QUALITYMANAGEMENT(TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT)

Dr. O.N. Pandey(Professor, JSSATE, Noida)

Bhupesh Aneja(Asst. Professor, JSSATE, Noida)

(For Engineering and Management Students)

S.K. KATARIA & SONS®

Publisher of Engineering and Computer Books4885/109, Prakash Mahal, Dr. Subhash Bhargav Lane,

Opposite Delhi Medical Association, Daryaganj, New Delhi–110002Phone: +91-11-23243489, 23269324; Telefax: +91-11-23243489

e-mail: katariabooks@yahoo.com; katariabook@gmail.comWebsite: www.skkatariaandsons.com

First Edition: July, 2011; Second Edition: August, 2012; Reprint: 2014

Price: `̀̀̀̀ 195/-

Typesetting by: Printed at:Plus Computers, Delhi New A.S. Printing Press, Delhi

STATUTORY WARNINGInformation contained in this book has been obtained by author from sources believed to bereliable and are correct to the best of his knowledge. Every effort has been made to avoid errorsand omissions and ensure accuracy. Any error or omission noted may be brought to the notice ofthe publisher which shall be taken care of in forthcoming edition of this book. However, neither thepublisher nor the author guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information publishedherein, and neither the publisher nor author take any responsibility of liability for any inconvenience,expenses, losses or damage to anyone resulting from contents of this book.

The book is meant for educational and learning purposes and there is no attempt on the partof publisher/author to render engineering and other professional services. If such services arerequired, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought.

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Preface to the Second Edition....The first edition of this book has been in great demand, therefore, it was felt

that the book should be further enriched. Accordingly the topics have been revisedand additional matters have been added :

1 Dimensions of quality2. Meaning of quality control3. Quality concept change4. Quality functions in services5. Total productive maintenance6. Quality function development (QFD)7. Leadership in quality control8. Supplier partnership9. Quality circles10. Employee involvement11. Failure mode evaluation and analysis (FMEA)12. Customer satisfaction13. Kaizen concept14. Product liability15. Zero defect16. University Question PapersFurther, all chapters have been revised to ensure that the matters are correct

and reliable. Any error or ommission noted may be brought to the notice whichshall be taken care of in the forthcoming edition of this book.

The authors are thankful to the faculty members and students for makingthis book so popular.

August, 2012 O.N. PandeyNew Delhi Bhupesh Aneja

Preface to the First Edition....There has been lot of progress in industry. However, India has not been able

to establish in the Reliability Engineering field due to sellers market conditions.Manufacturers have been able to sell products of whatever quality and reliabilitythey make.

Now, the situation is changing to competitive market as customer expectationis for goods of better quality and reliability. The quality and reliable goods areneed of the hour for company survival. Application of reliability engineeringconcepts leads to better firm survival. The quality and reliability is built in theproduct by the involvement of all the departments of the company including topmanagement. In view of this, working knowledge of basic concepts and reliabilityengineering practice is necessary for all executives, production supervisors,sales and personnel.

This book covers all essential quality control techniques needed for designers,engineers, manufacturing plants and service sectors. It gives details of qualityconcepts, control on purchased product, manufacturing quality, qualitymanagement, human factor in quality, control charts, defects diagnosis andprevention, quality standards, total quality management, just-in-time and Taguchimethod. Further, it also covers reliability, production planning and control,maintenance functions, general maintenance, predictive maintenance, spare partsmanagement, Pareto principle, SWOT analysis and value engineering.

Appendices cover reliability terms, quality management terms, qualityassurance terms, maintenance terms, various standards, normal distribution,cumulative Poisson probabilities and two model question papers.

Authors are very thankful to JSS Academy of Technical Education, Noidafor their encouragement leading to such contributions. Authors also appreciatecooperation and helps extended by Mrs. Ranjana Pandey, Mrs. Parul Aneja,relatives and friends.

August, 2011 O.N. PandeyNew Delhi Bhupesh Aneja

Dedicated to the Parentsof Onkar N. Pandey namely

Smt. Kalavati Devi andSmt. Kalavati Devi andSmt. Kalavati Devi andSmt. Kalavati Devi andSmt. Kalavati Devi andShri Deo Murti PandeyShri Deo Murti PandeyShri Deo Murti PandeyShri Deo Murti PandeyShri Deo Murti Pandey

and

Dedicated to the Parentsof Bhupesh Aneja namely

SmtSmtSmtSmtSmt. Neelam Aneja and. Neelam Aneja and. Neelam Aneja and. Neelam Aneja and. Neelam Aneja andShri D.R. AnejaShri D.R. AnejaShri D.R. AnejaShri D.R. AnejaShri D.R. Aneja

Who have given so much to the authors

1. QUALITY CONCEPT............................................................................. 1–111.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 11.2 Evoluation of Quality Control ................................................................................ 31.3 Dimensions of Quality ............................................................................................ 31.4 Meaning of Quality Control .................................................................................... 61.5 Concept Change ...................................................................................................... 81.6 Quality Functions in Services ................................................................................ 9

Summary ............................................................................................................... 10Exercises ................................................................................................................. 11

2. TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (TQM) ............................................ 12–332.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 122.2 Quality Gurus and TQM Framework ................................................................... 142.3 Principal Objectives of TQM and Integrated Model ........................................... 152.4 Basics of TQM ....................................................................................................... 17

2.4.1 PDSA Cycle ............................................................................................. 172.4.2 Bench Marking ....................................................................................... 18

2.5 Deming Approach to TQM .................................................................................... 202.6 tqm system and model ......................................................................................... 212.7 CII-Quality Excellence Model ............................................................................... 212.8 Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award Model (MBNQA) .......................... 232.9 Leadership ............................................................................................................ 242.10 Customer Satisfaction ......................................................................................... 252.11 Employee Involvement .......................................................................................... 262.12 Continuous Process Improvement ....................................................................... 282.13 Supplier Partnership ............................................................................................ 282.14 Kaizen ................................................................................................................. 29

2.14.1 Kaizen Concept ....................................................................................... 292.14.2 Implementation ...................................................................................... 312.14.3 Criticisms ............................................................................................... 31

2.15 Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) ................................................................. 31Summary ............................................................................................................... 32Exercises ................................................................................................................. 32

3. QUALITY BY DESIGN ........................................................................ 34–413.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 343.2 Quality Function Deployment .............................................................................. 353.3 Failure Mode Evaluation and Analysis (FMEA) ................................................ 353.4 Product Development Cycle .................................................................................. 363.5 Assessment of Customer’s Needs ........................................................................ 363.6 Formulation of Design Specification .................................................................... 363.7 Preliminary Design ............................................................................................... 363.8 General Consideration for a Good Design ........................................................... 36

3.8.1 Appearance ............................................................................................. 373.8.2 Functional Efficiency .............................................................................. 373.8.3 Safety ...................................................................................................... 373.8.4 Reliability ............................................................................................... 373.8.5 Maintainability ...................................................................................... 373.8.6 Ease of Production .................................................................................. 373.8.7 Standardization ..................................................................................... 383.8.8 Review of Design ..................................................................................... 38

3.9 Evaluation of the Prototype .................................................................................. 38

Contents....

3.9.1 Manufacturing Drawings ....................................................................... 383.9.2 Product Specification ............................................................................. 383.9.3 Design Changes During Production ....................................................... 39

3.10 Quality in Engineering and Design ...................................................................... 39Summary ............................................................................................................... 41Exercises ................................................................................................................. 41

4. CONTROL ON PURCHASED PRODUCT ............................................ 42–514.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 424.2 Procurement Process ............................................................................................ 434.3 Strategic Sourcing ................................................................................................. 454.4 Empowering Teams and jit purchasing ............................................................... 464.5 Evaluation of Suppliers ........................................................................................ 47

4.5.1 Evaluation Process ................................................................................. 474.5.2 Benefits and Drawbacks ........................................................................ 474.5.3 Cost Effectiveness .................................................................................. 47

4.6 Capacity Verification ........................................................................................... 484.7 Development of Sources ........................................................................................ 49

Summary ............................................................................................................... 50Exercises ................................................................................................................. 51

5. MANUFACTURING QUALITY .............................................................. 52–655.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 52

5.1.1 Project Production .................................................................................. 525.1.2 Job Shop Production ............................................................................... 525.1.3 Batch Production .................................................................................... 535.1.4 Mass Production ..................................................................................... 545.1.5 Continuous Production ........................................................................... 54

5.2 Manufacturing ...................................................................................................... 555.3 Manufacturing Steps ............................................................................................ 565.4 Methods of Manufacturing ................................................................................... 575.5 Steps for Quality Manufacturing ......................................................................... 595.6 Inspection and control of Product ......................................................................... 59

5.6.1 100% Inspection ...................................................................................... 605.6.2 Sampling Inspection ............................................................................... 605.6.3 Sampling Plan ........................................................................................ 60

5.7 Quality in Sales .................................................................................................... 605.8 Products liability .................................................................................................. 615.9 After-Sales Service ............................................................................................... 625.10 Guarantee .............................................................................................................. 635.11 Analysis of Claims ............................................................................................... 63

Summary ............................................................................................................... 64Exercises ................................................................................................................. 65

6. QUALITY MANAGEMENT................................................................... 66–816.1 Organisation Structure ......................................................................................... 666.2 Organisation Design ............................................................................................. 676.3 Quality Functions ................................................................................................. 686.4 Decentralization of Quality Functions ................................................................. 696.5 Quality as a Staff Function .................................................................................. 696.6 Organisation Design for Quality Product ............................................................ 706.7 Quality Cost .......................................................................................................... 716.8 Quality Cost Optimization ................................................................................... 736.9 Cost Reduction Programmes ................................................................................ 756.10 Process Control ..................................................................................................... 76

6.10.1 Acceptance Sampling ............................................................................. 77

6.10.2 Statistical Process Control (SPC) ......................................................... 776.10.3 Troubleshooting Studies ........................................................................ 77

6.11 Human Factor ....................................................................................................... 776.12 Corrective Methods ............................................................................................... 80

Summary ............................................................................................................... 80Exercises ................................................................................................................. 81

7. CONTROL CHARTS ........................................................................... 82–997.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 82

7.1.1 Measures of Central Tendency .............................................................. 827.1.2 Range and Standard Deviation ............................................................. 83

7.2 Statistical Process Control Methods ................................................................... 847.3 Control Charts for Variables ............................................................................... 85

7.3.1 Mean (X-Bar) Charts ............................................................................. 857.3.2 Range (R) Charts .................................................................................... 867.3.3 Using Mean and Range Charts Together .............................................. 87

7.4 Control Charts for Attributes .............................................................................. 887.4.1 P-charts ................................................................................................... 88

7.5 C-charts ................................................................................................................. 907.6 Sampling Plans ..................................................................................................... 90

7.6.1 Single Sampling ..................................................................................... 907.6.2 Double Sampling .................................................................................... 907.6.3 Sequential Sampling ............................................................................. 90

7.7 Operating Characteristics (OC) Curves .............................................................. 917.8 Attributes of Control Charts ................................................................................ 92

Summary ............................................................................................................... 98Exercises ................................................................................................................. 99

8. DEFECTS DIAGNOSIS AND PREVENTION .................................... 100–1268.1 Defect Study ........................................................................................................ 100

8.1.1 Identification of Defects ....................................................................... 1018.1.2 Analysis of Defect ................................................................................. 1028.1.3 Corrective Measures ............................................................................ 102

8.2 Product Quality ................................................................................................... 1028.2.1 Definition .............................................................................................. 1028.2.2 Variable Parameters ........................................................................... 1038.2.3 Quality Control ..................................................................................... 103

8.3 Maintainability .................................................................................................. 1038.3.1 Factors Affecting Maintainability ...................................................... 1048.3.2 Measure of Maintainability ................................................................ 105

8.4 Failures ............................................................................................................... 1058.4.1 Causes of Failures ................................................................................ 1068.4.2 Types of Failures .................................................................................. 1068.4.3 Modes of Failures ................................................................................. 108

8.5 Definition of Reliability ...................................................................................... 1088.6 Product Reliability Aspect ................................................................................. 1098.7 Advantages of Reliability Engineering Program ............................................... 1118.8 Availability ......................................................................................................... 1128.9 Factors of Reliability .......................................................................................... 1138.10 Collection of Reliability Data ............................................................................ 1148.11 Reliability Measurement ................................................................................... 1168.12 Derivation of Reliability Function ..................................................................... 1168.13 Zero Defect ........................................................................................................... 118

8.13.1 Zero Defects Programme Organisation ............................................... 1188.13.2 Management Motivation ..................................................................... 1198.13.3 Supervisor and Workers Indoctrination .............................................. 119

8.14 Removing Impediment to Quality ...................................................................... 1208.14.1 Error Cause Removal (ECR) ................................................................ 1208.14.2 Setting Targets ..................................................................................... 1208.14.3 Measurement of Achievements ........................................................... 1208.14.4 Achievers Recognition .......................................................................... 1218.14.5 Application of Zero Defect Programme................................................ 121

8.15 Quality Circles .................................................................................................... 1218.15.1 Definition and Objectives of Quality Circle ........................................ 1228.15.2 Quality Circle Functioning ................................................................... 1228.15.3 Quality Circle Structure ....................................................................... 1238.15.4 Quality Circle Limitations .................................................................. 124

8.16 5S-Concept .......................................................................................................... 124Summary ............................................................................................................. 124Exercises ............................................................................................................... 126

9. QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ................................................127–1529.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 1289.2 Quality Policy ...................................................................................................... 1289.3 Quality Assurance .............................................................................................. 1299.4 ISO 9000 .............................................................................................................. 1319.5 Quality Audit ...................................................................................................... 1319.6 ISO 9000 Series of Standards ............................................................................ 1339.7 Definitions of Important Terms as used in ISO 9000 Publications ................. 1359.8 Important Clauses in ISO: 9000 Specifications ................................................ 1369.9 Elements of a Quality System ........................................................................... 1389.10 Essential steps in Implementing ISO: 9000 Quality System ........................... 139

9.10.1 Management Responsibility (ISO 9001 Clause 4.1) .......................... 1409.10.2 Quality System (ISO 9001 Clause 4.2) ............................................... 1419.10.3 Contract Review (ISO 9001 Clause 4.3) .............................................. 1429.10.4 Design Control (ISO 9001 Clause 4.4) ................................................ 1439.10.5 Document and Data Control (ISO 9001 clause 4.5) ............................ 1449.10.6 Purchasing (ISO 9001 Clause 4.6) ....................................................... 1459.10.7 Control of Customer Supplied Product (ISO 9001 Clause: 4.7) ......... 1459.10.8 Product Identification and Trace Ability (ISO 9001 Clause: 4.8) ...... 1469.10.9 Process Control (ISO 9001 Clause 4.9) ............................................... 1469.10.10 Inspection and Testing (ISO 9001 Clause: 4.10) ................................. 1469.10.11 Control of Inspection, Measuring and Test Equipment

(ISO 9001 Clause 4.11) ........................................................................ 1479.10.12 Inspection and Test Status (ISO 9001 Clause 4.12) .......................... 1479.10.13 Control of Non-conforming Product (ISO 9001 Clause 4.13) .............. 1479.10.14 Corrective and Preventive Action (ISO 9001 Clause 4.14) ................ 1489.10.15 Handling Storage, Packaging, Preservation and Delivery ........................

(ISO 9001 Clause 4.15) ........................................................................ 1489.10.16 Quality Records (ISO 9001 Clause 4.16) ............................................. 1499.10.17 Internal Quality Audits (ISO 9001 Clause 4.17) ................................ 1499.10.18 Training (ISO 9001 clauses 4.18) ........................................................ 1499.10.19 Servicing (ISO 9001 Clause 4.19) ........................................................ 1499.10.20 Statistical Techniques (ISO 9001 Clauses 4.20) ................................ 150

9.11 Content of Level 2 Procedure Manual ............................................................... 150Summary ............................................................................................................. 151Exercises ............................................................................................................... 152

10. TAGUCHI QUALITY METHOD AND JIT ........................................... 153–16410.1 Taguchi Quality ................................................................................................... 15310.2 Taguchi Quality Loss Function .......................................................................... 15410.3 Objective and Steps of Taguchi Methods .......................................................... 154

10.4 Just-in-Time (JIT) .............................................................................................. 15510.4.1 Characteristics ..................................................................................... 15510.4.2 Preliminaries to JIT Production .......................................................... 15610.4.3 Push System ......................................................................................... 15610.4.4 Kanban and Pull System ..................................................................... 15710.4.5 Demerits ............................................................................................... 15910.4.6 MRP vs JIT system .............................................................................. 160

10.5 JIT Implementation ............................................................................................ 16110.5.1 Training ................................................................................................ 16210.5.2 Long Term Planning ............................................................................. 16210.5.3 Stock Holders ....................................................................................... 16210.5.4 Labour and Union ................................................................................. 16210.5.5 Government Support ............................................................................ 16210.5.6 Management Support .......................................................................... 16210.5.7 Management and Labour Responsibilities ........................................ 16210.5.8 Cellular Layout and Work Flow .......................................................... 16210.5.9 Department Function ........................................................................... 16210.5.10 Supplier Management ......................................................................... 162

10.6 JIT Production Process ....................................................................................... 163Summary ............................................................................................................. 164Exercises ............................................................................................................... 164

11. ISO-14000 QUALITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM .............................. 165–16911.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 16511.2 ISO 14000 ............................................................................................................ 16611.3 ISO 14001 ............................................................................................................ 16611.4 ISO 14004 ............................................................................................................ 16711.5 ISO 14064 ............................................................................................................ 16711.6 Other iso 14000 series standards ...................................................................... 16711.7 Similarities Between ISO 9001 and ISO 14001 ............................................... 16811.8 Differences Between ISO 9000 and ISO 14000 ................................................. 168

Summary ............................................................................................................. 169Exercises ............................................................................................................... 169

12. QUALITY AUDIT ..............................................................................170–18112.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 17012.2 Audit Planning .................................................................................................... 17012.3 Performing Audit ................................................................................................ 17112.4 Audit Formality .................................................................................................. 17312.5 Audit Notification ............................................................................................... 17312.6 Opening Meeting ................................................................................................. 17412.7 Audit ............................................................................................................... 17512.8 Non-conformance report ..................................................................................... 17512.9 Closing Meeting .................................................................................................. 17812.10 Audit Reporting .................................................................................................. 17812.11 Corrective Action ................................................................................................ 17912.12 Analysis of Findings ........................................................................................... 17912.13 Management Review .......................................................................................... 180

Summary ............................................................................................................. 180Exercises ............................................................................................................... 181

13. RELIABILITY ...................................................................................182–19713.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 18213.2 Reliability Improvements .................................................................................. 18313.3 Redundancy ......................................................................................................... 18313.4 Element Redundancy .......................................................................................... 184

13.5 Unit Redundancy ................................................................................................ 18513.6 Stand by Redundancy ......................................................................................... 18713.7 Optimisation ....................................................................................................... 18813.8 Reliability-cost trade-off .................................................................................... 18913.9 Testing Requirements ........................................................................................ 19013.10 Testing Methods ................................................................................................. 191

13.10.1 Marginal Testing .................................................................................. 19113.10.2 Non-destructive Testing ....................................................................... 19113.10.3 Destructive Testing .............................................................................. 19113.10.4 Reliability Tester ................................................................................. 193

13.11 Acceleration models ............................................................................................ 194Summary ............................................................................................................. 196Exercises ............................................................................................................... 197

14. PRODUCTION PLANNING AND CONTROL .................................... 198–20614.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 198

14.1.1 Need for Production, Planning and Control (PPC) .............................. 19914.1.2 Production Planning and Production Control .................................... 19914.1.3 Objectives of Production Planning and Control .................................. 19914.1.4 Functions Production Planning and Control ....................................... 199

14.2 Production Planning Versus Production Control .............................................. 20114.3 PPC Information Requirement .......................................................................... 20214.4 Production Cycle or Procedure ............................................................................ 20314.5 PPC Organization .............................................................................................. 203

14.5.1 Centralized and Decentralized PPC ................................................... 20414.5.2 PPC and Manufacturing Methods ....................................................... 20514.5.3 PPC Problems ....................................................................................... 205Summary ............................................................................................................. 206Exercises ............................................................................................................... 206

15. MAINTENANCE FUNCTIONS ..........................................................207–21315.1 Maintenance History .......................................................................................... 20715.2 Maintenance Objective ....................................................................................... 20715.3 Maintenance Function ........................................................................................ 20815.4 Maintenance Organization ................................................................................. 209

15.4.1 Centralized Organization .................................................................... 20915.4.2 Organization by Areas ......................................................................... 20915.4.3 Hybrid Organization ............................................................................ 209

15.5 Maintenance Staff .............................................................................................. 20915.5.1 Complete In-house Staff ...................................................................... 20915.5.2 Combined In-house/Contract Staff ...................................................... 21015.5.3 Contract Maintenance Staff ................................................................ 21015.5.4 Complete Contract Maintenance ........................................................ 210

15.6 Administration ................................................................................................... 21015.6.1 Reporting Structure .............................................................................. 21015.6.2 Functions of Key Personnel .................................................................. 211

15.7 Need of Planned Maintenance ........................................................................... 21215.8 Maintenance Policy ............................................................................................. 212

Summary ............................................................................................................. 212Exercises ............................................................................................................... 213

16. GENERAL MAINTENANCE .............................................................214–22816.1 Breakdown Maintenance .................................................................................... 21416.2 Replacement Policy ............................................................................................. 21516.3 Age Replacement Policy ..................................................................................... 21516.4 Periodic Replacement ......................................................................................... 21616.5 Corrective Maintenance (CM) ............................................................................ 216

16.6 Preventive Maintenance (PM) ........................................................................... 21716.7 Maintenance Planning ....................................................................................... 21816.8 Planned Maintenance ......................................................................................... 21816.9 Costs and Delays ................................................................................................ 21916.10 Inspection ............................................................................................................ 220

16.10.1 Inspection Intervals .............................................................................. 22016.10.2 Inspection Reports ................................................................................ 22116.10.3 Card History System ........................................................................... 221

16.11 Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) ............................................................... 223Summary ............................................................................................................. 227Exercises ............................................................................................................... 228

17. PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE (PDM) .............................................. 229–23917.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 22917.2 Computerized Maintenance ............................................................................... 23117.3 Methods of Condition Monitoring ...................................................................... 23217.4 Non-Destructive Testing .................................................................................... 233

17.4.1 Applications of NDT ............................................................................. 23317.5 Liquid Penetrate ................................................................................................. 23417.6 Magnetic Particles .............................................................................................. 23517.7 Ultrasonic Testing .............................................................................................. 23617.8 Oil Analysis ......................................................................................................... 23717.9 Radiographic Testing (RT) ................................................................................. 238

Summary ............................................................................................................. 238Exercises ............................................................................................................... 239

18. SPARE PARTS MANAGEMENT ......................................................240–24818.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 24018.2 Spare Parts Management .................................................................................. 24118.3 Identification of Spare Parts .............................................................................. 24218.4 Inventory Analysis and Selective Control ......................................................... 243

18.4.1 ABC Analysis ....................................................................................... 24318.4.2 FSN Analysis ....................................................................................... 24318.4.3 XYZ Analysis ........................................................................................ 24418.4.4 VED Analysis ....................................................................................... 24418.4.5 SDE Analysis ........................................................................................ 24418.4.6 HML Analysis ...................................................................................... 244

18.5 Inventory Control of Spares ................................................................................ 24518.5.1 Concept of Economic Order Quantity ................................................... 24518.5.2 Safety Stock .......................................................................................... 24618.5.3 Periodic Review System ....................................................................... 246Summary ............................................................................................................. 247Exercises ............................................................................................................... 247

19. PARETO PRINCIPLE .......................................................................249–25419.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 24919.2 Pareto Principle .................................................................................................. 24919.3 Pareto Analysis Step by step method ............................................................... 25119.4 Pareto Analysis in Decision Making .................................................................. 25219.5 Paired Comparison Analysis ............................................................................. 253

Summary ............................................................................................................. 254Exercises ............................................................................................................... 254

20. SWOT ANALYSIS ............................................................................255–26920.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 25520.2 Swot Analysis ..................................................................................................... 256

20.2.1 Strengths .............................................................................................. 25720.2.2 Weaknesses .......................................................................................... 25720.2.3 Opportunities ....................................................................................... 25720.2.4 Threats .................................................................................................. 257

20.3 Successful Swot Analysis ................................................................................... 25820.4 Rules for Swot Analysis ..................................................................................... 25820.5 Benefits of Swot Analysis .................................................................................. 26020.6 Do’s and Don’t for SWOT Analysis ..................................................................... 26120.7 Kaizen ............................................................................................................... 267

20.7.1 Kaizen Concept ..................................................................................... 26720.7.2 Implementation .................................................................................... 26820.7.3 Criticisms ............................................................................................. 268Summary ............................................................................................................. 268Exercises ............................................................................................................... 269

21. VALUE ENGINEERING....................................................................270–27921.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 27021.2 Cost and Worth ................................................................................................... 27121.3 Objective and Definition of Value Engineering ................................................. 271

21.3.1 Objective ............................................................................................... 27121.3.2 Definition .............................................................................................. 271

21.4 Value Engineering Terms ................................................................................... 27221.5 Function ............................................................................................................... 27221.6 Effect of function and cost on value .................................................................... 27321.7 Life Cycle of a Product and Value Engineering ................................................. 27321.8 Steps in Value Engineering ................................................................................ 27421.9 Approaches in Value Engineering ...................................................................... 27521.10 Methodology in Value Engineering .................................................................... 27521.11 Matrix Method in Value Engineering ................................................................ 27621.12 Fast Diagram ...................................................................................................... 277

21.12.1 Steps in Fast Diagram ......................................................................... 277Summary ............................................................................................................. 279Exercises ............................................................................................................... 279

APPENDICES ..........................................................................................281–352

Appendix-A: Quality Management Terms ............................................... 283–300Appendix-B: Quality Assurance Terms .................................................... 301–308Appendix-C: Reliability Terms ................................................................. 309–317Appendix-D: Maintenance Terms ............................................................. 318–330Appendix-E: List of Indian Standards on Quality ................................... 331–333Appendix-F: ASTM International ............................................................ 334–336Appendix-G: Normal Distribution ............................................................ 337–338Appendix-H: Cumulative Poisson Probabilities ...................................... 339–341Appendix-I: Single Sampling Table for AOQL=2%................................. 342–342Appendix-J: Sampling Table .................................................................... 343–344Appendix-K: Reliability and Survival ...................................................... 345–346Appendix-L: Sample and University Question Papers ........................... 347–352

REFERENCES ..........................................................................................353–353

INDEX .......................................................................................................354–358