Colloquium on Reciprocating Engine Combustion Research (Organized b y Prof . E. S. S t a r k m a n )

(University of California) C h a i r m e n : Prof . E. S. S t a r k m a n Vice C h a i r m a n : Prof . P . S. M y e r s

(University of California) (University of Wisconsin) Dr. J. S. Clarke

( Lucas Ltd.)

RECIPROCATING ENGINE COMBUSTION RESEARCH-- A STATUS REPORT

E. S. STARKMAN

Depending upon one's point of view, strong argument can be made on either side of the proposition that real progress has been made during the last forty years in the field of research into reciprocating engine combustion. If one considers only whether the problems are being solved, the answer must be that progress has been remarkable. Control of combustion has been effected satisfactorily to date and to an extent that has allowed continual improvement in engine performance beyond the successive predictions of ult imate barriers. On the other hand, no agreement exists that there is a real understanding of the fundamentals applicable to reciprocating engine combustion. The solutions to combustion engine problems have been almost exclusively empirical, as has been the preponderance of research.

I t was not the intent in assembling this intro- ductory paper to the Colloquium on Recipro- cating Engine Combustion Research to a t tempt either an exhaustive treatise nor to deal with history. Rather, what was in mind was to provide a framework within which more or less the 8 papers presented can be fit. Additionally this introduction was intended to provide a com- pendium of sources, primarily recent, from which one might glean a perhaps broader sense of the status of piston engine combustion research than is possible within the confines of a program as necessarily limited as this Colloquium must be. Thus this paper incorporates a large list of refer- ences, part ly historical but mostly more recent

than the last instance in which the subject was paid attention a t a Combustion Symposium. In addition some of these references arc intended to point to problem areas either recurrent or new which could well receive more attention. Please bear with the author if the references appearing herewith seem to be oriented in the literature of that language with which he is most conversant, and if some of the more recent references which should have been included have somehow been overlooked.

The Combustion Symposia are sporadic in their attention to the subject of reciprocating engine combustion per se. The first Symposium, in 1928, incorporated two papers 1'~ dealing with divergent subject matters. One paper recounted an early recognition tha t knock was related to mixture ratio as well as other factors t and the other, a disclosure that the progress of com- bustion reaction across an engine cylinder is a fuel-dependent variable. ~

The Second Symposium in 1937 was approxi- mately half given over to piston engine combus- tion phenomena. Included in the list of authors of the eleven papers ~la are many illustrious names. The program was admirably compre- hensive in scope. Twenty-five years later, the subject matters of a majori ty of the papers are still pertinent and unfortunately still under study and even appear on the program of this, the Ninth Symposium.

The Third Symposium, in postwar 1948, in- corporated only two strictly engine papers. 14'1s

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One of these 15 was intended to settle once and for all the question of whether or not the phe- nomenon in the end zone is truly detonation, an argument which is still extant.

Only one engine paper ~6 appeared on the pro- gram of the Fourth Symposium. The Fifth Symposium included seven 1~-28. I t would appear that the program of the Fifth Symposium might have been assembled in a manner calculated to give a comprehensive picture of the problems and progress in engine combustion. Beyond two very good survey papers ~1,~3 however, the program seemed to fall somewhat short of this admirable goal. One might say that the papers in the Fifth Symposium were progress reports in selective areas.

The last of the Combustion Symposia pre- ceding this in which engine combustion was considered was the Sixth. Three offerings ap- peared, u,~e One of these 25 touched on a mush- rooming area of concern--the source of unburned hydrocarbon in engine exhaust. Anothei ~4 dealt with the continuing effort to correlate internal combustion phenomena with less complex sys- tems. The third 26 was further in the argument, pro and con, on detonation.

No papers at all appeared on the subject of piston engine combustion as such in either the Seventh or Eighth Symposium. This does not mean that research and publication were not taking place. Nor does it mean that the subject matters of these symposia were not in part engine related. If anything, the compendium attached hereto is evidence to the contrary.

For the Ninth Symposium on Combustion it was decided it would be timely and appropriate to attempt a comprehensive Colloquium on Reciprocating Engine Combustion. In one re- spect, the program commemorates the 25th anniversary of the Second Symposium. I t was originally intended that the subject matter be as comprehensive as possible and cover the presently pressing problems and the status of research principally on spark ignition engines. In small part it was also intended to include com- pression ignition combustion phenomena.

A reflection of the literature of the subject shows that the principal objective of piston engine combustion research is to determine the source and find a cure for the audible vibrations associated with combustion. These noises, in a variety of manifestations and however classified ~ and whether or not destructive of the piston engine, account for upwards of 90 per cent of research and development from 1920. 38 An excellent historical review up to 1950 may be had by resort to a combination of references, but mainly references 29 and 30. The variety,

character, and classification of noises have not been simplified over the years. The kinds of problems and number of these have become more complex, and particularly as compression ratios have been raised, even though there have been large improvements in fuel antiknock quality and engine combustion chamber design.

Whereas octane number, until about the time of the Sixth Symposium, was a good yardstick by which to judge the mutual compatibility of fuel quality and engine compression ratio, a new phenomenon (or an old one reborn) has recently become sufficiently severe that compression ratio is not now limited by octane number but rather by pre-ignition, surface ignition, particle ignition, or precombustion reactions. Octane number in such instances is relatively a secondary factor in terms of combustion noises emanating from the engine. The character and source of some of these so-called abnormal combustion noises 31-~ can be related to combustion pressure rise rates. When the rate of pressure rise exceeds a given critical level, the power train, particularly the crankshaft, is set into vibration. ~-47 This phe- nomenon of induced mechanical vibration is in general identified by the names "rumble," "thudding," or "rough combustion." There is little difference in the resulting character of the phenomenon, whether it is attributed to exposure of the fuel-air mixture during compression to a hot surface, to deposits which have flaked from the surface, or, in the absence of deposits, to a preconditioning of the mixture to major exo- thermic reaction of any character prior to arrival of the spark initiated flame front. ~-7~

The phenomenon of so-called uncontrolled or pre-ignition combustion, taking place in the com- bustion chamber prior to, or occurring parallel with the spark ignited flame front is also en- countered in high compression ratio engines while they are being cranked for starting. 76-78 This release of energy on compression obviously causes difficulty in engine starting. The cause of this type of pre-ignition is compounded from fuel reactivity characteristics, compression ratio, and time-temperature history of the charge.

The tendency for occurrence of the pre-ignition phenomena described above can be partially con- trolled, either through combustion chamber de- sign, fuel composition, or through fuel addi- tives. 79-81 Perhaps it is redundant to point out that the fundamental reasons for the action of additives, deposits, fuel composition, or engine design to influence the onset of this type of so- called abnormal combustion are not completely understood.

There is no question remaining today regarding whether the reactive mixture which feeds the

RECIPROCATING ENGINE COMBUSTION RESEARCHI--STATUS ~EPORT 1007

flame front, whether normal or abnormal, is the same material as tha t which entered the engine. By the time a flame is established the fuel has undergone varying extends of oxidation and de- composition. Depending upon the multitude of variables which exist, these precombustion re- actions can lead to end result in either normal flame or a pre-ignition or a post-iguition problem. ~ - ~

The question of whether the post-ignition en- gine noise, sometimes called detonation but more usually just called knock, is a true detonation has been touched on previously. The knock problem has been so extensively treated in other places and at other times that it will suffice here to call attention to a few more recent and seem- ingly pertinent publications on the phenomenon and its precursors 95-~ and upon some early, ~-lm later l~ and recent I~176 efforts to photograph with high speed motion pictures the knocking combustion process in engines using windows in the combustion envelope.

Whether or not the flame progresses a t a speed which is consistent with optimum performance is a matter of continuing study. So-called flame speed measurements are still being made 1~-1~ in part at least to aid in an explanation of phe- nomena such as rumble. Two papers in this Colloquium should aid in bringing the subject up to date. ~~176

The fact that the flame front has passed through a combustion chamber unfortunately does not mean tha t combustion has been satis- factorily completed. The small amounts of un- burned fuel and lubricant which pass out the exhaust valve along with oxides of nitrogen can be of a composition and quant i ty to cause concern with regard to air pollution, m,l~ Some legislative bodies have already taken action to restrict the emission of materials from piston engine ex- haust, m Progress is being made, both on the mechanisms which lead to the production of the undesirable constituents and on means for a t least partially reducing the amount of these ma- terials which ult imately leave the engine or the exhause pipe. m - ~

The problems of reciprocating engine combus- tion are not easy to s tudy in an operating engine per se. I t would be easier to study precombustion reactions and knock in more simple systems, but obviously some reasonable simulation of the t ime-temperature-pressure history is desirable. Over the past fifteen years the rapid compression machine has been used for just such pur- pose. 14,1u--~r Further information on this type of investigation appears on this program, m More recently the shock tube has found a place in the

study of precombustion reactions in a t ime- temperature-pressure environment closely akin to the reciprocating engine 12s and this subject also appears on the program. =a

The par t played by lead and other metal com- pounds in reducing knock tendency is also not yet generally agreed upon after 40 years of ap- plication. The act ivi ty in this area of research has decreased somewhat but is still a t a level to occupy attention. 13~ Tetramethyl lead appears to be coming into favor as a practical antiknock for present day motor gasolines, lal'l~ A paper on this subject is on this Symposium program, m

I t has also been a long-standing universal hope that a means may be found to predict fuel combustion characteristics in an engine from structural characteristics or chemical properties alone, and some progress has been made in this regard, re,l= P a r t of this program deals with such effort toward a bet ter understanding of how fuel structure or composition influence the combus- tion process. 1~

The other paper appearing on the Colloquium on Reciprocating Engine Combustion Research has to do with diesel engine combustion. 1~ The diffusional flame, as a problem of reciprocating engine combustion may well be coming to a more prominent position with, in addition to the diesel engine itself, a tendency to reevaluate the spark ignition-fuel injection engine las,l~ in the form perhaps of a stratified charge configuration. The principles which apply to diesel engine combus- tion, while not directly parallel to spark ignition fuel injection are none the less pertinent.

The program of the Colloquium, while i t is, as indicated, by no means either exhaustive or completely comprehensive, would be less so if mention was not made of a t least another area or two in which there is presently new work under way. One of these is the calculation of and the measurement of the states of the gases in a re- ciprocating engine combustion chamber. 1~-1~ Progress can in large par t be attr ibuted to the more ready availability of high quality instru- mentation and the advent of the high speed digital computer. Another area which should not be ignored by this author, a t least, is that of the application to piston engines of unusual or non- hydrocarbon fuels. 147

These papers, on the program and presented in other places, illustrate by example the state of recent theoretical and technological attacks on continuing problems of the reciprocating engine. There do not appear to be any earth-shaking discoveries or any complete solutions, but con- tinued progress toward understanding of phe- nomena is surely apparent.

1008 RECIPROCATING ENGINE COMBUSTION RESEARCH

REFERENCES

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2. MAXWELL, G. B. and WHEELER, R. V.: Some Flame Characteristics of Motor Fuels, First Symposium on Combustion; Ind. Eng. Chem. 20, 1041 (1928).

3. BEATrY, H. A.: Chemistry of Otto-Cycle En- gine Combustion, Second Symposium on Com- bustion; Chem. Revs. 22, 51 (1938).

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20. LIVENGOOD, J. C. and Wu, P. C.: Correlation of Autoignition Phenomena in Internal Com- bustion Engines and Rapid Compression Machines, Fifth Symposium (International) on Combustion, p. 347. Reinhold, 1955.

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22. MALMBERO, E. W., SMIT~, M. L., BIOLER, J. E., and BABBITT, J. A.: A Study of Cool Flames and Associated Reactions in an Engine, Fifth Symposium (International) on Combustion, p. 385. Reinhold, 1955.

23. SCHWEITZER, P. H. : Combustion Problems in Diesel Engines, Fifth Symposium (Interna- tional) on Combustion, p. 7. Reinhold, 1955.

24. AGNEW, J. T., AGNEW, U. G., and WARK, K, JR.: Comparison of Emission Spectra of Low Temperature Combustion Reactions Produced in an Engine and in a Flat-Flame Burner, Sixth Symposium (International) on Combustion, p. 894. Reinhold, 1957.

25. DANIEL, W. A. : Flame Quenching at the Walls of an Internal Combustion Engine, Sixth Symposium (International) on Combustion, p. 886. Reinhold, 1957.

26. PIP, Y, J. C. : The Detonation Wave Theory of Gasoline Engine Knock, Sixth Symposium (International) on Combustion, p. 878. Reinhold, 1957.

27. Coordinating Research Council Report No. 278, Terms for Use in Otto Cycle Engine Combustion, New York, June 1954.

28. MIDOLEr, T., JR.: Combustion and Fuels in Internal-Combustion Engine, J. SAE 7, 489 (1920).

29. BOYD, T. A.: Pathfinding in Fuels and En- gines, SAE Quart. Trans. 4, 182 (1950).

30. ROTHROCK, A. M.: Fuel Rating--Its Relation

RECIPROCATING ENGINE COMBUSTION RESEARCH--STATUS REPORT 1009

to Engine Performance, SAE Trans. ]~8, 51 (1941).

31. ECHOLS, L. S., YUST, V. E., and BAME, J. L.: A Review of Research on Abnormal Combus- tion Phenomena in Internal Combustion En- gines, Proc. Fifth World Petroleum Congress, VI, p. 159, 1959.

32. GOODGER, E. M. : Fuel Additives, Automobile Engineer 51, 56 (1961).

33. MASSA, V. F. : A Study of the Normal and Ab- normal Combustion Behavior of Gasolines, 1961 SAE International Congress and Exposi- tion of Automotive Engineering, Detroit, Mich., Preprint No. 293C, Jan. 1961.

34. PERRY, R. H., JR., GERARD, P. L., and HEATH, D. P. : The Influence of Gasoline Composition on Abnormal Combustion in Spark Ignition Engines, SAE National Fuels and Lubricants Meeting, Preprint No. 438A, Nov. 1961.

35. STURGIS, B. M.: Abnormal Combustion Prob- lems in Gasoline Engines, 1961 SAE Inter- national Congress and Exposition of Automo- tive Engineering, Detroit, Mich., Preprint No. 293A, Jan. 1961.

36. YouNg, R. W.: Abnormal Combustion in High Compression Single-Cylinder Engines, SAE Fuels and Lubricants Meeting, Tulsa Okla., Preprint No. 105A, Nov. 1958.

37. BAME, J. L. and TUELL, R. G.: Engine Pound- ing--Its Cause and Control, SAE Trans. 67, 148 (1959).

38. BENDER, R. O., MAYER, G. D., and PAHNKE, A. J.: Combustion Irregularities at High Com- pression Ratios, Div. Pet. Chem., ACS Pre- prints 3(2), C-33 (1958).

39. FELT, A. E., WARREN, J. A., and HALL, C. A.: Rumble---A Deposit Effect at High Compres- sion Ratios, SAE Trans. 67, 138 (1959).

40. HOSTETLER, H. F. and TuuaI, W. R. : Knock, Rumble and Ping, SAE Trans. 67, 152 (1959).

41. MEAGHER, R., JOHNSON, R. L., AND PARTHE- MORE, K. G.: Correlation of Engine Noises with Combustion Phenomena, SAE Trans. 63, 481 (1955).

42. MORRm, W. E. and FARISS, D. C.: Thudding in High Compression Ratio Engines, SAE Trans. 67, 134 (1959).

43. Pnnnr, R. H., JR. and LOWTHER, H. V.: Knock Knock--Spark Knock, Wild Ping or Rumble? SAE Trans. 67, 145 (1959).

44. ROBmON, J. A., BEHRSNS, M. D., and MOSHER, R. G. : Investigating Rumble in Singie-Cylinder Engines, SAE Trans. 67, 169 (1959).

45. STAR,MAN, E. S. and SYTZ, W. E.: The Identification and Characterization of Rumble and Thud, SAE Trans. 68, 93 (1960).

46. S ~ B ~ , R. F., WIESE, W. M., and EVEReTt, R. L.: Engine Rumble--A Barrier to Higher

Compression Ratios? SAE Trans. 68, 206 (1960).

47. TUFA, R. C. : Combustion Noise and Vibration, SAE Summer Meeting, Atlantic City, ]~L J., Preprint No. 78W, June 1959; SAE Jour. 67, 80 (1959).

48. BARTLESON, J. D. and HUGHES, E. C.: Com- bustion Chamber Deposits as Related to the Carbon-forming Properties of Motor Oils, Ind. Eng. Chem. 45, 1501 (1953).

49. BLAKER, R. H.: The Surface Ignition of Fuels in Engines, Literature of the Combustion of Petroleum (No. 20 in Advances in Chemistry Series), p. 217, American Chemical Society, 1958.

50. BOWDITCH, F. W., WILSON, R. E., and NEBEL, G. J. : Some Aspects of Particle Ignition, Proc. API 34, 242 (1954).

51. BOWDITCH, F. W, and Yu, T. C.: A Considera- tion of the Deposit Ignition Mechanism, SAE Trans. 69, 435 (1961).

52. CORZILIUS, M. W., DraGs, D. R., and HOFF- MAN, R. A.: The Combustion-Chamber De- posit Problem in High-Compression-Ratio Engines, Proe. API 36, 162 (1954).

53. DUMONT, L. F. : Possible Mechanisms by Which Combustion Chamber Deposits Accumulate and Influence Knock, SAE Quart. Trans. 5, 565 (1954).

54. HIRSCHL~R, D. A., McCuLLOUGH, J. D., and HALL, C. A.: Deposit Induced Ignition, SAE Trans. 62, 40 (1954).

55. HOPKINS, S., PECORA, R. J., and ALPERT, N. : Surface Ignition as Influenced by Engine Configuration and Fuels--A Consumer Type Study in Vehicles, SAE Summer Meeting, Atlantic City, N. J., Preprint No. 78V, June 1959; SAE Jour. 67, 58 (1959).

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57. I-IYATT, K., To,s ic , V. J., and MELLINGER, C. A.: Surface Ignition--A New Look with a New Instrument, SAE Summer Meeting, Atlantic City, N. J., Preprint No. 78V, June 1959; SAE Jour. 67, 56 (1959).

58. LACRoIx, L. D. and KALINOWSKI, M. L.: One Test Evaluates Motor Oil Contribution to Combustion Deposits, SAE Fuels and Lubri- cants Meeting, Chicago, Preprint No. 126U, Oct. 1959.

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60. McNxB, J. G., MOODY, L. E., and HAKALX, N. V.: The Effect of Lubricant Composition on

1010 RECIPROCATING ENGINE COMBUSTION RESEARCH

Combustion Chamber Deposits, SAE Trans. 62, 228 (1954).

61. M~LBY, A. O., DraGS, D. R., and STURGm, B. M., An Investigation of Preignition in Engines, SAE Trans. 62, 32 (1954).

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68. SPINDT, R. S., WOLFE, C. L., and STEVENS, D. R. : Nitrogen Oxides, Combustion and Engine Deposits, SAE Trans. 64 ,̀ 797 (1956).

69. STURGIS, B. M., CANTW~LL, E. N., MORRm, W. E., and SCHULTZ, D. L.: The Preignition Resistance of Fuels, Proc. API 34`, 256 (1954).

70. ToMsic, V. J.: Surface Ignition Behavior of Fuels, SAE Annual Meeting, Detroit, Mich., Preprint No. 293E, Jan. 1961.

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84. CORZlLIUS, M. W., DraGs, D. R., and PASTELL, D. L. : Some Factors Affecting Precombnstion Reactions in Engines, SAE Trans. 61, 386 (1953).

85. DowNs, D., WALSH, A. D., and WHEELER, R. W. : Study of Reactions that Lead to Knock in Spark Ignition Engine, Trans. Roy. Soc. (London) A234`, 463 (1951).

86. MELBY, A. O.: Effects of Fuel Additives on Precombustion Reactions of n-Heptane, J. Inst. Petrol. 38, 965 (1952).

87. PAHNKE, A. J.: Engine Studies of Preknock Reactions, Literature of the Combustion of Petroleum (No. 20 in Advances in Chemistry Series), p. 202. American Chemical Society, 1958.

88. PAHNKE, A. J., COHEN, P. M., and STUROIS, B. M. : Preflame Oxidation of Hydrocarbons in a Motored Engine, Ind. Eng. Chem. $6, 1024 (1954).

89. PASTSLL, D. L.: Precombustion Reactions in a Motored Engine, SAE Quart. Trans. 4̀ , 571 (1950).

90. PIP~NBERG, K. J. and PAHNKE, A. J.: Spec- trometric Investigations of n-I-Ieptane Pre- flame Reactions in a Motored. Engine, Ind. Eng. Chem. $9, 2067 (1957).

91. PIPENEERG, K. J., PAHNKE, A. J., and BLAKER, R. H.: Studies of the Chemical Reactions Which Occur in an Engine Prior to Knock, Proc. API 38, 68 (1958).

92. RETAILLIAU, E. R., RICHAI~DS, H. A., JR., and JONES, M. C. K.: Precombustion Reaction in the Spark-Ignition Engine, SAE Quart. Trans. 4,, 438 (1950).

RECIPROCATING ENGINE COMBUSTION RESEARCH--STATUS REPORT 1011

93. WELLING, C. E., HALL, G. C., and STEPANSKI, J. S.: Concurrent Pyrolytic and Oxidative Reaction Mechanisms in Precombustion of Hydrocarbons, SAE Trans. 69, 448 (1961).

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95. BRINKLEY, S. R., JR. and LEWIS, B.: On the Transition from Deflagration to Detonation, Seventh Symposium (International) on Combus- tion, p. 807. Butterworths, 1958.

96. DraGs, D. R.: The Effect of Combustion Time on Knock in a Spark Ignition Engine, SAE Trans. 61,402 (1953).

97. HOFFMAN, R. A.: A New Technique for De- termining the Knocking Resistance of Fuels, SAE Annual Meeting, Detroit, Mich., Pre- print No. 285C, Jan. 1961.

98. STURGIS, B. M. : Some Concepts of Knock and Antiknock Action, SAE Trans. 63, 253 (1955).

99. RASSWEILER, G. M. and WITHROW, L. L.: Motion Pictures of Engine Flames Correlated with Pressure Cards, SAE Trans. /~2, 185 (1938).

100. WITHROW, L. L. and BOYD, T. A.: Photo- graphic Flame Studies in the Gasoline Engine, Ind. Eng. Chem. 23, 539 (1931).

101. MILLER, C. D.: Roles of Detonation Waves and Autoignition in Spark-Ignition Knock as Shown by Photographs Taken at 40,000 and 200,000 Frames per Second, SAE Quart. Trans. 1, 98 (1947).

102. MILLER, C. D., OLSEN, H. L., LOGAN, W. 0., JR., and OSTERSTROM, G. E. : Analysis of Spark Ignition Engine Knock as Seen in Photographs Taken as 200,000 Frames per Second, NACA TR 857, 1946.

103. OSTERSTROM, G. E.: Knocking Combustion Observed in a Spark Ignition Engine with Simultaneous Direct and Schlieren High-Speed Motion Pictures and Pressure Records, NACA TN 1614, 1948.

104. BOWDITCH, F. W.: Combustion Problems in Gasoline Engines, p. 119. FISITA Eighth Congress, The Hague, May 1960.

105. BOWDITCH, F. W. : A New Tool for Combustion Research. A Quartz Piston Engine, SAE Trans. 69, 17 (1961).

106. CURRY, S.: A Three Dimensional Study of Flame Propagation in a Spark Ignition Engine, SAE Annual Meeting, Detroit, Mich., Preprint No. 452B, Jan. 1962.

107. MINTER, C. C.: Flame Movement and Pressure Development in Gasoline Engines, SAE Jour. 36, 89 (1935).

108. STARKMAN, E. S., STRANGE, F. M., and DAHM, T. J. : Flame Speeds and Pressure Rise Rates in Spark Ignition Engines, SAE International

120.

West Coast Meeting, Vancouver, B. C., Pre- print No. 83V, Aug. 1959.

109. CURRY, S.: Effect of Antiknocks on Flame Propagation in a Spark Ignition Engine, This volume, p. 1056.

110. KUMAGAI, S. and KUDO, Y.: Flame Studies by Means of Ionization Gap in a High-Speed Spark-Ignition Engine, This volume, p. 1083.

111. FAITH, W. L.: Ambient Air Quality, Ind. Wastes 5, 44 (1960).

112. LARSON, G. P., CmPMAN, J. C., and KAUPER, E. K.: A Study of Distribution and Effects of Automotive Exhaust Gas in Los Angeles, SAE Annual Meeting, Detroit, Mich., Pre- print No. 420, March 1955.

113. MAGA, J. A. and HANS, G. C.: Development of Motor Vehicle Exhaust Emission Standards in California, J. Air PolIution Control Assn. 10, 393 (1960).

114. BENNETT, P. A., JACKSON, M. W., MURPHY, C. K., and RANDALL, R. A.: Reduction of Air Pollution by Control of Emission from Auto- motive Crankcases, SAE Trans. 68, 514 (1960).

115. CHANDLER, J. M., SMITH, A. M., and STRUCK, J. H.: Development of Concept of Non-Flame Exhaust Gas Reactors, SAE Automobile Meeting, Detroit, Mich., Preprint No. 486M, March 1962.

116. DANIEL, W. A. and WENTWORTH, J. T.: Ex- haust Gas Hydrocarbons--Genesis and Exo- dus, SAE Automobile Meeting, Detroit, Mich., Preprint No. 486B, March 1962.

117. DAvis, D. L. and ONrsHI, G. E.: Catalytic Converter Development Problems, SAE Auto- mobile Meeting, Detroit, Mich., Preprint No. 486F, March 1962.

118. HAGEN, D. F. and HOLIDAY, G. W.: Effects of Engine Operating and Design Variables on Exhaust Emissions, SAE Automobile Meeting, Detroit, Mich., Preprint No. 486C, March 1962.

119. HANSON, T. K. and EGERTON, A. C.: Nitrogen Oxides in Internal Combustion Engine Gases, Proc. Royal Soe. (London) A163, 90 (Nov. 1937). JACKSON, M. W., WIESE, W. M., and WENT- WORTH, J. T.: Influence of Air-Fuel Ratio, Spark Timing and Combustion Chamber De- posits on Exhaust Hydrocarbon Emissions, SAE Automobile Meeting, Detroit, Mich., Preprint No. 486A, March 1962.

121. RAYMOND, L.: Automotive Vehicles and Air Pollution, SAE Paper No. $323 (1962).

122. SCHNABEL, J. W., YINGST, J. E., HEINEN, C. M., and FAGLEY, W. S.: Development of Flame Type Afterburner, SAE Automobile Meeting, Detroit, Mich., Preprint No. 486G, March 1962.

1012 RECIPROCATING ENGINE COMBUSTION RESEARCH

123. STARKMAN, E. S. : A Radioactive Tracer Study of Lubricating Oil Consumption, SAE Trans. 69, 86 (1961).

124. LEARY, W. A. : A Rapid Compression Machine Suitable for Studying Short Ignition Delays, NACA TN 1332, Feb. 1948.

125. RIFKIN, E. S. and WALCUTT, C.: A Basis for Understanding Antiknock Action, SAE Trans. 65, 552 (1957).

126. TAYLOR, C. F., TAYLOR, E. S., LIVINGOOD, J. C., RUSSEL, W. A., and LEARY, W. A.: The Ignition of Fuels by Rapid Compression, SAE Quart. Trans. ~, 232 (1950).

127. JOST, W.: Knock Reaction. This volume, p. 1013

128. GLICK, H. S., SQUIRE, W., and HERTZBERO, A.: A New Shock Tube Technique for the Study of High Temperature Gas Phase Reac- tions, Fifth Symposium (Internalional) on Combustion, p. 393. Reinhold, 1955.

129. ORR, C. R.: Combustion of Hydrocarbons Be- hind a Shock Wave, This volume, p. 1034.

130. DOWNS, D., GRIFFITHS, S. T., and WHEELER, R. W. : The Part Played by the Preparational Stage in Determining Lead Antiknock Effec- tiveness, J. Inst. Petrol. ~7, 1 (1961).

131. PASTELL, D. L. and MORRIS, W. E.: Utility of Tetramethyl Lead in Gasoline, SAE Summer Meeting, Chicago, Preprint No. 207C, June 1960; SAE Jour. 68, 38 (1960).

132. RICHARDSON, W. L., BARUSCH, M. R., KAUT- sKY, G. J., and STEINKE, R. E.: Tetramethyl Lead--An Antiknock Agent for Modern Gasolines, DiG. Petrol. Chem., ACS Preprints 5 (3), 37 (1960).

133. RICHARDSON, W. L., RYASON, P. R., KAUTSKY, G. J., and BARUSCH, M. R.: Organolead Anti- Knock Agents--Their Performance and Mode of Action, This volume, p. 1023.

134. CALCOTE, H. F., GREGORY, C. A., JR., BAR- NSTT, C. M., and GILMER, R. B.: Spark Ignition--Effect of Molecular Structure, Ind. Eng. Chem. ~ , 2656 (1952).

135. VICHNIEVSKY, R.: Combustion in Petrol En- gines, Proceedings of the Joint Conference on

Combustion, p. 288. IME, ASME, London, 1955.

136. WALSH, A. D.: Knock Ratings of Fuels, This volume, p. 1046.

137. LYN, W. T. : Study of Burning Rate and Nature of Combustion in Diesel Engines, This volume, p. 1069.

138. BROCKHAUS, H., COWELL, T. F., and MASTER- MAN, D. M. A.: Injection Versus Carburetion, A Comparison of Fuel Quality Requirements, p. 233. FISITA Eighth Congress, The Hague, 1960.

139. CONTA, L. D., DURBETAKI, P., and BACUNANA, J. L.: Stratified Charge Operation of Spark Ignition Engines, SAE Preprint No. 375B (1961).

140. AGNEW, W. G.: End Gas Temperature Meas- urement by a Two-Wavelength Infrared Radia- tion Method, SAE Trans. 69, 495 (1961)

141. BURROWS, M. C., SHI~IZU, S., MYERS, P. S., and UYEHARA, O. A.: The Measurement of Unburned-Gas Temperatures in an Engine by an Infrared Radiation Pyrometer, SAE Trans. 69, 514 (1961).

142. EDSON, M. : A Mathematical Model for Com- bustion, Ind. Eng. Chem. 52, 1007 (1960).

143. GLUCKSTmN, M. E. and WALCUTT, C.: End- Gas Temperature-Pressure Histories and Their Relation to Knock, SAE Trans. 69, 529 (1961).

144. LIVINGOOD, J. C., TAYLOR, C. F., and Wu, D. C.: Measurement of Gas Temperature in an Engine by the Velocity of Sound Method, SAE Trans. 66, 683 (1958).

145. SIEGEL, B. R.: Use of Temperature-Density for Measuring Antiknock Quality, SAE Trans. 66, 421 (1958).

146. ~ STARKMAN, E. S., VICKLAND, C. W., STRANGE, F. M., and BELL, R. A. : A Consideration of the High Temperature Thermodynamics of In- ternal Combustion Engines, SAE Summer Meeting, St. Louis, Mo., Preprint No. 380A, 1961; SAE Trans. 70, 785 (1962).

147. STARKMAN, E. S.: The Nitroparaffins as Po- tential Piston Engine Fuel, Ind. Eng. Chem. 51, 1477 (1959).