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8/6/2019 Reduce Opportunity

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REDUCING THE OPPORTUNITY FOR INMATE SUICIDE: A DESIGN GUIDEAs published in Psychiatric Quarterly, Sum mer 1989

By Randall Atlas Ph.D., AIA At las Sa fety & Sec urity Design, Inc .Miami, Florida

Spec ial Issue on Jail Suic ide :

BOUT THE AUTHOR

andall Atlas, Ph.D.is a reg istered a rc hitec t in Florida and a lso is reg istered with the

ationa l Counc il of Architec tural Registrat ion Boards (NCARB). Dr. Atlas ha s a Ma steeg ree in Architec ture from the University o f Illinois and rec eived his doc tora te ofrimino logy from Florida Sta te University. He is a member of the AIA Architec ture forustic e Com mittee, the ACA Design and Tec hnology Comm ittee and is a c ertifiedrotec tion p rofessiona l from the Americ an Soc iety o f Ind ustria l Sec urity. He is aa tiona lly rec og nized spea ker and author on inma te suic ide a nd has a c onsultingrac tice in Miami, Florida . Telephone: (305) 576-6029, FAX (305) 576-1390.

TRODUCTION

uic ide is a lega l and soc ia l prob lem tha t p lagues the c rimina l justic e system. Jails aolic e loc kups were neve r historic a lly built to p rovide the sop histic a ted c om ponentassific a tion, trea tme nt, and ob servation that a re now e xpec ted of them . Prote c tinma tes from the mselves and others req uires c onstant a ttention and ob servation asell as a thorough a nd p rofessiona l c lassific a tion system. Jails were c onstruc ted forng le purpose of deta ining persons for short p eriod s of time as they a wa ited the ir tr
http://www.cpted-security.com/publications.htmhttp://www.cpted-security.com/publications.htm


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ow ja ils must b e built a nd sta ffed to p rovide for the hea lth, sa fety, and welfa re o fretria l de ta inme nt a nd sentenc ed misdem ea nants. Ja ils must a lso have the ab ilityola te a nd identify the suic ida l inmate.

uring the last 30 yea rs, the p rob lem of ja il suic ide has bec om e the sub jec t o f intensea rc h. Many soc ia l sc ientists have advanc ed theo ries about the c auses of therob lem and how it ma y be p revented . While p rog ress has been ma de in

nderstand ing the c om plex na ture o f suic ida l and in deve lop ing metho ds to identifnd ma nag e the suic ida l inma te the imp ortanc e o f architec tura l design in p reventl suic ides has not been g iven adeq uate a ttention. In b riefly c onc ep tua lizing the

a lue of a rc hitec tura l c onsiderations, we need to rem ember that suic ide requires aea ns, and it usua lly req uires solitud e, or a t least the absenc e of intervention forvera l minute s. It is theoretica lly p ossib le to remove a ll possib le means of suic ide froithin a c ell, and to ensure the c onstant supervision b y pe rsonnel should an a ttempe ma de to c omm it suic ide .

e only method of supervision whic h w ill ensure the sa fety of deta inees is c onstantonitoring by som eo ne w ho is physic a lly present in the c ell a rea . Not only wo uld thuarantee the observation and p revention o f suic ide a ttem pts, but c ould lessen theoc k of being ja iled by p rovid ing deta inees with c onstant huma n c onta c t. How ev

oo r c orrec tiona l design a nd layout have c ontributed to many ja il and polic e loc kuic ides. The ab ility to adequa te ly sup ervise a nd monitor ja il inma tes is grea tlyfluenc ed by the d esign and c irc ula tion pa tterns of sta ff and inmates. Thus, the

mp ortanc e o f arc hitec tura l design is highlighted .

bstac les to Sound Architec tural Design in Jails

e United Sta tes Co rrec tiona l system is bursting a t the seams. Over the past dec ade na tion 's p rison p op ula tion ha s a lmost d oub led . In 1975, there w ere 240,593 inmasta te and federa l p risons, while in 1986, there were o ver 546,649. In Feb rua ry 1978ere were 3,493 loc a l ja ils (this figure doe s not inc lude polic e loc kups) and as of Ju

0, 1984 there were 234,500 deta inee s in ja ils.

ne in every 500 Ame ric ans is c urrently behind ba rs. Only two c ountries-South Afric and the Sov iet Union-have m ore p risoners per cap ita tha n we d o. Prison and ja ilonstruc tion ha ve b een unab le to keep up with spac e need s. In 1986, there we re46,659 sta te and fed eral inma tes but o nly p rison c apac ity spac e for 433,700, or sho2,959 beds. At $80,000 for med ium sec urity c onstruc tion p er bed this represents a

LLION DOLLAR expend iture just to p lay c a tc h up . Da ta on jail spac e shorta ge is noven ava ilab le a t p resent.

e sea rc h for more p rison spac e ha s ma de loc a l ja ils more d angerous p lac es.


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ec ause p risons a re p ac ked , nearly ha lf of the na tion 's ja il inmates a re c onvic tedlons (as c ompared to p ret ria l and misdem ea nants). Ja ils, like p risons, have bec omac es of g row ing violenc e a nd despa ir.

ith p rison a nd ja il c onstruc tion fa lling further behind , the c orrec tiona l fac ilities a reet ting o lder and older. As of 1980, 890 ja ils being o perated were b uilt befo re 1924,nothe r 768 ja ils were built from 1925-1949 are still op era ting, and 1,182 ja ils opera tin

ere b uilt from 1950-1969. Only 655 jails were b uilt from 1970-1978. Thus 81% of the japerating in 1980 were b uilt b efo re 1969.

e age o f the fac ility ha s an impac t on many sa fety issues. Sinc e a ma jority of thec ilities a re o ver 30 years o ld , the re a re not p rovisions inhe rent in the d esign to

c c om modate c hange and imp rovements in systems and tec hnolog y. The b asicesigns of older jails a re linea r in na ture. This linea r style m akes it more d ifficult tod uc e environm enta l fac tors tha t unfortunate ly enc ourag e suic ida l ac tions. The

mp ac t o f this linear style is:

e difficulty in o fficer supervision.The limita tions of a long rec tangula r housing unitmits the visib ility b y one offic er to see into the c ells. The offic er is basic a llyerpend ic ula r to the c ellfronts and only has a c lea r view of c orridors and ha llways.us, in many linea r housing units whic h a re doub le bunked or multip le man-cells or

orms, the pa trolling offic er must wa lk c ontinuously down the ha lls and look d irec tlyto the c ell front to be effec tive in wa tc hing and c ontrolling inma te b eha vior.

e promotion of isola tion.Linea r design a llows inmates to be unsupervised by sta ff

ng periods of time. Most fac ilities a re und ersta ffed to beg in with, so a n offic eraking pa trol round s a long with the ir other responsib ilities may lea ve inmates to the

w n d evice s for long period s of time. The inma tes beha ve d ifferently when they a rend er constant visua l surve illanc e a nd d irec tly ac c essib le to an o ffic er for assista nc

afety c onc erns.Inma tes left unsup ervised will usua lly c rea te a sa fety c onc ern issueay b e fire, a ssault, ga mbling , sexua l assault, med ic a l em ergenc y, or suic ide. Lineac ilities p reve nt rea dy d etec tion and p revention of suc h sa fety issues due to theoc ked visib ility, the length of the c orridors and use o f effec tive d etec tion te c hnolo

e. smo ke d etec tors, CCTV). The time req uired for an offic er to m ake round s aga ine sta rting point w ould take suffic ient time to c om mit a n a ssault, suic ide, or sta rt a

a ny olde r fac ilities do not have the b ene fit o f op erating a d irec t supervision ja ilec ause o f the sma ll num ber of cells, c lassific a tions requirements, or existing p hysicruc ture. The design o f the c orrec tiona l fac ility imp ac ts the sta ffing and supervisionapab ilities. A linear designed ja il w ith rem ote o r intermittent surve illanc e c annotrov ide d esign d irec t supervision o f inmates tha t a podula r design d irec t supervision


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ousing unit c an with the same number of sta ff or less. The linear designed c ellhouseoe s not p rovide adeq uate visib ility for an offic er to monitor the inmate move me ntith the c ellhouse, nor offer p rotec tion aga inst inmate assaults, sexua l misc ond uc t,e apons ma nufac ture, contraband smug g ling, med ic a l emerge nc ies, and suic ide

e age of the fac ility ha s an impac t on many life sa fety issues. Sinc e a ma jority o f tc ilities a re o ver 30 years o ld , the re a re not p rovisions inhe rent in the d esign to

c c om mo date c hanges and imp rove me nts in system s and tec hnology. The d esigne ho using units and the setting o f the b uild ings have und ergone m any c hanges fre old linea r style o f design. The older the fac ility, the less likely tha t fire sa fety, smoetec tion, and eva c ua tion eq uipme nt is ava ilab le. Ma ny suic ides sta rt o ff a fire to sestruc t or get a ttention. The fire c an often turn into a ma jor institutiona l tragedy wirea t loss of life a nd p rop erty. Older fac ilities often a re not a s efficient in the deliverrvic es and informa tion. Thus, med ic a l and psyc holog ic a l servic es tha t might d ete

bnorma lities in inma tes a re not as ac c essib le due to understa ffing and poo r desig

lder ja ils a re trad itiona lly built with open b a r c ell fronts tha t a llowed na tura lentila tion b efo re the days of air c ond itioning . These exposed ba rs a re the mea ns ap portunity to tie a knot unsupervised to c om mit a suic ide. Ma ny older c ells haveea ting for the c ells with ho t wa ter p ipes and forced a ir. Grills for air ventila tion and turn are o ften a c c essib le to inma tes by stand ing on the toilet o r bed . If the openinre large enough to tie a shoe string a round anothe r unsupervised op portunity foric ide has oc c urred . Older c ells typ ic a lly have older sta ll to ilets and sink fixtures anaximum sec urity furnishings and finishes. The ha rdness of a ll the surfac es adds to thep ersona liza tion and isola tion experienc ed inside the ja il or prison. Response time

a ff to a n emergenc y is often slow ed dow n by the c onfigura tion o f the layout and um ber of older style turn-key d oor barriers.

e Americ an Correc tiona l Assoc ia tion (ACA) Stand ard 2-5173 req uires office rs to ba tione d inside or imm ed ia tely ad jac ent to housing a rea s, so tha t they c an respon

mme d ia te ly to a ny em erge nc y. The ACA Stand ard 2-5271 req uires tha t offic ers beb le to respond within four minutes to a ny hea lth related emergenc y. If the d esign e c orrec tiona l fac ility doe s not permit c lea r visib ility and ea sy ac c ess for offic ersc ue, the fac ility inc reases the risk for potentia l suic ide. An o ffic er who sup ervises 3

50 c ells whic h a re positioned off a long ha llway c annot p ossib ly supervise thosemates as c losely as an offic er who is c entra lly loc a ted in a housing unit and ha s aea r and unobstruc ted view of a ll c ells, showers, closets, etc .

ffic ers working inside the housing unit o f d irec t sup ervision ja ils or prisons a re moreely to know the ir inma tes bet ter tha n o ffic ers supervising inmates in a rem otep ervision linea r design style fa c ility. The offic er in a d irec t sup ervision p odular desigil w ill be mo re c og nizant o f beha vior changes in inma tes, an important fa c tor inetec ting potentia l suic ide. A d irec t supervision unit offic er will more likely have a


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oser, mo re c onc erned, mutua l respec tful relationship with inmates, considered to n imp ortant fa c tor in ja il suic ide p revention.

ea rs of experienc e a nd c ountless suic ides and a ttem pts have d em onstra ted tha tils, p risons, and loc kups seldom ha ve a deq ua te sta ff to provide the c onstantp ervision needed for potentia lly suic ida l inma tes. It is c ritica l, as new c onstruc tion

nsures tha t the m ost effec tive d esign and ma nagem ent style b e used . Only by

rop er ja il c onstruc tion and goo d tra ining and supervision will the inc idenc e o fic ides be lessened and c ostly lawsuits avo ided .

om e noteworthy case exam ples of law suits a re g iven below:

a Bom barbe v. Phillips Swa ger Assoc iates,474 N.E. 2d. 942 (Ill. Ap p . 4 Dist. 1985) Annois appella te c ourt has held tha t an a rc hitec t's duty to d esign a build ing sa fe fortended use is not so absolute as to render the designer of a ja il liab le for the suic idan inma te who ha nged himself from a g rille on a d uc t. The c ourt ruled tha t an

rc hitec t is und er no duty to design jail c e lls without g rilles so as to avo id p rovid ingnc hor po ints from whic h an inma te m ight hang himself. A d uty of c a re d oes exist trotec t an inma te a ga inst suic ide, although suc h a d uty in the p ast has been foundxist only with rega rd to the ja ilers.

asterly v . Frank MasieUo,501 So. 2nd 117 (Fla. 4th DCA 1987) was a suit aga inst therc hitec t for a design defec t in a jail tha t a llow ed a p risone r to c om mit suic ide b yanging himself. The c om pla int a lleg ed tha t the d esign and eng inee ring of the ja il dot p rovide for a sec ure guard g rille ove r the a ir c ond itioning d uc t in the c ell. The

rc hitec ts were found eventua lly to b e relieved of liab ility arising out o f a pa tentefec t in the struc ture a fter ac c ep tanc e o f the c omp leted p rem ises by the owner,a lm Bea c h Co unty Correc tions Dep artment. The fa ilure to inc lude a grille over theent c rea ted an ob viously da ngerous p rod uc t, the respond ents we re p ermitted to e p a tent p rod uc t c ase law a s a d efense. While the a rc hitec t esc aped liab ility, thec c ep ting a genc y needs to b e a lert to d efec ts that it ac c ep ts from the c ontrac torchitect.

e a rc hitec t ow es a duty to those w ho w ould be likely to use the struc ture to exercare tha t the design is sa fe for build ing's intend ed users. Suic ides in prisons, ja ils, andc kups a re no t so unforeseeab le a s to p rec lude the e xistenc e o f a d uty to p rotec tga inst them . Arc hitec ts should have a duty to design jail c ells without fixtures, grillend otherwise a void p rovid ing anc hor points from which a n inma te m ight hangmself. The a rc hitec t c an a lso be sensitive in designing o bserva b ility in the fa c ility ine selec tion and design o f sta irs, g lazing , doors and windows and housing layout

esign.


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uggested Strateg ies for Red esigning Jails

the sec tions whic h fo llow, I offer a number of suggestions for the design o f ja ilnvironments.

ec om mendations for Retrofit of Existing Cells

Rep lac e e xisting ho ld ing c ell meta l bar doo rs with 1/ 4 inc h sc ra tc h resistantpolyca rbona te g lazing on the inside of d oo r panel.Mo d ify existing light fixtures, ventila tion c overs and a ll protrusions in a ll hold ingc ells with sec urity sc ree ning with tamperproo f sc ree ns. Tamperproo f sc ree ns ac onsidered grilling tha t c ove r vents and duc ts with a 16 mesh p er square inc hwe lded interwove n wire, whic h has no openings grea ter than 3/ 16 of an inc hA suic ide roo m should have no elec tric a l outlets.

All exposed p ipes, hooks, hinges, and c a tc hes from the c ells should beeliminated.

ec ommendations for New and Existed Cells

New c orrec tiona l fac ilities, and fac ilities with loc kup c ells should mee t AmericCo rrec tiona l Assoc ia tion Stand ards for Ac c red ita tion.The size o f the c ell should be the ACA m inimum stand ard of 70 squa re feet .

Ce iling height should be 10 feet to minimize the ac c essib ility of the ind ividua l the light fixture or smo ke o r fire detec tion eq uipme nt.

It is p referred for suic ide c ells to ha ve sec urity w ind ows with a n outside view . Tab ility to identify time o f day via sunlight he lps ree stab lish percep tion andna tural thinking , and minimize d istortion. While it might a ppea r this is c odd lingthe inma te seeking a ttention, the g lazing ma y be sand etc hed in o rder toprevent transparent ob servation of the neighb orhood but still a llow ing na turalight in.Ce lls should have the ne c essa ry artific ia l and na tura l lighting to me et ACAreq uirem ents. Fixtures should p rov ide 20 foo t c and le of light 30 inc hes above floor.

Light fixtures should be rec essed in the c eiling to p rovide amp le light for rea din add ition to a low wa ttage b ulb to b e used as a night light. The lens c ove rmust be p olyca rbona te. The fixture m ay be sec ured in a c orner of the c eilingprop erly a nc hored . No elec tric a l outlet should be p rovide d . If elec tric razors apermitted , the outlets should b e outside the c ells, beyond the rea c h o f inma tOffic ers should ha ve to p lug in the razors into the soc kets.Room s should be pa inted pastel c olors not institutiona l gree n o r sta rk white.Lea d based pa int should not b e used .


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A suic ide w a tc h c ell or suic ida l housing unit in a loc kup should b e loc a ted asnea r as possib le to a c ontrol roo m or nursing sta tion to a llow for good aud io avisua l monitoring .A suic ide w a tc h c ell should ha ve ta mp erproo f elec tric a l fixtures with c ontroloutside the c ell.Padd ing of wa lls, while b eing a grea t idea , is not a llow ed in ma ny sta tes. If yosta te permits you to use padded wa lls, they must b e of fire reta rdant ma teria

that a re not c ombustib le a nd d o not p rod uc e toxic ga ses.All exposed p ipes, hooks, hinges, and doo r knob s from the c ells should beeliminated.Co rners of w a lls, c eiling , and floor of c ells should ha ve round ed ed ges forsanitary and sa fety reasons.Joints a t the c eiling should b e sea led with neop rene rubber to preve nt go ugip laster between wa lls for the p urpose o f anc horing a hoo k throug h the wa ll ac ommitting a hang ing.A sec ure floo r d ra in should b e p lac ed a t a low slop e in the floo r to fa c ilita te

reg ula r c lea ning and hosing of the c ell.The floor surfac e should be no nslip , trea ted c onc rete, tile, c a rpet , or othersurfac e tha t c an't be remove d should be used .Doors for suic ide w atc h c ells should be a meta l slid ing type, and used with apolyca rbona te view ing panel that p rovides a c lea r, unob struc ted view of theroo m o r c ell. An a lterna tive is to use d etention sc ree ning whic h a llows a irc irc ulat ion and a llows othe r offic ers to hea r "in-c ell" no ises.Doors should be elec tronica lly mo nitored for open/ c losed position and shouldbe a slid ing typ e (to red uc e the opportunity of ba rric ad ing the d oo r or slamm

it into the offic er).Ce ll fronts c ould be c onc rete b loc k and c onta in la rge poly-c arbona te visionpanels. One o f the p rime rea sons for the c ontinued use o f me ta l c ell ba rs wastha t it a llow ed aud io mo nitoring and ventila tion. How eve r, this type of struc tuprovides the opportunity for hang ing . Ce ll ba rs c an be c ove red withpolyca rbona te low abrasion p anels on the interior of the b a r struc ture.Roo ms should have a smo ke detec tor flush mounted in the c eiling, with a naud ib le a la rm a t the c ontrol de sk. Water sp rinklers in jail c ells should not beexposed . Some sprinklers ha ve p rotec tive c ones, othe rs a re flush with the c eil

and d rop down when set o ff. The use o f dry stand p ipes permits verific a tion o ffire em ergenc y before wa ter is released .Suic ide w atc h c ells should ha ve a n aud io monitoring interc om for listening toc a lls of d istress.


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Bed s should b e a solid c onc rete slab with round ed ed ges so tha t nothing c anbe tied to it. In a suic ide c ell, the b ed should no t have a ny exposed spac eund er the b ed , but filled to the floor. The bed should not ha ve any sla ts, sp ringrop es, or c oils. A hea vily c onstruc ted a ll p lastic bed simila r to the c onc rete slabed type is sa tisfac tory. The m attress should be fire reta rdant and not p roductoxic smo ke. The sea m should no t be a b le to be to rn awa y and used as a c ofor hanging.

Toilets and sinks c ould be p orc ela in for genera l popula tion inmates, w ithc onc ea led p ip ing . Suic ide c ells should ha ve sta inless steel c ombo to ilet sinks,and outside c ontrol over wa ter va lves with c onc ea led p ip ing.Vents and duc ts should be g rilled with a 16 me sh per squa re inch interwovenwe lded wire mesh, whic h has no openings g rea ter than 3/16 of a n inc h.Any shelf in the c ell should have a solid , triangula r end -plate , whic h prevent anoose from being a pp lied .In g ene ra l, housing unit a nd c ells have c lothing hoo ks. Gene ra l popula tionhoo ks should b e a ba ll and soc ket type la tc h. Co llapsib le ra tc het type hooks

c an be jammed to b e rigid enough to supp ort a ha nging . The b a ll and soc ketype hoo ks c annot b e jam me d. There should b e no use o f "U' shaped tow elrac ks from which a noo se c an b e tied . Suic ide c ells should c onta in no c lothinhooks a t a ll.Mirrors should be b rushed meta l a tta c hed with ta mp erproo f sc rew s, not g lassp lastic , whic h c an be b roken or me lted dow n by inma tes to ma ke wea pons tc ut themselves or othe rs.A c om puter log g ing system should b e imp lem ented in the suic ide c ells tha trec ords, for examp le with a p lastic key, the loc a tion a nd time ea c h c ell wa s

visited . The result is a paper p rintout o f time a nd loc a tion o f the sup ervisionwhich w ill be c ritic a l doc ume nta tion nec essa ry for a suc c essful defense aga ia lawsuit should the re b e a suic ide a ttem pt or suic ide c om pletion.

ONCLUSIONS

e nera l c ond itions in most ja ils p romo te isola tion and dehumaniza tion through lossontro l over one's environment. A rig id authorita rian struc ture c an inc rea se feelingsnomie, hopelessness, and dep ression, whic h a re ing red ients in c onsideration of

om mitting suic ide.

hile the Nat iona l Center for Institution A lterna tives (NCIA) sta tes tha t no ja il can b eade suic ide p roof, the Ma ssac husetts Stud y disagrees. Und er to ta l surve illanc e, thno way to c omplete suic ides. Ja ils c omp la in tha t physic a l and tra ining

mp rove me nts a re to o e xpensive, yet if they were told tha t the jail would p reve nt a600,000 or $2 million lawsuit by no t a llowing tha t p erson to hurt himself, the ja ildministra tor might seriously consider ta king p reventive a nd c orrec tive a c tion.


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e best a ssuranc e aga inst suic ide is sc reening ind ividua ls to determine the suic ide ey p resent a nd then c ontinua lly monitoring ind ividua ls a t risk throughout the first

ours of inc arc era tion. Prevention c an be a c c omp lished by attemp ting to c hange ic ida l mo tiva tion or red uc ing the o pportunity to c ommit suic ide. Changing peop lo tiva tions is not very prac tic a l or rea listic ; cha ng ing the op portunity to c om mitic ide is more likely.

ed uc ing the o pportunity doe s not imp ly the a buse o f the use of isolation seg reg a tells, CCTV monitors, and interc oms. Often this tec hnology is designed more for theonve nienc e of jail personne l and not for the bene fit o f the inma te. These stra teg iea y heighten the d ep ersona lizing effec ts of c onfinem ent a nd inc rea se feelings ofone ness and desperation.

a reful co nsideration of sa fety fea tures in the a rc hitec tura l design c an p lay a role iduc ing the opportunities for ja il suic ide. The va st ma jority o f suic ides, 95%, are

a ng ings (Massac husetts Study, 1984; NCIA, 1981). The rec ommend ations in this rep

rovide field tested tec hniques to red uc e the o pportunity the inma te ha s for hang inmself. Arc hitec tura l design is an important a nd nec essa ry part o f a suic iderevention p rogram. Until the sta nda rds for c onstruc tion o f loc kups, ja ils, and p risonquire suic ide resista nt d esign fea tures, jud ges and c ourt dec isions will c ontinue to e p ac e fo r wha t is req uired . It is hop ed for tha t future Ame ric an Co rrec tiona lssoc ia tion Ac c red ita tion standa rds and sta te standards will have c lea r physic a l ana nageria l stra teg ies as pa rt o f the a c c red ita tion and lic ensing p roc ess.

a ny fac tors c ontribute to a p risone r suic ide: soc iolog ic a l, environm enta l, ma nage

nd persona lity. The c ourts have no t ac c ep ted excuses to reduc e liab ility andc c ounta b ility issues. The best way to p rotec t the inma te from suic ide, and theorrec tions system a nd sta ff from liab ility lawsuits, is by proper design, go od trainingnd thorough suic ide assessme nt. An ounc e of p revention is worth a (leg a l) pound ure.

EFERENCE NOTES

urlc o, D.N. & Deheer, N.D. Correc tions Tod ay, February, 1986. P.88.

o mm ission of Ac c red ita tion fo r Co rrec tions. Detention Fac ilities, Ame ric anorrec tiona l Assoc ia tion, 1981.

rump , Jac k. Texas ja ils suic ide rate.Unp ub lished Study. Austin, Texas; Texasommission on Ja il Sta nd a rds, 1982.


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eilson, E. Suic ide behavior in jail-A p reventive approa c h. Crisis Intervention,Vol. 77o. ll, 1980. Pp . 19-27.

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