatshowyouhowtoreducesufferingbyinvestigatingthepaininandofitself.Ifyouhavethestrengthtofollowthroughwiththeinstructions,you’reboundtowanttogivethematry.AndifyouencountertheDeathlessinthecourseofyourefforts,you’renotgoingtoquibbleaboutwhethertocallitbyaBuddhistornon-Buddhistname.

ThispointisillustratedbyanotherstoryinvolvingVen.Sariputta.Visitinganagedbrahmanonhisdeathbed,SariputtareflectedthatbrahmansdesireunionwithBrahma,sohetaughtthemantodevelopthe

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fourattitudesofaBrahma—infinitegoodwill,compassion,appreciation,andequanimity.Afterfollowingtheseinstructions,thebrahmanwasrebornasaBrahmaafterdeath.TheBuddha,however,laterchidedSariputtafornotteachingthebrahmantofocusinsteadoninvestigatingpain,forifhehad,thebrahmanwouldhaveexperiencednirvanaandbeenfreedfromrebirthaltogether.

What’sstrikingaboutalltheseinstructionsisthat,fromtheBuddha’spointofview,deathbedDharmaisnodifferentfromDharmataughttopeopleinordinaryhealth.Thecauseofsufferingisineverycasethesame,andthepathtotheendofsufferingisthesameaswell:comprehendsuffering,abandonitscause,realizeitscessation,anddevelopthequalitiesofmindthatleadtoitscessation.TheonlydifferenceisthattheobviousproximityofdeathmakesteachingtheDharmabotheasierandharder—easierinthatthepatientisfreedfromextraneousresponsibilitiesandcanseeclearlytheneedtounderstandandgainreleasefrompain;harderinthatthepatientmaybetooweakenedphysicallyoremotionally,throughfearorworry,toputtheinstructionsintopractice.Butwhateverthecase,it’sworthnotingthatuptothemomentofdeaththeBuddhawouldhaveyoufocuslessonthelimitationsofthesituationthanonthepotentialopportunities.Evenonemomentofinsightinthemidstofpainandsuffering,hesaid,isworthmorethanonehundredyearsofgoodhealth.

Frommyownpersonalexperience—bothinwatchingmyteachersimplementtheseinstructionsandintryingtoimplementthemmyself—I’velearnedtwomajorlessons.OneisthatthepatientsbestsuitedformakingthemostoftheDharmawhensickordyingarethosewhoarenottormentedwithmemoriesofcruelorhurtfulthingstheydidinthepast,andwhohavealreadydevelopedameditativeorcontemplativepracticepriortotheirillness.Evenifthatpracticeisn’tBuddhist,theyintuitivelyrespondtotheBuddha’smessageonpainandareabletouseittoalleviatetheirownsufferings.Thelessonhereisthataslongasyouknowyou’regoingtodiesomeday,it’sagoodideatoavoidcruelactionsandtogetstartedonameditativepracticeofyourown,sothatyou’llbepreparedforillnessanddeathwhentheycome.Asmyteacher,AjaanFuang,oncesaid,whenyoumeditateyou’regainingpracticeinhowtodie—howtobemindfulandalert,howtoendurepain,howtogaincontroloverwaywardthoughtsandmaybeevenreachtheDeathless—sothatwhenthetimecomestodie,you’lldoitwithskill.

Thesecondlessonisthatifyouwanttohelpotherpeopleovercometheirfearofdeath,youhavetolearnhowtoovercomeyourownfearofdeathaswell,byabandoningattachmenttothebody,abandoning

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attachmenttosensualpleasures,avoidingcruelactions,andgainingdirectinsightintotheDeathless.Withyourfearsovercome,you’llbemuchmoreeffectiveinteachingtheDharmatothoseontheirdeathbed.Youwon’tbedisturbedbythephysicalhorrorsofdeath,you’llbeabletocommunicatedirectlytotheneedsofthedyingperson,andyourwordswillcarrymoreweight,fortheycomefromdirectexperience.Yourcompassionwillbeeducatednotbybooksorfeelings,butbyaclearinsightintowhatdiesandwhatdoesn’t.

Ultimately,thesetwolessonsboildowntoone:Meditate,asanactofcompassionbothforyourselfandforothers,evenifdeathseemsfaraway.Whenthetimecomestodie,you’llbelessofaburdenonthosewhoarecaringforyou.Inthemeantime,ifyou’recalledontocomfortthosewhoaresickordying,yourcompassionwillbemoregenuinelyhelpful,andyou’llhaveamoreeffectivemessagetoteach.

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JhanaNotbytheNumbers

WhenIfirstwenttostudywithmyteacher,AjaanFuang,hehandedmeasmallbookletofmeditationinstructionsandsentmeupthehillbehindthemonasterytomeditate.Thebooklet—writtenbyhisteacher,AjaanLee—beganwithabreathmeditationtechniqueandconcludedwithasectionshowinghowthetechniquewasusedtoinducethefirstfourlevelsofjhana.

Inthefollowingyears,IsawAjaanFuanghandthesamebooklettoeachofhisnewstudents,layandordained.Yetdespitethebooklet’sdetaileddescriptionsofjhana,hehimselfrarelymentionedthewordjhanainhisconversations,andneverindicatedtoanyofhisstudentsthattheyhadreachedaparticularlevelofjhanaintheirpractice.Whenastudenttoldhimofarecurringmeditativeexperience,helikedtodiscussnotwhatitwas,butwhattodowithit:whattofocuson,whattodrop,whattochange,whattomaintainthesame.Thenhe’dteachthestudenthowtoexperimentwithit—tomakeitevenmorestableandrestful—andhowtojudgetheresultsoftheexperiments.Ifhisstudentswantedtomeasuretheirprogressagainstthedescriptionsofjhanainthebooklet,thatwastheirbusinessandnoneofhis.Heneversaidthisinsomanywords,butgiventhewayhetaught,theimplicitmessagewasclear.

Asweretheimplicitreasonsforhisattitude.Hehadtoldmeonceabouthisownexperiencesasayoungmeditator:“Backinthosedaysyoudidn’thavebooksexplainingeverythingthewaywedonow.WhenIfirststudiedwithAjaanLee,hetoldmetobringmyminddown.SoIfocusedongettingitdown,down,down,butthemoreIbroughtitdown,theheavilyanddulleritgot.Ithought,‘Thiscan’tberight.’SoIturnedaroundandfocusedonbringingitup,up,up,untilIfoundabalanceandcouldfigureoutwhathewastalkingabout.”Thisincidentwasoneofmanythattaughthimsomeimportantlessons:thatyouhavetotestthingsforyourself,toseewheretheinstructionshadtobetakenliterallyandwheretheyhadtobetakenfiguratively;thatyouhadtojudgeforyourselfhowwellyouweredoing;andthatyouhadtobeingenious,experimentingandtakingriskstofindwaystodealwithproblemsastheyarose.

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Soasateacher,hetriedtoinstillinhisstudentsthesequalitiesofself-reliance,ingenuity,andawillingnesstotakerisksandtestthingsforthemselves.Hedidthatnotonlybytalkingaboutthesequalities,butalsobyforcingyouintosituationswhereyou’dhavetodevelopthem.Hadhealwaysbeentheretoconfirmforyouthat,“Yes,you’vereachedthethirdjhana,”or,“No,that’sonlythesecondjhana,”hewouldhaveshort-circuitedthequalitieshewastryingtoinstill.He,ratherthanyourownpowersofobservation,wouldhavebeentheauthorityonwhatwasgoingoninyourmind;andyouwouldhavebeenabsolvedofanyresponsibilityforcorrectlyevaluatingwhatyouhadexperienced.Atthesametime,hewouldhavebeenfeedingyourchildishdesiretopleaseorimpresshim,andunderminingyourabilitytodealwiththetaskathand,whichwashowtodevelopyourownpowersofsensitivitytoputanendtosufferingandstress.Asheoncetoldme,“IfIhavetoexplaineverything,you’llgetusedtohavingthingshandedtoyouonaplatter.Andthenwhatwillyoudowhenproblemscomeupinyourmeditationandyoudon’thaveanyexperienceinfiguringthingsoutonyourown?”

So,studyingwithhim,Ihadtolearntotakerisksinthemidstofuncertainties.Ifsomethinginterestingcameupinthepractice,I’dhavetostickwithit,observingitovertime,beforereachinganyconclusionsaboutit.Eventhen,Ilearned,thelabelsIappliedtomyexperiencescouldn’tbechiseledinrock.Theyhadtobemorelikepost-itnotes:convenientmarkersformyownreferencethatImighthavetopeeloffandstickelsewhereasIbecamemorefamiliarwiththeterritoryofmymind.Thisprovedtobeavaluablelessonthatappliedtoallareasofmypractice.

Still,AjaanFuangdidn’tleavemetoreinventtheDharmawheeltotallyonmyown.Experiencehadshownhimthatsomeapproachestoconcentrationworkedbetterthanothersforputtingthemindinapositionwhereitcouldexerciseitsingenuityandaccuratelyjudgetheresultsofitsexperiments,andhewasveryexplicitinrecommendingthoseapproaches.Amongthepointsheemphasizedwerethese:

Strongconcentrationisabsolutelynecessaryforliberatinginsight.“Withoutafirmbasisinconcentration,“heoftensaid,”insightisjustconcepts.”Toseeclearlytheconnectionsbetweenstressanditscauses,themindhastobeverysteadyandstill.Andtostaystill,itrequiresthestrongsenseofwellbeingthatonlystrongconcentrationcanprovide.

Togaininsightintoastateofconcentration,youhavetostickwithitforalongtime.Ifyoupushimpatientlyfromonelevelofconcentrationtothenext,orifyoutrytoanalyzeanewstateofconcentrationtooquicklyafteryou’veattainedit,younevergiveitthechancetoshowitsfullpotential

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andyoudon’tgiveyourselfthechancetofamiliarizeyourselfwithit.Soyouhavetokeepworkingatitasaskill,somethingyoucantapintoinallsituations.Thisenablesyoutoseeitfromavarietyofperspectivesandtotestitovertime,toseeifitreallyisastotallyblissful,empty,andeffortlessasitmayhaveseemedonfirstsight.

Thebeststateofconcentrationforthesakeofdevelopingall-aroundinsightisonethatencompassesawhole-bodyawareness.ThereweretwoexceptionstoAjaanFuang’susualpracticeofnotidentifyingthestateyouhadattainedinyourpractice,andbothinvolvedstatesofwrongconcentration.Thefirstwasthestatethatcomeswhenthebreathgetssocomfortablethatyourfocusdriftsfromthebreathtothesenseofcomfortitself,yourmindfulnessbeginstoblur,andyoursenseofthebodyandyoursurroundingsgetslostinapleasanthaze.Whenyouemerge,youfindithardtoidentifywhereexactlyyouwerefocused.AjaanFuangcalledthismoha-samadhi,ordelusion-concentration.

ThesecondstatewasoneIhappenedtohitonenightwhenmyconcentrationwasextremelyone-pointed,andsorefinedthatitrefusedsettleonorlabeleventhemostfleetingmentalobjects.IdroppedintoastateinwhichIlostallsenseofthebody,ofanyinternal/externalsounds,orofanythoughtsorperceptionsatall—althoughtherewasjustenoughtinyawarenesstoletmeknow,whenIemerged,thatIhadn’tbeenasleep.IfoundthatIcouldstaythereformanyhours,andyettimewouldpassveryquickly.Twohourswouldseemliketwominutes.Icouldalso“program”myselftocomeoutataparticulartime.

Afterhittingthisstateseveralnightsinarow,ItoldAjaanFuangaboutit,andhisfirstquestionwas,“Doyoulikeit?”Myanswerwas“No,”becauseIfeltalittlegroggythefirsttimeIcameout.“Good,”hesaid.“Aslongasyoudon’tlikeit,you’resafe.Somepeoplereallylikeitandthinkit’snibbanaorcessation.Actually,it’sthestateofnon-perception(asaññi-bhava).It’snotevenrightconcentration,becausethere’snowayyoucaninvestigateanythingintheretogainanysortofdiscernment.Butitdoeshaveotheruses.”Hethentoldmeofthetimehehadundergonekidneysurgeryand,nottrustingtheanesthesiologist,hadputhimselfinthatstateforthedurationoftheoperation.

Inboththesestatesofwrongconcentration,thelimitedrangeofawarenesswaswhatmadethemwrong.Ifwholeareasofyourawarenessareblockedoff,howcanyougainall-aroundinsight?AndasI’venoticedinyearssince,peopleadeptatblottingoutlargeareasofawarenessthroughpowerfulone-pointednessalsotendtobepsychologicallyadeptatdissociationanddenial.ThisiswhyAjaanFuang,followingAjaanLee,

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taughtaformofbreathmeditationthataimedatanall-aroundawarenessofthebreathenergythroughoutthebody,playingwithittogainasenseofease,andthencalmingitsothatitwouldn’tinterferewithaclearvisionofthesubtlemovementsofthemind.Thisall-aroundawarenesshelpedtoeliminatetheblindspotswhereignorancelikestolurk.

Anidealstateofconcentrationforgivingrisetoinsightisonethatyoucananalyzeintermsofstressandtheabsenceofstressevenwhileyou’reinit.Onceyourmindwasfirmlyestablishedinastateofconcentration,AjaanFuangwouldrecommend“lifting”itfromitsobject,butnotsofarthattheconcentrationwasdestroyed.Fromthatperspective,youcouldevaluatewhatlevelsofstresswerestillpresentintheconcentrationandletthemgo.Intheinitialstages,thisusuallyinvolvedevaluatinghowyouwererelatingtothebreath,anddetectingmoresubtlelevelsofbreathenergyinthebodythatwouldprovideabasisfordeeperlevelsofstillness.Oncethebreathwasperfectlystill,andthesenseofthebodystarteddissolvingintoaformlessmist,thisprocesswouldinvolvedetectingtheperceptionsof“space,”“knowing,”“oneness,”etc.,thatwouldappearinplaceofthebodyandcouldbepeeledawaylikethelayersofanonioninthemind.Ineithercase,thebasicpatternwasthesame:detectingthelevelofperceptionormentalfabricationthatwascausingtheunnecessarystress,anddroppingitforamoresubtlelevelofperceptionorfabricationuntiltherewasnothinglefttodrop.

Thiswaswhy,aslongasyourawarenesswasstillandalertall-around,itdidn’tmatterwhetheryouwereinthefirstorthefourteenthjhana,forthewayyoutreatedyourstateofconcentrationwasalwaysthesame.Bydirectingyourattentiontoissuesofstressanditsabsence,hewaspointingyoutotermsbywhichtoevaluateyourstateofmindforyourself,withouthavingtoaskanyoutsideauthority.And,asitturnsout,thetermsyoucanevaluateforyourself—stress,itscause,itscessation,andthepathtoitscessation—aretheissuesthatdefinethefournobletruths:therightviewthattheBuddhasayscanleadtototalliberation.

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TheIntegrityofEmptiness

Forallthesubtletyofhisteachings,theBuddhahadasimpletestformeasuringwisdom.You’rewise,hesaid,totheextentthatyoucangetyourselftodothingsyoudon’tlikedoingbutknowwillresultinhappiness,andtorefrainfromthingsyoulikedoingbutknowwillresultinpainandharm.

Hederivedthisstandardforwisdomfromhisinsightintotheradicalimportanceofintentionalactioninshapingourexperienceofhappinessandsorrow,pleasureandpain.Withactionsoimportantandyetsofrequentlymisguided,wisdomhastobetactical,strategic,infosteringactionsthataretrulybeneficial.Ithastooutwitshort-sightedpreferencestoyieldahappinessthatlasts.

BecausetheBuddhaviewedallissuesofexperience,fromthegrosstothesubtle,intermsofintentionalactionsandtheirresults,histacticalstandardforwisdomappliestoalllevelsaswell,fromthewisdomofsimplegenerositytothewisdomofemptinessandultimateAwakening.Wisdomonalllevelsiswisebecauseitworks.Itmakesadifferenceinwhatyoudoandthehappinessthatresults.Andtowork,itrequiresintegrity:thewillingnesstolookhonestlyattheresultsofyouractions,toadmitwhenyou‘vecausedharm,andtochangeyourwayssothatyouwon’tmakethesamemistakeagain.

What’sstrikingaboutthisstandardforwisdomishowdirectanddowntoearthitis.Thismightcomeasasurprise,formostofusdon’tthinkofBuddhistwisdomassocommonsensicalandstraightforward.Instead,thephrase“Buddhistwisdom”conjuresupteachingsmoreabstractandparadoxical,flyinginthefaceofcommonsense—emptinessbeingaprimeexample.Emptiness,we’retold,meansthatnothinghasanyinherentexistence.Inotherwords,onanultimatelevel,thingsaren’twhatweconventionallythinkofas“things.”They’reprocessesthatareinnowayseparatefromalltheotherprocessesonwhichtheydepend.Thisisaphilosophicallysophisticatedideathat’sfascinatingtoponder,butitdoesn’tprovidemuchobvioushelpingettingyouupearlyonacoldmorningtomeditatenorinconvincingyoutogiveupadestructiveaddiction.

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Forexample,ifyou’readdictedtoalcohol,it’snotbecauseyoufeelthatthealcoholhasanyinherentexistence.It’sbecause,inyourcalculation,theimmediatepleasurederivedfromthealcoholoutweighsthelong-termdamageit’sdoingtoyourlife.Thisisageneralprinciple:attachmentandaddictionarenotmetaphysicalproblems.They’retacticalones.We’reattachedtothingsandactions,notbecauseofwhatwethinktheyare,butbecauseofwhatwethinktheycandoforourhappiness.Ifwekeepoverestimatingthepleasureandunderestimatingthepaintheybring,westayattachedtothemregardlessofwhat,inanultimatesense,weunderstandthemtobe.

Becausetheproblemistactical,thesolutionhastobetacticalaswell.Thecureforaddictionandattachmentliesinretrainingyourimaginationandyourintentionsthroughexpandingyoursenseofthepowerofyouractionsandthepossiblehappinessyoucanachieve.Thismeanslearningtobecomemorehonestandsensitivetoyouractionsandtheirconsequences,atthesametimeallowingyourselftoimagineandmasteralternativeroutestogreaterhappinesswithfewerdrawbacks.Metaphysicalviewsmaysometimesenterintotheequation,butatmostthey’reonlysecondary.Manytimesthey’reirrelevant.Evenifyouweretoseethealcoholanditspleasureaslackinginherentexistence,you’dstillgoforthepleasureaslongasyousawitasoutweighingthedamage.Sometimesideasofmetaphysicalemptinesscanactuallybeharmful.Ifyoustartfocusingonhowthedamageofdrinking—andthepeopledamagedbyyourdrinking—areemptyofinherentexistence,youcoulddeveloparationaleforcontinuingtodrink.Sotheteachingonmetaphysicalemptinesswouldn’tseemtopasstheBuddha’sowntestforwisdom.

TheironyhereisthattheideaofemptinessaslackofinherentexistencehasverylittletodowithwhattheBuddhahimselfsaidaboutemptiness.Histeachingsonemptiness—asreportedintheearliestBuddhisttexts,thePaliCanon—dealdirectlywithactionsandtheirresults,withissuesofpleasureandpain.Tounderstandandexperienceemptinessinlinewiththeseteachingsrequiresnotphilosophicalsophistication,butapersonalintegritywillingtoadmittheactualmotivationsbehindyouractionsandtheactualbenefitsandharmtheycause.Forthesereasons,thisversionofemptinessisveryrelevantindevelopingthesortofwisdomthatwouldpasstheBuddha’scommonsensicaltestformeasuringhowwiseyouare.

TheBuddha’steachingsonemptiness—containedintwomajordiscoursesandseveralsmallerones—defineitinthreedistinctways:asan

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approachtomeditation,asanattributeofthesensesandtheirobjects,andasastateofconcentration.Althoughtheseformsofemptinessdifferintheirdefinitions,theyultimatelyconvergeonthesameroutetoreleasefromsuffering.Toseehowthishappens,wewillneedtoexaminethethreemeaningsofemptinessonebyone.Indoingso,we’llfindthateachofthemappliestheBuddha’scommonsensicaltestforwisdomtosubtleactionsofthemind.Buttounderstandhowthistestappliestothissubtlelevel,wefirsthavetoseehowitappliestoactionsonamoreobviouslevel.Forthat,there’snobetterintroductionthantheBuddha’sadvicetohisson,Rahula,onhowtocultivatewisdomwhileengagingintheactivitiesofeverydaylife.

EverydayWisdom

TheBuddhatoldRahula—whowassevenatthetime—tousehisthoughts,words,anddeedsasamirror.Inotherwords,justasyouwoulduseamirrortocheckforanydirtonyourface,Rahulawastousehisactionsasameansoflearningwheretherewasstillanythingimpureinhismind.Beforeheacted,heshouldtrytoanticipatetheresultsoftheaction.Ifhesawthatthey’dbeharmfultohimselfortoothers,heshouldn’tfollowthroughwiththeaction.Ifheforesawnoharm,hecouldgoaheadandact.If,inthecourseofdoingtheaction,hesawitcausingunexpectedharm,heshouldstoptheaction.Ifhedidn’tseeanyharm,hecouldcontinuewithit.

If,afterhewasdone,hesawanylong-termharmresultingfromtheaction,heshouldconsultwithanotherpersononthepathtogetsomeperspectiveonwhathehaddone—andonhownottodoitagain—andthenresolvenottorepeatthatmistake.Inotherwords,heshouldnotfeelembarrassedorashamedtorevealhismistakestopeopleherespected,forifhestartedhidinghismistakesfromthem,hewouldsoonstarthidingthemfromhimself.If,ontheotherhand,hesawnoharmresultingfromtheaction,heshouldrejoiceinhisprogressinthepracticeandcontinuewithhistraining.

Therightnameforthisreflectionisnot“self-purification.”It’s“action-purification.”Youdeflectjudgmentsofgoodandbadawayfromyoursenseofself,wheretheycantieyoudownwithconceitandguilt.Instead,youfocusdirectlyontheactionsthemselves,wherethejudgmentscanallowyoutolearnfromyourmistakesandtofindahealthyjoyinwhatyoudidright.

Whenyoukeepreflectinginthisway,itservesmanypurposes.First

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andforemost,itforcesyoutobehonestaboutyourintentionsandabouttheeffectsofyouractions.Honestyhereisasimpleprinciple:youdon’taddanyafter-the-factrationalizationstocoverupwhatyouactuallydid,nordoyoutrytosubtractfromtheactualfactsthroughdenial.Becauseyou’reapplyingthishonestytoareaswherethenormalreactionistobeembarrassedaboutorafraidofthetruth,it’smorethanasimpleregisteringofthefacts.Italsorequiresmoralintegrity.ThisiswhytheBuddhastressedmoralityasapreconditionforwisdom,anddeclaredthehighestmoralprincipletobethepreceptagainstlying.Ifyoudon’tmakeahabitofadmittinguncomfortabletruths,thetruthasawholewilleludeyou.

Thesecondpurposeofthisreflectionistoemphasizethepowerofyouractions.Youseethatyouractionsdomakethedifferencebetweenpleasureandpain.Third,yougainpracticeinlearningfromyourmistakeswithoutshameorremorse.Fourth,yourealizethatthemorehonestyouareinevaluatingyouractions,themorepoweryouhavetochangeyourwaysinapositivedirection.Andfinally,youdevelopgoodwillandcompassion,inthatyouresolvetoactonlyonintentionsthatmeannoharmtoanyone,andyoucontinuallyfocusondevelopingtheskillofharmlessnessasyourtoppriority.

AlloftheselessonsarenecessarytodevelopthekindofwisdommeasuredbytheBuddha’stestforwisdom;and,asitturnsout,they’redirectlyrelatedtothefirstmeaningofemptiness,asanapproachtomeditation.Infact,thissortofemptinesssimplytakestheinstructionsRahulareceivedforobservingeverydayactionsandextendsthemtotheactofperceptionwithinthemind.

EmptinessasanApproachtoMeditation

Emptinessasanapproachtomeditationisthemostbasicofthethreekindsofemptiness.Inthecontextofthisapproach,emptinessmeans“emptyofdisturbance”—or,toputitinotherterms,emptyofstress.Youbringthemindtoconcentrationandthenexamineyourstateofconcentrationinordertodetectthepresenceorabsenceofsubtledisturbanceorstressstillinherentwithinthatstate.Whenyoufindadisturbance,youfollowitbacktotheperception—thementallabeloractofrecognition—onwhichtheconcentrationisbased.Then,youdropthatperceptioninfavorofamorerefinedone,oneleadingtoastateofconcentrationwithlessinherentdisturbance.

Inthediscourseexplainingthismeaningofemptiness(MN121),the

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Buddhaintroduceshisexplanationwithasimile.HeandAnandaaredwellinginanabandonedpalacethatisnowaquietmonastery.TheBuddhatellsAnandatonoticeandappreciatehowthemonasteryisemptyofthedisturbancesitcontainedwhenitwasstillusedasapalace—thedisturbancescausedbygoldandsilver,elephantsandhorses,assembliesofwomenandmen.Theonlydisturbanceremainingisthatcausedbythepresenceofthemonksmeditatinginunity.

Takingthisobservationasasimile,theBuddhalaunchesintohisdescriptionofemptinessasanapproachtomeditation.(ThesimileisreinforcedbythefactthatthePaliwordfor“monastery”or“dwelling—vihara—alsomeans“attitude”or“approach.”)Hedescribesamonkmeditatinginthewildernesswhoissimplynotingtohimselfthatheisnowinthewilderness.Themonkallowshismindtoconcentrateonandenjoytheperception,“wilderness.”Hethenstepsbackmentallytoobserveandappreciatethatthismodeofperceptionisemptyofthedisturbancesthatcomewithperceptionsofthevillagelifehehasleftbehind.Theonlyremainingdisturbancesarethoseassociatedwiththeperception,“wilderness”—forexample,anyemotionalreactionstothedangersthatwildernessmightentail.AstheBuddhasays,themonkseesaccuratelywhichdisturbancesarenotpresentinthatmodeofperception;asforthoseremaining,heseesaccurately,“Thereisthis.”Inotherwords,headdsnothingtowhatisthereandtakesnothingaway.Thisishowheentersintoameditativeemptinessthatispureandundistorted.

Then,notingthedisturbancesinherentintheactoffocusingon“wilderness,”themonkdropsthatperceptionandreplacesitwithamorerefinedperception,onewithlesspotentialforarousingdisturbance.Hechoosestheearthelement,banishingfromhismindanydetailsofthehillsandravinesoftheearth,simplytakingnoteofitsearthness.Herepeatstheprocessheappliedtotheperceptionofwilderness—settlingintotheperceptionof“earth,”fullyindulginginit,andthensteppingbacktonoticehowthedisturbancesassociatedwith“wilderness”arenowgone,whiletheonlyremainingdisturbancesarethoseassociatedwiththesinglenessofmindbasedontheperceptionof“earth.”

Hethenrepeatsthesameprocesswithevermorerefinedperceptions,settlingintotheformlessjhanas,ormeditativeabsorptions:infinitespace,infiniteconsciousness,nothingness,neitherperceptionnornon-perception,andtheobjectlessconcentrationofawareness.

Finally,seeingthateventhisobjectlessconcentrationofawarenessisfabricatedandwilled,hedropshisdesiretocontinuementallyfabricatinganythingatall.Inthiswayheisreleasedfromthementalfermentations—

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sensualdesire,becoming,views,ignorance—thatwould“bubbleup”intofurtherbecoming.Heobservesthatthisreleasestillhasthedisturbancesthatcomewiththefunctioningofthesixsensespheres,butthatit’semptyofallfermentation,allpotentialforfurthersufferingandstress.This,concludestheBuddha,istheentryintoapureandundistortedemptinessthatissuperiorandunsurpassed.It’stheemptinessinwhichhehimselfdwellsandthat,throughouttime,hasneverbeennoreverwillbeexcelled.

Throughoutthisdescription,emptinessmeansonething:emptyofdisturbanceorstress.Themeditatoristaughttoappreciatethelackofdisturbanceasapositiveaccomplishment,andtoseeanyremainingdisturbancecreatedbythemind,howeversubtle,asaproblemtobesolved.

Whenyouunderstanddisturbanceasasubtleformofharm,youseetheconnectionsbetweenthisdescriptionofemptinessandtheBuddha’sinstructionstoRahula.Insteadofregardinghismeditativestatesasameasureofself-identityorself-worth—inhavingdevelopedaselfthat’spurer,moreexpansive,moreatonewiththegroundofbeing—themonkviewsthemsimplyintermsofactionsandtheirconsequences.Andthesameprinciplesapplyhere,onthemeditativelevel,asapplyintheBuddha’scommentstoRahulaonactioningeneral.

Here,theactionistheperceptionthatunderliesyourstateofmeditativeconcentration.Yousettleintothestatebyrepeatingtheactionofperceptioncontinuallyuntilyouarethoroughlyfamiliarwithit.JustasRahuladiscoveredtheconsequencesofhisactionsbyobservingtheobviousharmdonetohimselfortoothers,hereyoudiscovertheconsequencesofconcentratingontheperceptionbyseeinghowmuchdisturbancearisesfromthementalaction.Asyousensedisturbance,youcanchangeyourmentalaction,movingyourconcentrationtoamorerefinedperception,untilultimatelyyoucanstopthefabricationofmentalstatesaltogether.

AtthecoreofthismeditationpracticearetwoimportantprinciplesderivedfromtheinstructionstoRahula.Thefirstishonesty:theabilitytobefreeofembellishmentordenial,addingnointerpretationtothedisturbanceactuallypresent,whileatthesametimenottryingtodenythatit’sthere.Anintegralpartofthishonestyistheabilitytoseethingssimplyasactionandresult,withoutreadingintothemtheconceit“Iam.”

Thesecondprincipleiscompassion—thedesiretoendsuffering—inthatyoukeeptryingtoabandonthecausesofstressanddisturbancewhereveryoufindthem.Theeffectsofthiscompassionextendnotonlyto

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yourself,buttoothersaswell.Whenyoudon’tweighyourselfdownwithstress,you’relesslikelytobeaburdentoothers;you’realsoinabetterpositiontohelpshouldertheirburdenswhenneedbe.Inthisway,theprinciplesofintegrityandcompassionunderlieeventhemostsubtleexpressionsofthewisdomleadingtorelease.

Thisprocessofdevelopingemptinessofdisturbanceisnotnecessarilysmoothandstraightforward.Itkeepsrequiringthestrengthofwillneededtogiveupanyattachment.Thisisbecauseanessentialstepingettingtoknowthemeditativeperceptionasanactionislearningtosettleintoit,toindulgeinit—inotherwords,toenjoyitthoroughly,eventothepointofattachment.Thisisoneoftherolesoftranquilityinmeditation.Ifyoudon’tlearntoenjoythemeditationenoughtokeepatitconsistently,youwon’tgrowfamiliarwithit.Ifyouaren’tfamiliarwithit,insightintoitsconsequenceswon’tarise.

However,unlessyou’vealreadyhadpracticeusingtheRahulainstructionstoovercomegrosserattachments,thenevenifyougaininsightintothedisturbancescausedbyyourattachmenttoconcentration,yourinsightwilllackintegrity.Becauseyouhaven’thadanypracticewithmoreblatantattachments,youwon’tbeabletoprylooseyoursubtleattachmentsinareliableway.Youfirstneedtodevelopthemoralhabitoflookingatyouractionsandtheirconsequences,believingfirmly—throughexperience—intheworthofrefrainingfromharm,howeversubtle.Onlythenwillyouhavetheskillneededtodevelopemptinessasanapproachtomeditationinapureandundistortedwaythatwillcarryyouallthewaytoitsintendedgoal.

EmptinessasanAttributeoftheSensesandtheirObjects

Emptinessasanattribute,whenusedasadeparturepointforpractice,leadstoasimilarprocessbutbyadifferentroute.Whereasemptinessasanapproachtomeditationfocusesonissuesofdisturbanceandstress,emptinessasanattributefocusesonissuesofselfandnot-self.Andwhereasemptinessasanapproachtomeditationstartswithtranquility,emptinessasanattributestartswithinsight.

TheBuddhadescribesthiskindofemptinessinashortdiscourse(SN35:85).Again,Anandaishisinterlocutor,openingthediscoursewithaquestion:Inwhatwayistheworldempty?TheBuddhaanswersthateachofthesixsensesandtheirobjectsareemptyofone’sselforanythingpertainingtoone’sself.

Thediscoursegivesnofurtherexplanation,butrelateddiscourses

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showthatthisinsightcanbeputintopracticeinoneoftwoways.ThefirstistoreflectonwhattheBuddhasaysabout“self”andhowideasofselfcanbeunderstoodasformsofmentalactivity.Thesecondway,whichwewilldiscussinthenextsection,istodeveloptheperceptionofallthingsbeingemptyofone’sselfasabasisforastateofrefinedconcentration.However,asweshallsee,bothofthesetacticsultimatelyleadbacktousingthefirstformofemptiness,asanapproachtomeditation,tocompletethepathtoawakening.

Whentalkingabout“self,”theBuddharefusedtosaywhetheritexistsornot,buthegaveadetaileddescriptionofhowtheminddevelopstheideaofselfasastrategybasedoncraving.Inourdesireforhappiness,werepeatedlyengageinwhattheBuddhacalls“I-making”and“my-making”aswaysoftryingtoexercisecontroloverpleasureandpain.BecauseI-makingandmy-makingareactions,theyfallunderthepurviewoftheBuddha’sinstructionstoRahula.Wheneveryouengageinthem,youshouldchecktoseewhethertheyleadtoaffliction;iftheydo,youshouldabandonthem.

Thisisalessonthat,onablatantlevel,welearnevenaschildren.Ifyoulayclaimtoapieceofcandybelongingtoyoursister,you’regoingtogetintoafight.Ifshe’sbiggerthanyou,you’ddobetternottoclaimthecandyasyours.Muchofourpracticaleducationaswegrowupliesindiscoveringwhereit’sbeneficialtocreateasenseofselfaroundsomething,andwhereit’snot.

IfyoulearntoapproachyourI-makingandmy-makinginthelightoftheRahulainstructions,yougreatlyrefinethisaspectofyoureducation,asyoufindyourselfforcedtobemorehonest,discerning,andcompassionateinseeingwherean“I”isaliability,andwhereit’saasset.Onablatantlevel,youdiscoverthatwhiletherearemanyareaswhere“I”and“mine”leadonlytouselessconflicts,thereareotherswherethey’rebeneficial.Thesenseof“I”thatleadsyoutobegenerousandprincipledinyouractionsisan“I”worthmaking,worthmasteringasaskill.So,too,isthesenseof“I”thatcanassumeresponsibilityforyouractions,andcanbewillingtosacrificeasmallpleasureinthepresentforagreaterhappinessinthefuture.Thiskindof“I,”withpractice,leadsawayfromafflictionandtowardincreasinglevelsofhappiness.Thisisthe“I”thatwilleventuallyleadyoutopracticemeditation,foryouseethelong-termbenefitsthatcomefromtrainingyourpowersofmindfulness,concentration,anddiscernment.

However,asmeditationrefinesyoursensitivity,youbegintonoticethesubtlelevelsofafflictionanddisturbancethatI-makingandmy-

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makingcancreateinthemind.Theycangetyouattachedtoastateofcalm,sothatyouresentanyintrusionson“my”calm.Theycangetyouattachedtoyourinsights,sothatyoudeveloppridearound“my”insights.Thiscanblockfurtherprogress,forthesenseof“I”and“mine”canblindyoutothesubtlestressonwhichthecalmandinsightsarebased.Ifyou’vehadtraininginfollowingtheRahulainstructions,though,you’llcometoappreciatetheadvantagesoflearningtoseeeventhecalmandtheinsightsasemptyofselforanythingpertainingtoself.Thatistheessenceofthissecondtypeofemptiness.Whenyouremovelabelsof“I”or“mine”evenfromyourowninsightsandmentalstates,howdoyouseethem?Simplyasinstancesofstressarisingandpassingaway—disturbancearisingandpassingaway—withnothingelseaddedortakenaway.Asyoupursuethismodeofperception,you’readoptingthefirstformofemptiness,asanapproachtomeditation.

EmptinessasaStateofConcentration

ThethirdkindofemptinesstaughtbytheBuddha—asastateofconcentration—isessentiallyanotherwayofusinginsightintoemptinessasanattributeofthesensesandtheirobjectsasameanstoattainrelease.Onediscourse(MN43)describesitasfollows:Amonkgoestositinaquietplaceandintentionallyperceivesthesixsensesandtheirobjectsasemptyofselforanythingpertainingtoself.Ashepursuesthisperception,itbringshismindnotdirectlytorelease,buttotheformlessjhanaofnothingness,whichisaccompaniedbystrongequanimity.

Anotherdiscourse(MN106)pursuesthistopicfurther,notingthatthemonkrelishestheequanimity.Ifhesimplykeepsonrelishingit,hismeditationgoesnofurtherthanthat.Butifhelearnstoseethatequanimityasanaction—fabricated,willed—hecanlookforthesubtlestressitengenders.Ifhecanobservethisstressasitarisesandpassesawaysimplyonitsownterms,neitheraddinganyotherperceptionstoitnortakinganythingaway,he’sagainadoptingemptinessasanapproachtohismeditation.Bydroppingthecausesofstresswhereverhefindstheminhisconcentration,heultimatelyreachesthehighestformofemptiness,freefromallmentalfabrication.

TheWisdomofEmptiness

Thusthelasttwotypesofemptinessultimatelyleadbacktothefirst—emptinessasanapproachtomeditation—whichmeansthatallthreetypesofemptinessultimatelyleadtothesamedestination.Whetherthey

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interpretemptinessasmeaningemptyofdisturbance(suffering/stress)oremptyofself,whethertheyencouragefosteringinsightthroughtranquilityortranquilitythroughinsight,theyallculminateinapracticethatcompletesthetasksappropriatetothefournobletruths:comprehendingstress,abandoningitscause,realizingitscessation,anddevelopingthepathtothatcessation.Completingthesetasksleadstorelease.

What’sdistinctiveaboutthisprocessisthewayitgrowsoutoftheprinciplesofaction-purificationthattheBuddhataughttoRahula,applyingtheseprinciplestoeverystepofthepracticefromthemostelementarytothemostrefined.AstheBuddhatoldRahula,theseprinciplesaretheonlypossiblemeansbywhichpuritycanbeattained.Althoughmostexplanationsofthisstatementdefinepurityaspurityofvirtue,theBuddha’sdiscussionofemptinessasanapproachtomeditationshowsthatpurityheremeanspurityofmindandpurityofwisdomaswell.Everyaspectofthetrainingispurifiedbyviewingitintermsofactionsandconsequences,whichhelpstodeveloptheintegritythat’swillingtoadmittounskillfulactions,andthematuregoodwillthatkeepsaimingatconsequencesentailingeverlessharm,disturbance,andstress.

Thisiswherethissortofemptinessdiffersfromthemetaphysicaldefinitionofemptinessas“lackofinherentexistence.”Whereasthatviewofemptinessdoesn’tnecessarilyinvolveintegrity—it’sanattempttodescribetheultimatetruthofthenatureofthings,ratherthantoevaluateactions—thisapproachtoemptinessrequireshonestlyevaluatingyourmentalactionsandtheirresults.Integrityisthusintegraltoitsmastery.

Inthisway,thehighestlevelsofwisdomanddiscernmentgrowprimarilynotfromthetypeofknowledgefosteredbydebateandlogicalanalysis,norfromthetypefosteredbybareawarenessormerenoting.Theygrowfromtheknowledgefosteredbyintegrity,devoidofconceit,coupledwithcompassionandgoodwill.

Thereasonforthisissoobviousthatit’softenmissed:ifyou’regoingtoputanendtosuffering,youneedthecompassiontoseethatthisisaworthwhilegoal,andtheintegritytoadmitthesufferingyou’veheedlesslyandneedlesslycausedthroughoutthepast.Theignorancethatgivesrisetosufferingoccursnotbecauseyoudon’tknowenoughorarenotphilosophicallysophisticatedenoughtounderstandthetruemeaningofemptiness.Itcomesfrombeingunwillingtoadmitthatwhatyou’reobviouslydoingrightbeforeyourveryeyesiscausingsuffering.Thisiswhyawakeningdestroysconceit:itawakensyoutothefullextentofthewillfulblindnessthathaskeptyoucomplicitinunskillfulbehaviorall

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along.It’sachasteningexperience.Theonlyhonestthingtodoinresponsetothisexperienceistoopentorelease.That’stheemptinessthat’ssuperiorandunsurpassed.

Inbuildingthepathtothisemptinessonthesameprinciplesthatunderliethemoreelementarylevelsofaction-purification,theBuddhamanagedtoavoidcreatingartificialdichotomiesbetweenconventionalandultimatetruthsinthepractice.Forthisreason,hisapproachtoultimatewisdomhelpsvalidatethemoreelementarylevelsaswell.Whenyourealizethatanundistortedunderstandingofemptinessdependsontheskillsyoudevelopinadoptingaresponsible,honest,andkindattitudetowardallyouractions,you’remorelikelytobringthisattitudetoeverythingyoudo—grossorsubtle.Yougivemoreimportancetoallyouractionsandtheirconsequences,yougivemoreimportancetoyoursenseofintegrity,foryourealizethatthesethingsaredirectlyrelatedtotheskillsleadingtototalrelease.Youcan’tdevelopathrowawayattitudetoyouractionsandtheirconsequences,forifyoudoyou’rethrowingawayyourchancesforatrueandunconditionalhappiness.Theskillsyouneedtotalkyourselfintomeditatingonacold,darkmorning,orintoresistingadrinkonalazyafternoon,arethesameonesthatwilleventuallyguaranteeanundistortedrealizationofthehighestpeace.

ThisishowtheBuddha’steachingsonemptinessencourageyoutoexercisewisdomineverythingyoudo.

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AVerbforNirvana

BackinthedaysoftheBuddha,nirvana(nibbana)hadaverbofitsown:nibbuti.Itmeantto“goout,”likeaflame.Becausefirewasthoughttobeinastateofentrapmentasitburned—bothclingingtoandtrappedbythefuelonwhichitfed—itsgoingoutwasseenasanunbinding.Togooutwastobeunbound.Sometimesanotherverbwasused—parinibbuti—withthe“pari-”meaningtotalorall-around,toindicatethatthepersonunbound,unlikefireunbound,wouldneveragainbetrapped.

NowthatnirvanahasbecomeanEnglishword,itshouldhaveitsownEnglishverbtoconveythesenseof“beingunbound”aswell.Atpresent,wesaythataperson“reaches”nirvanaor“enters”nirvana,implyingthatnibbanaisaplacewhereyoucango.Butnirvanaismostemphaticallynotaplace.It’srealizedonlywhenthemindstopsdefiningitselfintermsofplace:ofhere,orthere,orbetweenthetwo.

Thismayseemlikeaword-chopper’sproblem—whatcanaverbortwodotoyourpractice?—buttheideaofnirvanaasaplacehascreatedseveremisunderstandingsinthepast,anditcouldeasilycreatemisunderstandingsnow.TherewasatimewhensomephilosophersinIndiareasonedthatifnirvanaisoneplaceandsamsaraanother,thenenteringintonirvanaleavesyoustuck:you’velimitedyourrangeofmovement,foryoucan’tgetbacktosamsara.Thustosolvethisproblemtheyinventedwhattheythoughtwasanewkindofnirvana:anunestablishednirvana,inwhichonecouldbeinbothplaces—nirvanaandsamsara—atonce.

However,thesephilosophersmisunderstoodtwoimportantpointsabouttheBuddha’steachings.Thefirstwasthatneithersamsaranornirvanaisaplace.Samsaraisaprocessofcreatingplaces,evenwholeworlds,(thisiscalledbecoming)andthenwanderingthroughthem(thisiscalledbirth).Nirvanaistheendofthisprocess.Youmaybeabletobeintwoplacesatonce—ifyoursenseofselfisinfiniteenough,youcanoccupytheentiretyofspaceallatonce—butyoucan’tfeedaprocessandexperienceitsendatthesametime.You’reeitherfeedingsamsaraoryou’renot.Ifyoufeeltheneedtocoursefreelythroughbothsamsaraandnirvana,you’resimplyengaginginmoresamsara-ingandkeepingyourself

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trapped.Thesecondpointisthatnirvana,fromtheverybeginning,was

realizedthroughunestablishedconsciousness—onethatdoesn’tcomeorgoorstayinplace.There’snowaythatanythingunestablishedcangetstuckanywhereatall,forit’snotonlynon-localizedbutalsoundefined.

TheideaofareligiousidealaslyingbeyondspaceanddefinitionisnotexclusivetotheBuddha’steachings,butissuesoflocalityanddefinition,intheBuddha’seyes,hadaspecificpsychologicalmeaning.Thisiswhythenon-localityofnirvanaisimportanttounderstand.

Justasallphenomenaarerootedindesire,consciousnesslocalizesitselfthroughpassion.Passioniswhatcreatesthe“there”onwhichconsciousnesscanlandorgetestablished,whetherthe“there”isaform,feeling,perception,thought-construct,oratypeofconsciousnessitself.Onceconsciousnessgetsestablishedonanyoftheseaggregates,itbecomesattachedandthenproliferates,feedingoneverythingarounditandcreatingallsortsofhavoc.Whereverthere’sattachment,that’swhereyougetdefinedasabeing.Youcreateanidentitythere,andinsodoingyou’relimitedthere.Evenifthe“there”isaninfinitesenseofawarenessgrounding,surrounding,orpermeatingeverythingelse,it’sstilllimited,for“grounding”andsoforthareaspectsofplace.Whereverthere’splace,nomatterhowsubtle,passionlieslatent,lookingformorefoodtofeedon.

If,however,thepassioncanberemoved,there’snomore“there”there.Onesuttaillustratesthiswithasimile:thesunshiningthroughtheeasternwallofahouseandlandingonthewesternwall.Ifthewesternwall,thegroundbeneathit,andthewatersbeneaththegroundwereallremoved,thesunlightwouldn’tland.Inthesameway,ifpassionforform,etc.,couldberemoved,consciousnesswouldhaveno“where”toland,andsowouldbecomeunestablished.Thisdoesn’tmeanthatconsciousnesswouldbeannihilated,simplythat—likethesunlight—itwouldnowhavenolocality.Withnolocality,itwouldnolongerbedefined.

Thisiswhytheconsciousnessofnirvanaissaidtobe“withoutsurface”(anidassanam),foritdoesn’tland.Becausetheconsciousness-aggregatecoversonlyconsciousnessthatisnearorfar,past,present,orfuture—i.e.,inconnectionwithspaceandtime—consciousnesswithoutsurfaceisnotincludedintheaggregates.It’snoteternalbecauseeternityisafunctionoftime.Andbecausenon-localalsomeansundefined,theBuddhainsistedthatanawakenedperson—unlikeordinarypeople—can’tbelocatedordefinedinanyrelationtotheaggregatesinthislife;afterdeath,he/shecan’tbedescribedasexisting,notexisting,neither,orboth,

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becausedescriptionscanapplyonlytodefinablethings.Theessentialsteptowardthisnon-local,undefinedrealizationisto

cutbackontheproliferationsofconsciousness.Thisfirstinvolvescontemplatingthedrawbacksofkeepingconsciousnesstrappedintheprocessoffeeding.Thiscontemplationgivesurgencytothenextsteps:bringingthemindtoonenessinconcentration,graduallyrefiningthatoneness,andthendroppingittozero.ThedrawbacksoffeedingaremostgraphicallydescribedinSN12:63,ASon’sFlesh.TheprocessofgraduallyrefiningonenessisprobablybestdescribedinMN121,TheLesserDiscourseonEmptiness,whilethedroptozeroisbestdescribedintheBuddha’sfamousinstructionstoBahiya:“‘Inreferencetotheseen,therewillbeonlytheseen.Inreferencetotheheard,onlytheheard.Inreferencetothesensed,onlythesensed.Inreferencetothecognized,onlythecognized.’Thatishowyoushouldtrainyourself.Whenforyoutherewillbeonlytheseeninreferencetotheseen,onlytheheardinreferencetotheheard,onlythesensedinreferencetothesensed,onlythecognizedinreferencetothecognized,then,Bahiya,thereisnoyouinconnectionwiththat.Whenthereisnoyouinconnectionwiththat,thereisnoyouthere.Whenthereisnoyouthere,youareneitherherenoryondernorbetweenthetwo.This,justthis,istheendofstress.”

Withnohereorthereorbetweenthetwo,youobviouslycan’tusetheverb“enter”or“reach”todescribethisrealization.Maybeweshouldmakethewordnirvanaintoaverbitself:“Whenthereisnoyouinconnectionwiththat,younirvana.”Thatwaywecanindicatethatunbindingisanactionunlikeanyother,andwecanheadoffanymistakennotionaboutgetting“stuck”intotalfreedom.

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ThePracticeinaWord

TheBuddhacouldhaveconcludedhisteachingcareerwithsomeinspiringwordsontheblissofnirvanaoremptiness,buthedidn’t.Heendedwiththispieceofadvice:“Achievecompletionthroughappamada.”CommonEnglishtranslationsof“throughappamada”—suchas“untiringly,”“earnestly,”“withdiligence”—conveythenotionofsustained,determinedeffort.ThesegivetheimpressionthattheBuddha’slastmessagewastostickwiththepractice.TranslationsofthephraseintovariousAsianlanguages,though,giveitadifferenttwist.SriLankancommentariestranslateappamadaas“unrelaxedmindfulness”;Thaisinterpretitasheedfulness,vigilance,wariness,care.Intheseinterpretations,theBuddhawasn’tsimplysayingtopersevere.Hewassaying,“Don’tbecomplacent.Watchoutfordanger.Don’tgetcaughtwithyourguarddown.”

TheseinterpretationshelpmakesenseofotherinstanceswheretheBuddhastressedtheimportanceofappamada,aswhenhesaidthatappamadaisthepathtotheDeathless,orthatallskillfulqualitiesofmindarerootedinappamada,convergeinappamada,andhaveappamadaastheforemostamongthem.Meresustainedeffortcan’tfilltheroleofappamadainthesepassages,foreffortwithoutwisdomcanwreakallsortsofhavoc.Vigilanceandheedfulness,however,providetheperspectiveneededtokeepeffortontherighttrack:keepinguswaryofourpotentialforcausingpointlesssufferingforourselvesandothers,andteachingustotrustinourability—ifwetaketheappropriatecare—tobringthosesufferingstoanend.

Thiscombinedsenseofwarinessandtrustisbasedonconvictionoftheprincipleofkarma:thatouractionsreallydomakeadifference,thatthedifferencebetweencausingandnotcausingsufferingreallydoesmatter,andthattheprinciplesofskillfulandunskillfulactionarepatternedenoughthatwereallycanlearnusefullessonsfromourmistakes.Atthesametime,thiscombinationofwarinessandtrustiswhatallowsappamadatoplaysuchanimportantroleinthepractice,providingthemotivationtogetonthepathofskillfulactioninthefirstplace,andtheinnerchecksandbalancesthatcankeepusonthepathallthewayto

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theDeathless.Withoutastrongsenseoftrustinthepath,it’shardtoattemptit;withoutastrongsenseofthedangersinherentinanyconditionedhappiness,it’seasytofalloff.

Thechiefdanger,ofcourse,liesinthemind’screativecapacityforself-deception.But—unlikemanyotherreligiousfigures—theBuddhadidn’tsimplyrecommendthatifwecan’ttrustourselvesweshouldplaceourtrustinhim.Instead,heprovidedwaysforustotrainourselvestobetrustworthybyinvestigatingtheareaswherewetendtolietoourselvesmost:ourintentionsandtheresultsofouractions.Inhisfirstinstructionstohisson,Rahula,hetoldRahulatoreflectonhisintentionsbeforeactingonthem,andtocarrythroughwiththemonlyifhesawthathisintendedactionwouldcausenoharm.Whileacting,heshouldreflectontheimmediateresultsofhisactions;iftheywerecausinganyunintendedharm,heshouldstop.Afteracting,heshouldreflectonthelong-termresultsofhisactions.Ifhesawthattheyactuallydidcauseharm,heshouldresolvenevertorepeatthem.Iftheydidn’t,heshouldtakejoyandcontinueonthepath.

Thesearebasicinstructionsinintegrity:learningtoseewhereyoucanandcan’ttrustyourself,and—byrepeatedlytestingyourselfagainsttheprincipleofactionandresult—makingyourselfapersonyoucanconsistentlytrust.Asyoudevelopthisinnerintegrity,itbecomeseasiertogaugetheintegrityofanyteachingorteacheryouencounter,forhere,too,theBuddharecommendsvigilance,testingthingsthroughactionandresult.Gaugeteachingsbytheharmtheydoordon’tcreatewhenyouputthemintopractice.Gaugeteachers,notbytheirspecialpowers,divineauthority,orenlightenedtransmission,butbytheharmtheydoordon’tdothroughtheiractions.

Thispatternofheedfulscrutinyappliesnotonlytoblatantactionsbutalsotothemostsubtleworkingsofthemind:yourresponsetosensorystimuli,yourdeepestmeditativeandnon-meditativeexperiences.Whateveryou’redoing—andespeciallywhenyoudon’tseemtobedoinganythingatall—don’tbecomplacent.Lookcarefully,againandagain,foreventheslighteststressordisturbanceyoumightbecausinginadvertently,andlearnhowtodropwhateveryou’redoingthat’scausingit.Keepatthisuntilthere’snothingmoretobedropped.

Inthisway,yoursenseofappamadahelpstoensurethatyourpathgoesallthewaytotheDeathless.Toborrowanoldanalogy:ifthepracticeislikeabuilding,thenappamadaisnotonlythefoundation.Italsoactsasthewallsandtheroofaswell.

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Glossary

Ajaan(Thai):Teacher;mentor.Paliform:Acariya.

Arahant:A“worthyone”or“pureone;”apersonwhosemindisfreeofdefilementandthusisnotdestinedforfurtherrebirth.AtitlefortheBuddhaandthehighestlevelofhisnobledisciples.Sanskritform:Arhat.

Brahma:Aninhabitantofthehighestheavenlyrealms,offormandformlessness.

Deva:Literally,“shiningone.”Aninhabitantoftheheavenlyrealms.

Dhamma:(1)Event;action;(2)aphenomenoninandofitself;(3)mentalquality;(4)doctrine,teaching;(5)nibbana(althoughtherearepassagesdescribingnibbanaastheabandoningofalldhammas).Sanskritform:Dharma.

Jhana:Mentalabsorption.Astateofstrongconcentrationfocusedonasinglesensationormentalnotion.Thistermisderivedfromtheverbjhayati,whichmeanstoburnwithasteady,stillflame.Sanskritform:Dhyana.

Kamma:Intentionalact.Sanskritform:Karma.

Khandha:Aggregate;heap;pile.Sanskritform:Skandha.

Nibbana:Literally,the“unbinding”ofthemindfrompassion,aversion,anddelusion,andfromtheentireroundofdeathandrebirth.Asthistermalsodenotestheextinguishingofafire,itcarriesconnotationsofstilling,cooling,andpeace.“Totalnibbana”insomecontextsdenotestheexperienceofAwakening;inothers,thefinalpassingawayofanarahant.Sanskritform:Nirvana.

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Samsara:Transmigration;theprocessofwanderingthroughrepeatedstatesofbecoming,withtheirattendantdeathandrebirth.

Samvega:Asenseofoverwhelmingterrorordismayoverthepointlessnessoflifeasitisnormallylived.

Sangha:Ontheconventional(sammati)level,thistermdenotesthecommunitiesofBuddhistmonksandnuns.Ontheideal(ariya)level,itdenotesthosefollowersoftheBuddha,layorordained,whohaveattainedatleaststream-entry.

Sutta:Discourse.Sanskritform:Sutra.

Vinaya:Themonasticdiscipline,whoserulesandtraditionscomprisesixvolumesinprintedtext.

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Abbreviations

AN AnguttaraNikaya

Dhp Dhammapada

DN DighaNikaya

MN MajjhimaNikaya

SN SamyuttaNikaya

Ud Udana

ReferencestoDNandMNaretodiscourse(sutta).ReferencestoDhparetoverse.Referencestoothertextsaretosection(samyutta,nipata,orvagga)anddiscourse.

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TableofContents

Titlepage 2Copyright 3Acknowledgements 4PurityofHeart 5FaithinAwakening 8UntanglingthePresent 19PushingtheLimits 26AllAboutChange 34TheRootsofBuddhistRomanticism 41Reconciliation,Right&Wrong 51GettingtheMessage 57EducatingCompassion 65JhanaNotbytheNumbers 71TheIntegrityofEmptiness 75EverydayWisdom 77EmptinessasanApproachtoMeditation 78EmptinessasanAttributeoftheSensesandtheirObjects 81EmptinessasaStateofConcentration 83TheWisdomofEmptiness 83

AVerbforNirvana 86ThePracticeinaWord 89Glossary 91Abbreviations 93

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