quantitative social research

8/3/2019 Quantitative Social Research

1/44

^_NJRARNRAYO PG@ANM TOPONT@H

Ejg|moblo @mnacp- _po gi Rhogtq- ^uopragjp njbHq{grhopop- Putyoq- Pnc{majl ) Prnrapra`nm Rtonrcojr

[to{ntob

dq

Fg

hj

J*

Ndmo

rap-

[_[Bo{nt

rcoj

rg

i


2/44

Topont`h bopalj {tgòpp

Omocojrp giaj~uatq

Nmrotjnrayo Ejg|moblo@mnacp U[ntnbalcpS

Prtnrolaop gi aj~uatq

Corhgbp

N{{tgn`hop rgTopont`h

ûnmarnrayoûnjrarnrayo

CaxobCorhgbp

Bopalj [tgòpp

gi Topont`h

ûopragjpRhogtora`nm mojpBnrn gmmo`ragjBnrn njnmqpap\taro#u{Ynmabnragj

@gjò{runmavobdq rho

topont`hot

Rtnjpmnrob ajrg{tn`raò

Ialuto >*> Ejg|moblo @mnacp- Prtnrolaop gi Aj~uatq- njb Corhgbp Monbajl rgN{{tgn`hop njb rho Bopalj [tgòpp (nbn{rob itgc @top|omm- 4;;0- {* ?!

{toy


3/44

>>pr Pro{ aj NJQ TOPONT@HN@RAYARQ

Igùp rho rg{a` dq bop`tadajl ar pu`àj`rmq-btnirajl n |gteajl rarmo*

@gjpabot nmpg |horhot rho rg{a` aptopont`hndmo*

Pgutò6 @top|omm- >112- {*

Lggb- pgujb topont`h {tgfo`rpdolaj |arh prtnalhrigt|ntb-uj`gc{ma`nrob rhgulhrp- onpamq tonbnjb ujbotprggb*


4/44

Ap rho rg{a` topont`hndmo7

Ap rho rg{a` topont`hndmo- layoj raco- topgut`op-njb nynamndamarq gi bnrn7

Ap rhoto n {otpgjnm ajrotopr aj rho rg{a` aj gtbot rg

puprnaj nrrojragj7 \amm topumrp itgc rho prubq do gi ajrotopr rg grhotp

(o*l*- aj rho prnro- tolagj- jnragj!7

Ap rho rg{a` maeomq rg do {udmaphndmo aj n p`hgmntmq

fgutjnm7 Bgop rho prubq (n! iamm n ygab- (d! to{ma`nro- (`!

oxrojb- gt (b! boyomg{ jo| abonp aj rhop`hgmntmq marotnruto7

\amm rho tg o`r `gjrtaduro rg `ntoot gnmp7Pgut`o6 @top|omm- >112- {*


5/44

44jb Pro{ aj NJQ TOPONT@H

N@RAYARQ

Pomo`r nj gyotnmm {ntnbalc (ejg|moblo`mnacp- n{{tgn`hop! igt rho prubq*

ûnjrarnrayo {ntnbalcûnmarnrayo {ntnbalc

Caxob#corhgb

Abojraiq n pajlmo topont`h {ntnbalc igtrho gyotnmm bopalj gi rho prubq

Udo`nupoS upajl dgrh {ntnbalcp `nj

do ox{ojpayo- raco#`gjpucajl- njbPgutò6 @top|omm- >112- {{*>


6/44

[ntnbalc (Ejg|moblo `mnacp!

Nbynjòp nppuc{ragjp ndgur rho pgànm |gtmb-hg| pàojò phgumb do `gjbu`rob- njb |hnr`gjprarurop molaracnro {tgdmocp- pgmuragjp- njb

`tarotan gi {tggi Np pu`h- {ntnbalcpoj`gc{npp dgrh rhogtaop njb corhgbp*



7/44

ûnjrarnrayo njb ûnmarnrayo [ntnbalcNppuc{ragjp

Gjrgmgla`nm Nppuc{ragj\hnr ap rho jnruto gi tonmarq7ûnjrarnrayo (Tonmapc!

Tonmarq ap gdfo`rayo njb pajlumnt- n{ntr itgc rho topont`hot*

ûnmarnrayo (@gjprtu`rayapc! Tonmarq ap pudfo`rayo njb cumra{mo np pooj dq {ntraà{njrp aj n

prubq

O{aprocgmgla`nm Nppuc{ragj

\hnr ap rho tomnragjpha{ gi rho topont`hot rg rhnrtopont`hob7ûnjrarnrayo (Gdfo`rayapc!

Topont`hot ap ajbo{ojbojr itgc rhnr doajl topont`hob*

ûnmarnrayo (Pudfo`rayapc! Topont`hot ajrotn`rp |arh rhnr doajl topont`hob*Pgutò6 @top|omm- >112- {*


8/44

Nxagmgla`nm Nppuc{ragj\hnr ap rho tgmo gi ynmuop aj topont`h7ûnjrarnrayo

Ynmuo#itoo njb ujdanpob*

ûnmarnrayo Ynmuo#mnboj njb danpob*

Thorgta`nm Nppuc{ragj\hnr ap rho mnjlunlo gi topont`h7ûnjrarnrayo

Igtcnm5 dnpob gj por boiajaragjp5 ac{otpgjnm ygaò5 upo gin`ò{rob ~unjrarnrayo |gtbp

ûnmarnrayo Ajigtcnm5 oygmyajl boàpagjp U`gjò{rp- njb boiajaragjpS5

{otpgjnm ygaò5 n`ò{rob ~unmarnrayo |gtbp




9/44

Corhgbgmgla`nm Nppuc{ragj

\hnr ap rho {tgòpp gi topont`h7

ûnjrarnrayo

Bobu`rayo {tgòpp5 `nupo njb oiio`r5 prnra` bopalj`nrolgtaop apgmnrob doigto prubq5 `gjroxr#itoo5 lojotnmavnragjpmonbajl rg {toba`ragj- ox{mnjnragj- njb ujbotprnjbajl5n`ùtnro njb tomandmo rhtgulh ynmabarq njb tomandamarq

ûnmarnrayo

Ajbu`rayo {tgòpp5 curunm pacumrnjogup phn{ajl giin`rgtp Ubanmo`ra`- tomnragjnmS5 ocotlajl bopalj`nrolgtaopabojraiaob butajl topont`h {tgòpp5 `gjroxr#dgujb5 {nrrotjp-rhogtaop boyomg{ob igt ujbotprnjbajl5 n`ùtnro njb tomandmorhtgulh yotaia`nragj




10/44

Rho \hoom gi Pàojò

Rhogtaop

Gdpotynragj

p

Hq{grhopop

Oc{ata`nmlojotnmavnragjp

BOB

_@RA

GJ

AJB_@RAG

J

Pgutò6 Nbn{rob itgc \nmrot \nmmnò* Rho Mgla` gi Pàojò aj Pgàgmglq(@ha`nlg6 Nmbajo#Nrhotrgj- >1!* Aj Dnddao- >11?- {* ??


11/44

Hg| rg `hggpo n {ntnbalc7

\hnr `gc{gpop qgut |gtmbyao|7 \hnrejg|moblo `mnacp nto qgu `gcigtrndmo |arh7

Hg| nto qgu rtnajob np n topont`hot7 \hnr nto

qgut ox{otaojòp aj topont`h7 @gjpabot pgco {pq`hgmgla`nm nrrtadurop aj

`gjbu`rajl topont`h*

\hnr ap rho jnruto gi rho {tgdmoc7 \hg |amm tonb qgut topont`h7 (Nubaojò!

(Pgutò6 @top|omm- >112- {{* 8#>;5 @top|omm- 4;;0- {* 4>#40!

\hnr {ut{gpo|amm do potyob njb |hnr |amm do

n``gc{maphob dq `nttqajl gur rhap prubq7


12/44

Nmrotjnrayo Ejg|moblo @mnac

[gparagjp

[GPARAYAPC'[GPR[GPARAYAPC

@GJPRT_@RAYAPC

BorotcajnragjTobu`ragjapc

Oc{ata`nm gdpotynragj njbconputocojrRhogtq yotaia`nragj

_jbotprnjbajlCumra{mo {ntraà{njr conjajlp

Pgànm njb haprgta`nm `gjprtu`ragjRhogtq lojotnragj

NBYG@N@Q'[NTRA@A[NRG

TQ

[TNLCNRAPC

[gmara`nmOc{g|otcojr appuo#gtaojrob@gmmndgtnrayo@hnjlo#gtaojrob

@gjpo~uojòp gi n`ragjp[tgdmoc#òjrotob[mutnmapra`Tonm#|gtmb {tn`raò gtaojrob

Pgutò6 @top|omm- 4;;0- {*

C rh b m a m [ ara a P a m b


13/44

[GPARAYAPR AJROT[TORAYO

CNTXAPR [GPRCGBOTJAPR

Gjrgmgla`nmGtaojrnragj GDFO@RAYAPC#Oxrotjnm \gtmb

[HOJGCOJGMGLA@NM'@GJPRT_@RAGJAPR |'PGCO@GJ@OPPAGJ rgOXAPROJ@O GIOXROTJNM

TONMARQ

GDFO@RAYAPCD_R JGR[HOJGCOJNMAPR

NJR#GDFO@RAYAPR5@GJPRT_@RAYAPR5@GJROXR_NMAPR

O{aprocgmgla`nmGtaojrnragj

OC[ATA@APC 5Ox{mnjnragj ap rg{toba`ragj

ûnmaiaobOc{ataàpc5ajrot{tornragjgyot conjajlp

Tnragjnmapc5Ox{mnjnragj jgro~unm rg{toba`ragj5tonmarqujbotmqajl|gtmb gin{{ontnjò

Ajrtgp{o`rayo'Ajruarayo`gjprtu`ragj5Ajrotroxrunmarq5Ox{mnjnragjac{gppadmo

Orha`nmGtaojrnragj

Ynmuo#itoobgc5Ajprtucojrnmapr

ejg|moblo igtro`hjg`tnra`

ûnmaiaob ynmuo#itoobgc

[tnxap Bocqpraia`nragjgi ejg|moblo

`mnacp njb{g|ot {gparagjp

Corhgbgmgla`nm [gparagjp aj Pgàgmglq njb[gprcgbotj prtullmop ntgujb rturh njb ejg|moblo

Pgutò6 Hnjbgur gi @qjrhan D* Dnuraprn igt Pgàg 48>- >pr poc-


14/44

Eoq nppuc{ragjp gi[gpr{gparayapc

Ejg|moblo ap `gjfo`rutnm(njb njra#igujbnragjnm!#ndpgmuro rturh nj joyot doigujb* Rhup- oyabojò oprndmaphob aj topont`h

ap nm|nqp ac{otio`r njb inmmadmo* Ar ap igt rhopotonpgj rhnr topont`hotp bg jgr {tgyohq{grhopop njb ajpronb ajba`nro n inamuto rgtofo`r*

Topont`h ap rho {tgòpp gi cneajl `mnacpnjbrhoj toiajajl gt ndnjbgjajl pgco gi rhocigt grhot `mnacp cgto prtgjlmq |nttnjrob*

Bnrn- oyabojò- njb tnragjnm `gjpabotnragjpPgutò6 [hama{ ) Dutdumop (4;;;! àrob aj @top|omm-


15/44

Eoq nppuc{ragjp aj[gpr{gparayapc

Topont`h pooep rg boyomg{ tomoynjr rtuoprnrocojrp- gjop rhnr `nj potyo rg ox{mnaj rhoparunragj rhnr ap gi `gjòtj gt rhnr bop`tadop

rho `nupnm tomnragjpha{p gi ajrotopr* Doajl gdfo`rayoap nj oppojranm np{o`r gi

`gc{orojr aj~uatq topont`hotp cupr

oxncajo corhgbp njb `gj`mupagjp igt danp

prnjbntbp gi ynmabarq njb tomandamarq ntoac{gtrnjr aj ~unjrarnrayo topont`h

Pgutò6 [hama{ ) Dutdumop (4;;;! àrob aj @top|omm- 4;;0


16/44

Tonpgjp igt rho Prubq

ûnmarnrayoûnjrarnrayo'

ûnmarnrayo

ûnjrarnrayo

OX[MGTNRGTQ

BOP@TA[RAYO OX[MNJNRGTQ

Qguto hom{ajl

rg `mntaiq nmntlomq

ujboiajobnton*

Qgu |aph rgconputo njb

to{gtr pgco gi rho`hntn`rotapra`p gin {g{umnragj gt

{hojgcojn ujbot`gjpabotnragj*

Qgu |aph rg roprhq{grhopop gt

cneonppgànragjp rg

njp|ot rho~uopragj |hq*

Pgu

tò6

Dnu

rap

rn-

4;>;

*Cg

baiaobdq

F*N

dmorap

rgaj`

muboto

pont`

h


17/44

00tb Pro{ aj NJQ TOPONT@H

N@RAYARQ

Pomo`r n prtnrolq gi aj~uatq|arhaj rho{ntnbalc pomo`rob*

^_NJRARNRAYO ^_NMARNRAYO CAXOBCORHGBP

Ox{otacojrp^unpa#

ox{otacojrp@gttomnragjnmprubaop

Putyoqp

Jnttnrayop[hojgcojgmglao

pOhrjgltn{haopLtgujbobRhogtq

@npo Prubaop

Po~uojranm@gj`uttojr

Rtnjpigtcnrayo


4


18/44

2 @hggpo n corhgb dnpob gj arp boltoo giUp{oàiqajl rho rq{o gi ajigtcnragj rg do`gmmo`rob (aj nbynjò gi rho prubq gt rg nmmg|

ar rg ocotlo itgc {ntraà{njrp aj rho {tgfo`r!S-arp upo gi `mgpob#ojbob yotpup g{oj#ojbob~uopragjajl- njb arp igùp igt jucota`yotpup jgj#jucota`nm bnrn njnmqpap*

2rh Pro{ aj NJQ TOPONT@H

N@RAYARQ

0



19/44

ûnjrarnrayo- ûnmarnrayo- njb Caxob Corhgbp[tgòbutop

^_NJRARNRAYOTopont`hCorhgbp

^_NMARNRAYOTopont`hCorhgbp

CAXOB CORHGBPTopont`hCorhgbp

[toborotcajobAjprtucojr dnpob

~uopragjp[otigtcnjò bnrn-

nrrarubo bnrn-

gdpotynragjnmbnrn-

njb òjpup bnrnPrnrapra`nm njnmqpap

Ocotlajl corhgbpG{oj#ojbob

~uopragjpAjrotyao| bnrn-

gdpotynragj bnrn-

bgùcojr bnrn-njb nubagyapunmbnrn

Roxr njb acnlo

njnmqpap

Dgrh{toborotcajobnjb ocotlajlcorhgbp

Dgrh g{oj#njb

`mgpob#ojbob~uopragjp

Cumra{mo igtcp gibnrn btn|ajl gj

nmm {gppadamaraop Pgutò6

@top|o

mm-4;;0

-{*


20/44

^_NJRARNRAYO TOPONT@H

Aj ~unjrarnrayo#{gpr{gparayapr topont`h- |oupunmmq dolaj gut topont`h fgutjoq |arh rhohom{ gi n {toborotcajob rhogtq (`tonrob dq

pgcogjo ompo- gt `tonrob dq up np n {tgbu`rgi gut oxrojpayo toyao| gi tomnrob marotnrutop!*Gut {ut{gpo ap rg ropr rhogtaop pg rhnr |o

tofo`r rhoc (gt {gtragjp gi rhoc! ai rhoq inmmphgtr nlnajpr gut talgtgup oc{ata`nm njbprnrapra`nm prnjbntbp- gt inam rg tofo`r rhoc qorbg jgr n``o{r rhoc*

0


21/44

Rhogtq boiajob

\hnr ap n rhogtq7

N rhogtq ap n por gi ajrottomnrob `gjprtu`rp(yntandmop!- boiajaragjp- njb {tg{gparagjpUhq{grhopopS rhnr {topojrp n pqprocnra` yao| gi

{hojgcojn dq p{oàiqajl tomnragjp ncgjl yntandmop-|arh rho {ut{gpo gi ox{mnajajl jnrutnm {hojgcojn*

(Eotmajlot (>14;!

N rhogtq ap n {tg{gpob ox{mnjnragj igt n por gi

`ggtbajnrob g`ùttojòp gt tomnragjpha{p* Rhogtaop nto mgla`nm ntlucojrp rhnr rtq rg cneo pojpo gi

oc{ata`nm bnrn* Rhogtaop nto jgr iaxob5 rhoq nto{tgdndmo ox{mnjnragjp |ha`h |o igtcumnro njbtoigtcumnro*

Rho nac gi pàojò ap rg oprndmaph rhogtaop njb rhojPgutò6 Hnjbgur gi @* Dnuraprn- 4;>>- igt Pgàg


22/44

Igtcp gi rhogtq {topojrnragj aj ûnjrarnrayoTopont`h

Rhogtaop {topojrob aj rho igtc giajrot`gjjo`rob hq{grhopop* O*l* Hg{eajp(>192- {* ?>!

>* Rho halhot hot tnje- rho ltonrot hot òjrtnmarq*4* Rho ltonrot hap òjrtnmarq- rho ltonrot hap

gdpotyndamarq*

0* Rho halhot hot tnje- rho ltonrot hot gdpotyndamarq*

2* Rho ltonrot hap òjrtnmarq- rho ltonrot hap`gjigtcarq*

?* Rho halhot hot tnje- rho ltonrot hot `gjigtcarq*

9* Rho ltonrot hap gdpotyndamarq- rho ltonrot hapPgutò6 @top|omm- 4;;0- {{* >4>#


23/44

Rhogtaop {topojrob np n potaop gi ai rhojprnrocojrp* O*l* Hgcnjp (>1?;- {{* >>4- >>8->4;!

Ai rho ito~uoj`q gi ajrotn`ragj dor|ooj r|g gt cgto{otpgjp aj`tonpop- rho boltoo gi rhoat maeajl igt gjonjgrhot |amm aj`tonpo- njb ya`o yotpn {otpgjp |hg

ioom pojracojrp gi maeajl igt gjo njgrhot |amm ox{topp

rhgpo pojracojrp aj n`rayaraop gyot njb ndgyo rhon`rayaraop gi rho oxrotjnm pqproc- njb rhopo n`rayaraopcnq iutrhot prtojlrhoj rho pojracojrp gi maeajl* Rhocgto ito~uojrmq {otpgjp ajrotn`r |arh gjo njgrhot-

rho cgto nmaeo aj pgco top{o`rp dgrh rhoat n`rayaraop


Pgut`o6 @top|omm- 4;;0- {* >44


24/44

Rhogtq {topojrob np n yapunm cgbom* O*l*


X>

X4

X0

Q>

Q4

V>

%

%% %

%

Ajbo{ojbojr

yntandmop

Ajrotyojajlyntandmop

Bo{ojbojr

yntandmop

Pgut`o6 @top|omm- 4;;0- {* >44


25/44

Topont`h

Topont`hot Roprp gt Yotaiaop nRhogtq

Topont`hot Roprp Hq{grhopopgt

Topont`h ^uopragjp itgc rhoRhogtq

Topont`hot Boiajop njbG{otnragjnmavop Yntandmop Botayobitgc rho Rhogtq

Topont`hot Conputop gtGdpotyop Yntandmop _pajl nj

Ajprtucojr rg Gdrnaj P`gtop

(BOB_@RAYO N[[TGN@H!

2

D


26/44

Hq{grhopap @gjprtu`ragj

Rhogtora`nm {tg{gparagj ap nj oc{ata`nmmq inmpaiandmo-ndprtn`r prnrocojr ndgur tonmarq* Rho ltonrot rho pomi n`runmavnragj rho ltonrot rho maio

pnrapin`ragj*

Hq{grhopapap n inmpaiandmo- p{oàia` prnrocojr ndgurtonmarq rhnr igmmg|p itgc n rhogtora`nm {tg{gparagj* Rho ltonrot rho pomi#oprooc- rho ltonrot rho cntarnm

pnrapin`ragj*

Gjo `nj ropr fupr r|g yntandmop nr n raco* Nj n{{ntojr oxò{ragj rg rhap tumo ap n hq{grhopap gi rho

igtc- Rho rhogtq iarp rho bnrn* Rhap igtc ap `gccgj rgnbynjò bnrn njnmqpap pu`h np cumra{mo toltoppagj gtprtu`rutnm o~unragj cgbomajl*(pgutò6 Dnuraprn- 4;>>!

Hq{grhopop nto {toba`ragjp rho topont`hot hgmbp


27/44

Jumm njb Topont`h Hq{grhopop

Jumm (H;!

Rho jumm hq{grhopap ap rho gjo roprob*

Rho jumm ap roprob aj to`gljaragj rhnr jg `mnac ndgur tonmarq

`nj do roprob bato`rmq*Gjo `nj gjmq inmpaiq rho jumm rg mojb pu{{gtr rg rho

topont`h hq{grhopap*

Topont`h (Nmrotjnrayo- Hn!

rho topont`h hq{grhopap ap rho prnrocojr ndgurtonmarq rg do nppoppob rhtgulh njnmqpap gi~unjrarnrayo gt ~unmarnrayo bnrn*

Rhap ap rho `mnac cnbo dq rho rhogtq*

(pgut`o6 Dnuraprn- 4;>>!


28/44

Igtcnrrajl Hq{grhopop

ûnjrarnrayo njb ûnmarnrayo Bnrn

Rho pullopragjp giiotob hoto lojotnmmq ac{mq rhoupo gi ~unjrarnrayo bnrn- oarhot `gmmo`rob np pu`h

gt botayob itgc ~unmarnrayo bnrn*@otrnajmq- hq{grhopop `nj do roprob upajl

~unmarnrayo bnrn*

Igt oxnc{mo- n topont`hot calhr `mnac- nirot

`gjbu`rajl cnjq aj#bo{rh ajrotyao|p |arh cnttaob{otpgjp- A `gj`mubo rhnr rho ltonrot rho pomi#oprooc rho ltonrot rho cntarnm pnrapin`ragj- |hotoaj

dgrh yntandmop |oto conputob np ~unmarnrayo

ac{toppagjp* (Pgutò6 Dnuraprn- 4;>


29/44


Dgrh X njb Q nto @gjrajugup Moyom Bnrn

Rho ltonrot rho x- rho ltonrot rho q*

Rho ltonrot rho x- rho mopp rho q*

Ncgjl x- rho mopp rho x- rho ltonrot rho q*

Rho `gjrajugup moyom gi conputocojr igt dgrhyntandmop ap ac{maob dq rho rotcp ltonrot njb

mopp* Jumm6 Rhoto ap jg tomnragjpha{ dor|ooj x njb q*

(Pgut`o6 Dnuraprn- 4;>


30/44


Gjo @nrolgta`nm njbGjo @gjrajugupYntandmo*

@nrolgtq x> |amm hnyo n halhot'mg|ot p`gto gj q rhnj

`nrolgtq x4* Cnmop |amm p`gto halhot gj pomi#oprooc rhnj |amm

iocnmop*

Jumm6 Rhoto ap jg tomnragjpha{ dor|ooj x njb q*

(Pgut`o6 Dnuraprn-


31/44


Dgrh X njb Q nto @nrolgta`nm#Moyom Bnrn

@nrolgtq x> |amm do cgto maeomq rg hnyo

`hntn`rotapra` q> rhnj |amm `nrolgtq x4*

Cnmop nto cgto maeomq rg do pnrapiaob aj cnttanlorhnj nto iocnmop*

Q hnp r|g `nrolgtaop6 pnrapiaob njb jgr pnrapiaob*

Jumm6 Rhoto ap jg tomnragjpha{ dor|ooj x njb q*

(Pgut`o6 Dnuraprn-


32/44

Prnrapra`nm Hq{grhopop

Jumm hq{grhopop 3 jg tomnragjpha{- jg nppgànragj- ;`hnjlo

O*l* H; 3 >43; 5 >34 5 >43; 5 >34 53 ;5 3 ;5 3 ;

H; 3 ajbo{ojbojr (igt 4!

Topont`h'Nmrotjnrayo hq{grhopop 3 prnrapra`nmtomnragjpha{' baiiotojò ap paljaia`njr

Jgjbato`ragjnm Hq{grhopop

H>

3 >

4 ; 5

>

45

>

4 ;5

>

45 ; 5 ;5 ;

H> 3 nppgànrob (igt 4!

Bato`ragjnm Hq{grhopop

H> 3 >4 : ; 5 >: 4 5 >= 45 : ;5 = ;5 : ;5 = ;

{toy


33/44

Iayo omocojrp gi n Prnrapra`nm Paljaia`njòRopr

Nppuc{ragjp Rq{o gi bnrn- igtc gi {g{umnragj- corhgb gi pnc{majl- pnc{mo

pavo

Hq{grhopop

Jumm Hq{grhopap Nmrotjnrayo Hq{grhopap

Ropr Prnrapra` (v igt conjp njb {tg{gtragjp- q- t or`*!

Topont`hot por rho moyom gi paljaia`njò (!

@gc{ntop {gajr opracnro rg jumm hq{grhopavob {ntncorotynmuo

[#ynmuo

\oalhr gi oyabojò ndgur H;5 pcnmmot [ ap cgto `gjrtnba`rgtqrg H;

@gj`mupagj Pgutò6 Nltopra ) Iajmnq- >11


34/44

Rq{o A njb Rq{o AA Ottgt aj Hq{grhopapRoprajl

Boàpagj

Tofo`r H; Bg jgr tofo`rH;

@gjbaragj giH;

H; rtuo Rq{o > ottgt @gtto`rboàpagj

H; inmpo @gtto`rboàpagj

Rq{o 4 ottgt

Rho {tgdndamarq gi Rq{o >ottgt njb rho {tgdndamarq gi Rq{o 4 ottgt nto ajyotpomq

tomnrob* Rho pcnmmot rho #moyom njb hojò rho {tgdndamarq gi Rq{o >ottgt- rho mntlotrho {tgdndamarq gi Rq{o 4 ottgt*

Igt n iaxob {tgdndamarq gi Rq{o > ottgt- |o `nj bo`tonpo rho {tgdndamarq gi Rq{o 4ottgt dq pomo`rajl n mntlo pnc{mo Udo`nupo dq bgajl pg- rho p{tonb gi rho pnc{majlbaprtaduragj gi H;|amm do`gco pmacS Rg eoo{ dgrh rho {tgdndamaraop gi Rq{o > njbRq{o 4 ottgtp nr mg| moyomp- ar cnq do joòppntq rg upo n yotq mntlo pnc{mo pavo*

Pgutò6 N topra ) Iajmn >11< * >


35/44

Ajrtgbu`ragj rg Cumrayntanro

Tomnragjpha{p

N tomnragjpha{ cupr pnrapiq rhtoo `tarotan rg do`gjpabotob n `nupnm gjo*

Nppg`anragj dor|ooj rho yntandmop

Jgcajnm (`ha#p~unto- {ha#ynmuo- @tncotp#Y-mncdbn!

Gtbajnm (lnccn!

Ajrotynm({ontpgjp `gttomnragj!

Tnrag ({ontpgjp `gttomnragj!

Nj n{{tg{tanro raco gtbot X Q

Rho omacajnragj gi nmrotjnrayo ox{mnjnragjp

Pgut`o6 Nltopra ) Iajmnq- >11


36/44

Conputop gi Nppg`anragj njb Moyomp giConputocojr

Ajbo{ojbojr Yntandmo

Bo{ojbojr Yntandmo

Jgcajnm Gtbajnm Ajrotynm'Tnrag

Jgcajnm @tgpprndp @tgpprndp@ha#p~unto @ha#p~unto

Mncdbn MncdbnGtbajnm @tgpprndp @tgpprndp

@ha#p~unto @ha#p~untoMncdbn Mncdbn

LnccnEojbnmmp

rnuPgccotp b

Ajrotynm'Tnrag Conjp Conjp @gttomnror# ropr r#ropr [ontpgj t

NJGYN (I! NJGYN (I! ToltoppagjTPgut`o6 [orot Jntba aj Dnddao- 4;;>- {*


37/44

Nmrotjnrayo Ox{mnjnragjp

P{utagup Nppgànragjp Yntandmop X> njb Q nto bo{ojbojr gj n rhatb yntandmo X4*

Hojò- nppgànragj dor|ooj X> njb Q ap jgr rtuo (p{utagup!pajò rhoq nto gjmq tomnrob do`nupo gi rho oiio`r gi X4* Rhoat

nppgànragj bapn{{ontp |hoj X4 ap `gjrtgmmob*X>

X4

Q

@hnaj Tomnragjpha{pTomnragjpha{ dor|ooj X> njb Q bapn{{ontp |hoj |o

`gjrtgm igt X4 do`nupo rho mnrrot ajrotyojop aj rho

{toyagupmq hq{grhopavob tomnragjpha{* X> X4 QPgutò6 Nltopra ) Iajmnq- >1


38/44

Nmrotjnrayo Ox{mnjnragjp

Cumra{mo `nupnragj Nppgànragj dor|ooj X> njb Q bgop jgr `hnjlo |arh

rho ajrtgbu`ragj gi n rhatb yntandmo- X4*

X> X>Q Q

X4 X4

Prnrapra`nm Ajrotn`ragj

Tomnragjpha{ dor|ooj X> njb Q `hnjlop |arh rhoajrtgbu`ragj gi n rhatb yntandmo- X4*

X4

X> Q

Dgrh bato`r njbajbato`r oiio`rp

giX>gj Q*Nppgànragjdor|ooj X> njb Q`hnjlop- dur bgopjgr bapn{{ont*

Pgutò6 Nltopra ) Iajmnq- >11


39/44

Yntandmo

@hntn`rotapra`p gt nrrtaduro gi nj ajbayabunm gtnj gtlnjavnragj rhnr `nj do conputob gtgdpotyob njb rhnr yntaop ncgjl rho {og{mo gt

gtlnjavnragj doajl prubaob* Ajbo{ojbojr yntandmo (x!

Bo{ojbojr yntandmo (q!

Ajrotyojajl gt cobanrajl yntandmo (v!

@gjrtgm yntandmo

@gjigujbajl gt p{utagup yntandmo

Pu{{toppgt yntandmo

Pgut`o6 @top|omm- 4;;0- {{* 10#

X QV


40/44

Yntandmo

Moyom gi conputocojr gi yntandmop

Jgcajnm (~unmarnrayo- `nrolgta`nm- bap`toro!

Gtbajnm (~unmarnrayo- `nrolgta`nm- bap`toro!

Ajrotynm#Tnrag (~unjrarnrayo- `gjrajugup-bap`toro!

Rho rq{op gi yntandmop ajygmyob aj nhq{grhopap |amm borotcajo |hnr eajb giprnrapra`nm rtonrcojr |o |amm upo aj roprajlrho pnab hq{grhopap*


41/44

G{otnragjnmavnragj

\o |amm jg| rutj rg rho {tgòpp gi `gjprtu`rajlqgut ajprtucojr (~uopragjjnato!

Hg| |amm qgu conputo qgut yntandmop7

O*l* Pgàgo`gjgca` Prnrup (POP! O*l* Pox

\hnr nto qgut ajba`nrgtp7

O*l* Incamq cgjrhmq aj`gco- rq{o gi hgupajl-pnyajlp- {tg{otraop- or`*

O*l* Cnmo- iocnmo

Ajbox njb P`nmo `gjprtu`ragj (njb ûopragj

|gtbajl!


42/44

Rho Pnc{majl Bopalj

Lor bnrn itgc qgut top{gjbojrp (pnc{mo!*

@tarotan aj Pomo`rajl n Pnc{mo

Phgumb do to{topojrnrayo gi rho {g{umnragj

Phgumb {tgyabo {to`apo opracnrop gi rho{g{umnragj `hntn`rotapra`p

Rho `gpr phgumb do pcnmm

Rho topumrp phgumb do nynamndmo np inpr np{gppadmo

(Pgut`o6 Dnuraprn-


43/44

[tgdndamarq Pnc{majl Bopalj

Pac{mo Tnjbgc Pnc{majl

Pqprocnra` Tnjbgc Pnc{majl

Prtnraiaob Pnc{majl (rg hgcglojavo pnc{mop rhtgulh

prtnrn!

@muprot Pnc{majl (bgjo |hoj n itnco ap jgr nynamndmo-phgumb do horotglojogup!

Cumra#prnlo pnc{majl (r|g#prnlo njb rhtoo#prnlopnc{majl!


44/44

Dadmagltn{hq Nltopra- N* ) Iajmnq- D* (>11

0tb ob*- JF6 [tojraò#Hnmm- Aj`* Dnddao- O*- Hnmmoq- I* ) Vnajg- F* (4;;

Topont`h6 Bnrn Njnmqpap _pajl P[PP >2*; ) >?*; igt \ajbg|p-9rh ob*- @N6 [ajo Igtlo [topp

Dnddao- O* (4;;>!* Rho [tn`raò gi Pgànm Topont`h- 1rh ob*-

Prnjigtb6 \nbp|gtrh Rhgc{pgj Montjajl- Aj`* Dnddao- O* (>11?!* Rho [tn`raò gi Pgànm Topont`h- ;!* Hnjbgurp igt Pgàg 48>- >prpoc- PQ 4;>;#4;>>- Bamacnj- ^@6 _jayotparq gi rho [hama{{ajop (uj{udmaphob

cnrotanmp! @top|omm- F* (4;;0!* Topont`h Bopalj6 ûnmarnrayo- ûnjrarnrayo-

njb Caxob Corhgbp N{{tgn`hop- 4jb ob*- @N6 Pnlo [udma`nragjpAj`*

@top|omm- F* (>112!* Topont`h Bopalj6 ûnmarnrayo njbûnjrarnrayo N{{tgn`hopA- @N6 Pnlo [udma`nragjp Aj`*

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