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28 Strength and Conditioning Journal December 2001

© National Strength & Conditioning AssociationVolume 23, Number 6, pages 28–35

Recommendations for Implementing anAquatic Plyometric Program

Michael G. Miller, EdD, ATC, CSCS; David C. Berry, MA, ATC; Roger Gilders, PhD, CSCS; and Sue Bullard, PhDSchool of Recreation and Sport SciencesOhio University

Keywords: aquatic; pool; exercises; plyometrics; training.

PLYOMETRICS HAVE BEEN UTI-lized as a training technique formany years to increase physicalperformance variables such asspeed, strength, and power. Plyo-metric activity activates a muscle’sstretch-shortening cycle, which iscreated by a rapid eccentricstretch of a muscle followed imme-diately by a rapid concentric con-traction, producing a forceful ex-plosive movement (2–4, 6, 8, 10,11, 22). When used in conjunctionwith periodized strength training,plyometrics may be beneficial forathletes or physically active indi-viduals. Research has shown im-provements in vertical-jump per-formance, leg strength, power, andincreased joint awareness andproprioception (2, 3, 10, 16, 22).

Practitioners can incorporate 4basic training plyometric drills thatelicit the stretch-shortening cyclein order to develop explosive lower-body movements (4, 11). The firstdrill, jumps, are defined as move-ments ending with a 2-foot landing.Examples include jumping in place(vertical jump) or the standingjump. Hops are classified as amovement beginning and endingwith a 1- or 2-foot landing of the

same foot or feet. Hops can be per-formed with 10 or fewer repetitions(short-response hops) or performedover a distance of 30 m or more(long-response hops). Examples ofhops include 2-foot ankle hops,side-to-side ankle hops, or lateralcone hops. Bounds are classified asa series of movements where theindividual lands successively on al-ternate feet. Bounds can be classi-fied as long response (30 m or morein distance) or a series of short-re-sponse repetitions. Examples ofbounds include single-leg bound-ing, skipping, or alternate bound-ing with single-arm action. Finally,shock drills include box jumps andin-depth jumps. Box jumps haveindividuals jumping on and off ofboxes and include exercises suchas the alternating push-off, side-to-side box shuffle, and pyramidingbox hops. In-depth jumps have in-dividuals step off a box and per-form a maximal jump. In-depthjumps include jumping from a box,single-leg depth jumps, and depthjump over barrier.

■ Injury Potential

Although plyometrics have shownincreases in several lower-extrem-

ity performance variables, the po-tential for injury exists. Plyomet-rics, in particular in-depth jump-ing, potentially increases theamount of force delivered to themusculoskeletal system, resultingin possible lower-extremity in-juries (8). Some factors that maycontribute to greater risk of injuryinclude inadequate training proce-dures, improper warm-up, overallphysical conditioning, type ofshoes, training surfaces, improperprogression, lack of skill, or inade-quate supervisor and practitionertraining (4). Research examiningplyometric injuries is limited. Sev-eral researchers reported the riskof injury to be minimal if properprogression and precautionarymeasures were followed, such asregulating volume and intensitiesof exercises and training onshock-absorbing surfaces (5, 8, 9).

Plyometrics used in athleticsare traditionally performed onland with limited plyometric pro-grams conducted in the water.Studies investigating the use ofplyometrics in water found thatvertical jump increases were pos-sible (1, 13, 19). They also foundno significant difference between

December 2001 Strength and Conditioning Journal 29

land and water training on verti-cal-jump performance. The re-sults from these studies demon-strate that plyometric programsconducted in water seem to havesimilar positive effects on perfor-mance variables when comparedwith land programs. The fact thatthe researchers found no differ-ences in performance variablessupports the development of moreaquatic plyometric training pro-grams for increasing performance.

■ Physical Properties of Water

Plyometric drills in water may pro-vide athletes with several benefits.Due to the principles of buoyancy,water acts as a counterforce togravity, providing support for theathlete’s body as it moves down-ward and resisting movement inthe upward motion (20). When thewater level is waist high, the bodybears approximately 54% of theweight, 35% at midchest and 8%at the neck (16). The buoyancyproduced by the water reduces theamount of forces transmittedthroughout the body as the athletelands, thereby reducing the possi-ble risk of injury.

Since water is denser than air,movement resistance in water isgreater than on land. From an ex-ercise standpoint, horizontal orlateral jumps performed in the

water require an athlete to in-crease their physical effort to allowthem to overcome water resis-tance. This increase may help anathlete strengthen muscles. In ad-dition, the amount of resistance,or drag, can be dependent on theindividual. Larger athletes willhave more resistance exercise inwater than a smaller athlete.

■ Aquatic Rehabilitation

Many healthcare professionals areusing the pool to augment rehabil-itation. Individuals and athletesimmersed in water feel more re-laxed and have a higher thresholdfor pain (7). Individuals sufferingfrom arthritis in the lower extrem-ity have shown significant im-provements in proprioception andbalance (14). In terms of muscularstrengthening, individuals andathletes recovering from muscu-loskeletal injuries or who are de-conditioned may be able to returnto a functional status when en-gaged in an aquatic rehabilitationprogram. Studies investigatingpatients recovering from anteri-or cruciate ligament (ACL) surgeryfound decreases in joint swellingand increases in strength andrange of motion when participat-ing in aquatic therapy (17, 21). Pa-tients with multiple sclerosis whoparticipated in a swimming pro-

gram and calisthenics demon-strated an increase in muscularstrength in the upper extremityand increased quadr icepsstrength (12).

The importance of incorpo-rating plyometrics with rehabilita-tion of injured athletes is begin-ning to emerge. Athletic TherapyToday has devoted an entire issue(May 1999) to plyometrics insports injury rehabilitation. Al-though recommended guidelinesfor appropriate plyometric exercis-es on land and the importance ofproviding functional activities forinjured athletes were discussed,the journal fails to mention incor-porating aquatic plyometric exer-cises for rehabilitation. Becausethe physical properties of water—buoyancy and resistance—cansupport body weight and provideresistance for movement, it wouldbe logical to use aquatic plyomet-rics for rehabilitative purposes.Unfortunately, available guide-lines for aquatic plyometrics arenonexistent at this time probablybecause of the complexity and in-dividualized characteristics of in-juries. Until guidelines are estab-lished, the authors recommendfollowing protocols of establishedrehabilitative programs that deter-mine when an athlete can safelyparticipate in functional activities

Table 1Recommended Aquatic Plyometric Drills

Low-intensity drills Medium-intensity drills High-intensity drills

Side to side ankle hops (1 leg) Double-leg hop Lateral jump over barrierSide to side ankle hops (2 legs) Lateral cone hops Lateral jump with single leg

Standing jump and reach Tuck jump with knees up Single-leg hopsFront cone hop Tuck jump with heel kick Single-leg bounding2-foot ankle hop 1-2-3 drill Multiple box-to-box jump

Note. For a complete description of these exercises please refer to Chu (11).


Table 2An Eight-Week Plyometric Training Program

Training Training Trainingweek volume Plyometric drill Sets � repetitions intensity

1 90 Side to side ankle hops 2 � 15 LowStanding jump and reach 2 � 15 LowFront cone hops 6 � 5 Low

2 120 Side to side ankle hops 2 � 15 LowStanding jump and reach 2 � 15 LowFront cone hops 6 � 5 LowDouble leg hops 10 � 3 Medium

3 120 Side to side ankle hops 2 � 12 LowStanding jump and reach 2 � 12 LowFront cone hops 6 � 4 LowDouble leg hops 8 � 3 MediumLateral cone hops 2 � 12 Medium

4 120 Side to side ankle hops 2 � 12 LowStanding jump and reach 2 � 12 LowFront cone hops 6 � 4 LowLateral cone hops 2 � 12 MediumTuck jump with knees up 4 � 6 Medium

5 124 Side to side ankle hops 2 � 10 LowStanding jump and reach 2 � 10 LowDouble leg hops 6 � 3 MediumLateral cone hops 2 � 12 MediumTuck jump with knees up 4 � 5 HighLateral jump over barrier 2 � 10 High

6 122 Standing jump and reach 2 � 10 LowFront cone hops 4 � 5 LowDouble leg hops 6 � 3 MediumLateral cone hops 2 � 12 MediumTuck jump with knees up 4 � 5 HighLateral jump single leg 2 � 10 High

7 84 Standing jump and reach 2 � 8 LowDouble leg hops 4 � 3 MediumLateral cone hops 2 � 12 MediumLateral jump over barrier 2 � 8 HighLateral jump single leg 2 � 8 High

8 80 Standing jump and reach 2 � 8 LowLateral cone hops 2 � 12 MediumTuck jump with knees up 2 � 4 MediumLateral jump single leg 2 � 8 HighSingle leg hops 2 � 8 High


based on muscular strength andendurance, locomotion, range ofmotion, and body weight support.

■ Aquatic Program Design

The approach to an aquatic plyo-metric program in order to enhance

performance variables is based onthe same principles as those onland: the rules for intensity, vol-ume, height of jumps, and frequen-cy are the same. Piper and Erd-mann (18) described a simplemethod of designing plyometric

programs and the necessary pro-gression(s). Although water doesprovide a safety net in terms ofbody weight support, too much toosoon can still be detrimental. Untilstudies are conducted to determineimpact forces on the body in water,the recommendations of Piper andErdmann (18) should be used forprogram design and progression.Tables 1 and 2 and Figures 1, 2,and 3 provide examples of plyo-metric drills and intensities thatathletes can perform safely in thewater.

Coaches and strength andconditioning specialists must de-sign plyometric training programsbased on the needs of the individ-ual(s) and sport(s). When develop-ing a plyometric program in thewater, beginning with basic jump-ing and hopping drills to allow theathlete to adapt to training inwater is recommended. Examplesinclude various jumps in place(side-to-side ankle hop and splitsquat jump) and standing jumps(standing long jump and standingjump over a barrier). Since theability to change quickly from alengthened to a shortened positionis a key element when using theelastic components of muscles(15), avoid activities greater than180o of rotations in the water. Thewater resistance slows the rotatingspeed, and athletes have difficultyperforming these activities.

Before beginning any aquaticplyometric program, several keypoints must be addressed. First, itis recommended that all athleteswear a bathing suit that conformsto the body in order to minimizedrag and facilitate a quick reboundfrom a stretched position. Wearingoversized shorts or T-shirts createsmore resistance and slows themovement of jumping or boundingdrills, thus reducing preload of themuscle. Athletes should be en-

Figure 1. Demonstration of an athlete performing a tuck jump in waist deep water.


couraged to wear aquatic shoeswith nonslip soles. Aquatic shoeshelp to ensure proper foot contact,increasing the efficiency of the ply-ometric drill and decreasing thelikelihood of slipping that may re-sult in injury. It is recommended

that athletes receive proper in-struction on land regarding theplyometric drills before enteringthe water. It is very difficult todemonstrate jumping over oraround obstacles that are sub-merged 2–3 feet. A dry-run perfor-

mance before the athletes enter thewater can be extremely beneficialfor successful completion of theplyometric drills. Finally, whenperforming group work in succes-sion (e.g., single-leg bounding ormultiple-cone hops), athletesshould maintain adequate dis-tance between each other to avoidcreating a current. A strong cur-rent will enable following athletesto be pulled across the water withminimal physical exertion, therebydecreasing the training effect.

The water level should be keptaround waist height for all ath-letes. Water too deep creates an in-crease in resistance while perform-ing the plyometric movement(s)and may affect the athlete’s abilityto maintain proper body controland coordination. Water too deep(above the waist) may decrease thestretch-shortening cycle reactiontime. Although no publishedsources can confirm this hypothe-sis, the authors noticed an extend-ed period of delay when contactingthe pool bottom and the subse-quent concentric motion. Deep-water jumping can cause increasesin arm swing drag when propellinga submerged arm in the water. Inaddition, there is a possibility thatthe athletes will be totally sub-merged when performing jumpingactivities in water too deep.

■ Aquatic PlyometricEquipmentEquipment used for water plyo-metrics must be waterproof andrustproof with no jagged edges.Using wood and metal trainingequipment is not recommendedbecause of deterioration. Thetraining equipment must be heavyenough to be submerged to thebottom of the pool and remain inplace during the training program(Figure 3). Training equipmentthat shifts or slides when an ath-

Figure 2. Demonstration of a vertical jump (arm swing should start above the water).


lete jumps on or around it increas-es the potential for injury and al-ters the training program.

Aquatic equipment can bepurchased in several aquatic ther-apy magazines and catalogs or

may be fabricated to meet theneeds of the plyometric trainingprogram. For example, the au-thors bought 8-inch plastic conesand added coated plastic weightsto the inside to submerge them in

water. The authors recommendpurchasing plastic cones (6–10inch) and boxes (with nonslip sur-faces and coated with waterproofpaint) of various heights. Otherequipment can be purchasedbased on need, experience, andtraining adaptations.

■ Safety Concerns

There are additional safety con-cerns that must be addressed whilein the pool. First, a lifeguard mustbe on duty and have rescue equip-ment readily available. Underwaterlighting should be adequate so theathletes can see where the trainingequipment is located in order to en-sure proper footing. Maintain a safedistance from the edge of the poolto prevent athletes from strikingthe side of the pool. The water tem-perature should be within accept-able limits. Most pools keep theirtemperatures between 78 oF and81oF, but it can vary. Check withyour aquatic facility for specificwater temperatures. Plyometric ex-ercises and rehabilitation of mus-culoskeletal injuries can be con-ducted in warmer water between86oF and 94o F (aquatic rehabilita-tion centers), which may be benefi-cial for pain, reducing musclespasms, and increasing range ofmotion (20). Although exercising inwarm water might be more com-fortable for the athlete, the increasein temperature may cause fatigueor dehydration and the strengthand conditioning specialist shouldbe cognizant of the signs andsymptoms associated with theseconditions.

■ Conclusions

By following the guidelines pre-sented in this article, aquatic plyo-metrics can be beneficial and safe.Athletes may find exercising in apool more enjoyable and a breakfrom the monotonous drills and

Figure 3. Demonstration of lateral cone hops using submerged weighted plasticcones.


routines performed on land. Pre-liminary research has shown theeffectiveness of plyometric trainingin water and can be an alternativefor athletes who are recoveringfrom an injury or beginning a ply-ometric program. Aquatic plyomet-rics are both fun and challenging.With proper use of the guide-lines provided in this article,coaches and strength and condi-tioning specialists can incorporatemany methods and techniques tofacilitate their athletes’ potential. ▲

■ References

1. Abdalla, M.A. A Comparison ofSwimming Pool Vertical JumpTraining With Weight VerticalJump Training and Their Ef-fects on Vertical Jumping Abili-ty [master’s thesis]. Beau-mont, TX: Lamar University;1980.

2. Adams, K., J.P. O’Shea, K.L.O’Shea, and M. Climstein. Theeffect of six weeks of squat,plyometrics, and squat-plyo-metric training on power pro-duction. J. Appl. Sports Sci.Res. 6(1):36–41. 1992.

3. Adams, T.M. An investigation ofselected plyometric training ex-ercises on muscular legstrength and power. Track FieldQ. Rev. 84(4):36–40. 1984.

4. Allerheiligen, W.B. Speed devel-opment and plyometric train-ing. In: Essentials of Strengthand Conditioning. T.R. Baechle,ed. Champaign, IL: Human Ki-netics, 1994. pp. 319–343.

5. Allerheiligen, W.B., and R.Rogers. Plyometrics programdesign, part 2. Strength Cond.J. 17(5):33–39. 1995.

6. Arnheim, D.D., and W.E.Prentice. Principles of AthleticTraining (10th ed.). Boston:McGraw-Hill, 2000. pp. 98–99.

7. Becker, B.E. Biophysiologicalaspects of hydrotherapy. In:

Comprehensive Aquatic Thera-py. B.E. Becker and J.E. Cole,eds. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997. pp. 17–48.

8. Blattner, S.E., and L. Noble.Relative effects of isokineticand plyometric training onvertical jumping performance.Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 50(4):583–588. 1979.

9. Borkowski, J.L. Prevention ofpre-season muscle soreness:Plyometric exercise [Abstract].J. Athletic Train. 25(2):122.1990.

10. Brown, M., J. Mayhew, and L.Boleach. Effects of plyometrictraining on vertical jump per-formance in high school bas-ketball players. J. Sports Med.Phys. Fitness. 26:1–4. 1986.

11. Chu, D.A. Jumping Into Plyo-metrics. Champaign, IL: LeisurePress, 1992.

12.Gehlsen, G.M., S. Grigsby,and D. Winant. The effects ofan aquatic fitness program onthe muscular strength and en-durance of patients with mul-tiple sclerosis. Phys. Ther. 64:653–657. 1984.

13. Gregory, C. The Effects of Landand Water Training on the Ver-tical Jumping Ability of FemaleCollege Students [master’sthesis]. Denton, TX: TexasWoman’s University; 1986.

14. Koury, J.M. Aquatic TherapyProgramming: Guidelines for Or-thopedic Rehabilitation. Cham-paign, IL: Human Kinetics,1996.

15. LaChance, P. Plyometric exer-cise. Strength Cond. J. 17(4):16–23. 1995.

16. LePostollec, M. Aquatic thera-py research. Adv. Phys. Ther.PT Assist. 11(17):8–10. 2000.

17. Napolean, J. The Effect of Un-derwater Treadmill Exercise in Rehabilitation of SurgicalAnterior Cruciate Ligament Re-

construction [master’s thesis].Orange, CA: Chapman Univer-sity; 1991.

18. Piper, T.J., and L.D. Erdmann.A 4-step plyometric program.Strength Cond. J. 20(6):72–73.1998.

19. Stemm, J.D. Effects of AquaticSimulated and Dry Land Plyo-metrics on Vertical Jump Height[master’s thesis]. Philadelphia,PA: Temple University; 1993.

20. Suomi, R., and S. Koceja. Pos-tural sway characteristics inwomen with lower extremityarthritis. Arch. Phys. Med. Re-habil. 81(6):780–785. 2000.

21.Tovin, B.J. , S.L. Wolf , J.Crouse, and B.A. Woodfin.Comparison of the effects ofexercise in water and on landon the rehabilitation of pa-tients with intra-articular an-terior cruciate ligament recon-struction. Phys. Ther. 74(8):710–719. 1994.

22.Voight, M., and S. Tippett.Plyometric exercise in reha-bilitation. In: RehabilitationTechniques in Sports Medicine(3rd ed.). W.E. Prentice, ed.Boston: McGraw-Hill, 1999.pp. 157–169.

Michael G. Miller, EdD, ATC,CSCS, is an assistant professorand undergraduate program di-rector of Athletic Training in theSchool of Recreation and SportSciences at Ohio University inAthens, OH.


David C. Berry, MA, ATC, is adoctoral candidate in CurriculumInstruction and a Graduate Assis-tant in Athletic Training in theSchool of Recreation and SportSciences at Ohio University inAthens, OH.

Sue Bullard, PhD, is an assistantprofessor of biomechanics in theSchool of Recreation and SportSciences at Ohio University inAthens, OH.

Roger Gilders, PhD, CSCS, is anassociate professor of exercisephysiology in the School of Recre-ation and Sport Sciences at OhioUniversity in Athens, OH.

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