Reducing Rural Povertythrough Increased Access t o E n e r g y S e r v i c e s

A Review of the Mult i funct ionalPlat form Project in Mal i

A review of the multifunctional platform in Mali

The views expressed in this report are entirely those of the authors and do not

necessarily represent those of the member countries of the UNDP Executive Board or of

those institutions of the United Nations system that are mentioned herein.

The designations and terminology employed and the presentation of material do not imply

any expression of opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations concerning the

legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or its authorities, or of its frontiers of

boundaries.

Copyright © 2004United Nations Development ProgrammeUNDP Mali office, BP 120, Bamako, Maliwww.ml.undp.org

All rights reserved.

First printing in April 2004

Photo credits : All photos in the cover and in the report are by Laurent Coche, UNDP Dakar

Design: COMMUNICANCES, Bamako, Mali.

Production: COMMUNICANCES, Bamako, Mali.

Reducing Rural Poverty throughIncreased Access to Energy Services

A Review of the MultifunctionalPlatform Project in Mali

Uni ted Nat ions Development Programme

Abeeku Brew-Hammond

& Anna Crole-Rees

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C O N T E N T S

Foreword 5

Acknowledgements 6

Acronyms 7

Overview 9

1. INTRODUCTION 17

1.1 What is the Multifunctional Platform? 181.2 Objectives of the Review 181.3 Methodology 181.4 Structure of the Report 18

2. OVERVIEW OF PLATFORM INITIATIVES 19

2.1 Origins of the Multifunctional Platform Concept 202.2 Platform Initiatives in Mali 202.3 Initiatives at Sub-Regional Level 21

3. ACHIEVMENTS TO DATE 23

3.1 The Multifunctional Platform Concept 243.2 The Conceptual Framework 263.3 Impacts and Benefits 263.4 Implementation Methodologies and Strategies 393.5 Opportunities for Biomass-Derived Fuels 453.6 Lessons Learned and Challenges 46

4. STRATEGIES FOR FUTURE INITIATIVES IN AFRICA 51

4.1 Development Challenge 524.2 Potential Contribution of the Multifunctional Platform Concept 534.3 Key Issues for the Expanded Regional Project 55

5. CONCLUSION 59

References 61

APPENDIX A. CASE STUDIES OF THREE MULTIFUNCTIONAL PLATFORM VILLAGES 65

APPENDIX B. POVERTY INDICATORS AND STRATEGIC RESPONSES IN AFRICA 75

Note on Authors 80

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Foreword

In working with the government of Mali on the multifunctional platform, UNDP has sought to promote an inte-

grated, multidimensional approach to reducing rural poverty. Rural women who benefited from the platforms

experienced a significant reduction in the burden associated with typical household tasks as well as savings in the

time devoted to these activities, which have allowed them to engage in income-generating opportunities and

improve their overall socio-economic position. In addition to these direct impacts on women, the impact study

undertaken in 2001 showed that the multifunctional platforms also lead to improvements in water quality (which

is no longer drawn from wells); the delivery of services by local health facilities; school attendance by girls; and

job creation for rural blacksmiths, carpenters, and mechanics, all of which contribute to reducing poverty in rural

areas.

Although it is not a solution to all problems, the multifunctional platform is a viable solution to reducing rural

energy poverty given that the electricity grid is not expected to reach most rural communities within the next

twenty years. While the Mali programme will require further support to improve the current approach and to

ensure its sustainability, the demonstrated impacts of the multifunctional platform approach on poverty reduc-

tion and sustainable development have encouraged other countries in the West African region to want to develop

similar programmes. Delegations from several countries (Burkina Faso, Burundi, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana, Guinea,

Senegal, and Togo) have visited Mali to learn from the multifunctional platform experience.

A regional programme is being initiated based on the Mali multifunctional platform approach to support the

achievement of the Millennium Development Goals by 2015 in several sub-Saharan Africa countries. This assess-

ment report provides a timely opportunity to consider improvements in the current approach and provide cons-

tructive inputs for the regional programme.

Together, I hope we can work to overcome the challenges of rural energy poverty .

Jocelline Bazile-FinleyResident Representantive UNDP – Bamako, Mali

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Acknowledgements

This publication would not have been possible without valuable contributions and suggestions from many

individuals and organisations. First, UNDP is highly grateful to the Ministry of Industry, Trade, and Transport

of the Government of Mali and, in particular, to Emma Niang Kourouma and Yaya Sidibé whose dedication

has made the multifunctional platform project a success in Mali.

UNDP would like to express sincere gratitude to the authors of the report, Abeeku Brew-Hammond and

Anna Crole-Rees, for their tireless efforts to gather often-scattered data and for the excellent analytical work

presented in the report. We are also thankful to Nalini Burn for her insight and guidance both during field

studies and in the report drafting stage. Their contributions have informed the efforts of UNDP on this multi-

functional platform project as well as on broader development topics linking poverty, gender, and energy.

The discussions in the report benefited significantly from an expert meeting held in Bamako, Mali, in

December 2001 to review the draft report. UNDP is highly grateful to the participants in the meeting. We

would particularly like to thank Youba Sokona, who shared his ideas and observations with us, and Alain

Nickels and Georgios Anestis from UNIDO for their advice and co-sponsoring the meeting. Rosemarie

Philips’ contribution to the final text editing was greatly appreciated. We are highly appreciative to

Communicances, Inc., for designing the report and its distinctive layout.

Special thanks are also due to Laurent Coche for his leadership in managing the entire review process, inclu-

ding co-ordination of the field studies from which this report emanated. Minoru Takada provided excellent

guidance in the conceptual design of the field studies and substantive comments that shaped the contents

of the report. UNDP would also like to thank Ines Havet for her contributions during the editorial and review

process.

We are deeply indebted to Kalfa Sanogo who, as UNDP focal point for the multifunctional platform project

in Mali, provided full support for the production of this report. Encouragement from Giuseppina Mazza, for-

mer UNDP Deputy Resident Representative in Mali, was also much appreciated. The entire efforts were co-

ordinated under the overall supervision of Jocelline Bazile-Finley, UNDP Resident Representative in Mali,

whose constant support was essential for completing this report.

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Acronyms

ADEME Agence de l’Environnement et de la Maîtrise de l’Energie

CAC Cellule Appui Conseil

CERP Centre d’Expansion Rurale Polyvalent

CNC Cellule Nationale de Coordination / National Coordination

CNESOLER Centre Nationale de l’Energie Solaire et l’Energie Renouvelable

CP Centre Pilote de Conakry / Pilot Technical Center in Conakry

EDF-ACCESS Electricité de France - Programme ACCESS

FCFA Franc Communauté Francophone d’Afrique

GNP Gross National Product

HDI Human Development Index

hp Horsepower

IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development

Kg Kilogram

PAIB Programme d’Appui aux Initiatives de Base pour la Lutte Contre la Pauvreté

PCSD Programme Cadre du Secteur Privé

PPP Purchasing Power Parity

RMS Results Management System

RBM Results Based Management System

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organisation

OVERVIEW

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The relationship between energy services anddevelopment outcomes is complex and influencedby many factors: social, economic, and environmen-tal conditions and capacity at individual, institutio-nal, local, and national levels. An improved unders-tanding about the factors shaping the relationshipbetween energy services and development outco-mes can significantly contribute to the design ofbetter policies and programmes. Yet, to date, fewattempts have been made to codify relevant field-level data and experiences.

This report reviews experiences of the multifunctio-nal platform project in Mali and documents howmodern energy services affect people’s lives interms of income, education, and rural women’s sta-tus and health. In addition to showing on-the-ground evidence, this report presents analyticalinsights into key factors affecting the relationshipbetween energy services and development outco-mes. The analysis derived from field studies conduc-ted between mid-2001 and early 2002 that evalua-ted data and documents available through the pro-ject management unit in Mali.

This study also assesses the relevance of the multi-functional platform concept to largernational/regional development policies and frame-works on energy for poverty reduction in Africa.

Rural Energy Challenges:A Key for Development inSub-Saharan Africa

Energy services are indispensable for human survi-val and development. They play a critical role acrossthe whole spectrum of development activities andare a powerful engine for social and economicgrowth. Indeed, increased access to reliable, afforda-ble energy services can totally change the way thepoor and women organise their time and lives, andbe a strong means for them to combat social andeconomic threats that hamper the achievement ofhuman security at the individual level. Governmentpolicies can play a critical role in providing increa-sed access to energy services as well as incentivesto investors to build delivery systems that makesuch services more widely available.

Currently, of the three billion people living in ruralareas in developing countries, nearly two billion stillhave neither access to nor ability to pay for modernenergy carriers such as electricity and/or liquid orgaseous fuels. The problem is particularly acute insub-Saharan Africa, which includes 30 of the 49least-developed countries. In these countries, percapita commercial energy use has remained static

since 1980. Although over 800 million people indeveloping countries as a whole benefited fromrural electrification schemes during the period1970-1990, only 20 million gained access in sub-Saharan Africa. Currently, significantly less than 10percent of sub-Saharan Africa’s rural population hasaccess to modern energy carriers.

Limited access to modern energy carriers and theservices they provide has a disproportionate effecton the poor, especially poor women in rural areas. Itis most often women who must expend largeamounts of time and physical effort to supply fuelfor their household and productive needs, usingtheir own labour to carry heavy loads over increa-singly long distances, at great risk to their own andtheir children's health and safety. Women in ruralsub-Saharan Africa are at the bottom rung of theso-called “energy ladder”, which associates users ofprogressively cleaner, more efficient fuels with cor-responding higher levels of income. Inadequateaccess to modern energy is both a determinantand a manifestation of poverty and inequitablegender relations.

The global community firmly recognises the centra-lity of energy services for achieving all MillenniumDevelopment Goals (MDGs). At the ninth session ofthe Commission for Sustainable Development(CSD-9), held in 2001, it was concluded: “To imple-ment the goal accepted by the international commu-nity to halve the proportion of people living on lessthan US$ 1 per day by 2015, access to affordable ener-gy services is a prerequisite”. Building on the outco-me of the CSD-9, the World Summit on SustainableDevelopment (WSSD) reaffirmed the criticality ofenergy services – in particular, increased access toreliable, affordable energy services – as the funda-mental facilitator of poverty reduction.

Responding to the challenges African countriesface, the New Partnership for Africa’s Development(NEPAD) aims to increase energy access over thenext twenty years from 10 percent to 35 percent ofAfrica’s population, i.e., an increase in access toenergy from 60 million people to 300 million. Thisgoal is based on a clear recognition that energy ser-vices are critical in meeting most NEPAD develop-ment goals. In order to harness energy services asan engine for rural development and povertyreduction, however, the current energy situation inrural areas in sub-Saharan Africa, which exaggeratesinequalities between the sexes and between thehaves and the have-nots, has to be fully addressed.Table 1 summarises some of the many ways energyservices can contribute to achieving the MDG goalsand associated targets.

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Table 1. Contributions of Energy Services to Achieving MDGs

The Multifunctional Platform Approach: Creating Opportunities forEconomic Growth and Empowerment of the Poor

MDG Goals and TargetsContributions of energy servicesto archieving Goals and Targets

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

Target 1: Halve between 1990 and2015, the proportion of people whoseincome is less than $1 a day

Target 2: Halve between 1990 and2015, the proportion of people whosuffer from hunger

� Increased and diversified income for women through greater � productivity in agro-processing using affordable, reliable � energy services, and more time and energy to engage in � income-generating activities� Increased and diversified income for men through the above � and through greater productivity with direct use of affordable� and reliable energy services� Increased and more diversified food production through the � reallocation of human time and energy saved by women and � girls in many tasks associated with daily food preparation� Income to purchase food in food-deficit areas

Goal 2: Achieve universal primany education

Target 3: Ensure that, by 2015, child-ren everywhere, boys and girls alike,will be able to complete a full courseof primary schooling

� Increased school attendance as a result of affordable, reliable � energy services replacing child labour � Women’s increased income helps to cover schooling costs � (linked to Goal 1 as well)

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

Target 4: Eliminate gender disparity inprimary and secondary educationpreferably by 2005 and at all levels ofeducation, no later than 2015

� Reduced labour, especially for girls, who benefit directly from � the mechanisation of girl-specific tasks� Relatively higher educational performance and attendance � for girls as a result of less time spent on unpaid labour,� making it more likely that they transition to secondary � education� As owners and managers of modern energy-based enterpri� ses, women have greater leverage then previously in both � community and household decision making� More time for rest; physical and mental recuperation are � essential for learning activities

Goal 5: Improve maternal health

Target 6: To reduce by three-quarters,between 1990-2015, the rate ofmaternal mortality

� Better energy services can improve access to better health,� medical services� Better energy services can help reduce workloads, thus � contributing to improved health� Modern energy services can replace the inefficient use of � traditional biomass fuels, which cause indoor air pollution, a � measurable cause of premature death (WHO reports about 2 � million annual premature deaths attributable to indoor air � pollution, mainly due to incomplete combustion of fuels)

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

Target 10: Halve by 2015, the propor-tion of people without sustainableaccess to safe drinking water

� Cleaner energy services can encourage better management � of natural resources, including better water quality

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with the active support of the village community.But before a platform is installed, a social, econo-mic, and technical feasibility study is undertaken bylocal project partners. The feasibility study providesthe women’s association as well as the whole com-munity with information to make an informed pur-chasing decision, identifies potential partners, andestablishes base line indicators against which plat-form results as well as development impacts at thevillage level can be monitored. After initial literacytraining, the association elects a women’s manage-ment committee, whose members are then trainedin managerial and entrepreneurial skills to ensurethe technical and economic viability of the plat-form.

At an estimated cost of US$ 4,500 for engine, ricede-huller, stone mill, and housing for the platformas well as for feasibility studies, literacy training, andintroductory business training for women opera-tors, the platform is comparatively cheap to buy,install, maintain, and replace. Between 40 and 60percent of the cost is financed by the women’sassociation, often with financial support from therest of the community; a one-time subsidy ofapproximately US$ 2,500 is provided by the project.This amount fully subsidises the cost of feasibilitystudies, literacy training, and business training forwomen operators (about US$ 1,000) and partiallysubsidises (40-60 percent) the cost of equipmentand installation (US$ 1,500). The project informsbeneficiaries of existing financial and management-support facilities and facilitates access to credit inorder to finance the platform. Depreciation andvariable costs (operations, maintenance, salaries,etc.) are borne entirely by the women’s manage-ment committee.

Impacts of the MultifunctionalPlatform OperationThe impacts of the multifunctional platform werereviewed using the conceptual framework ofVillavicencio (2002) to determine its contribution tothe sustainability of rural livelihoods. The findings

1 The number is at the time of a filed study conducted in mid-2001. As of the end of 2003, over 300 platforms are operational in Mali.

Widening access to modern energy services can bea catalyst for sustainable human development.However, increased income is necessary to be ableto afford needed energy services and releasewomen’s time and energy. This increased income isnot possible without spending further time andhuman energy, already at very high levels. Such isthe energy-poverty trap that women in sub-Saharan Africa, in particular, are struggling to getout of. The key response must be to combinemutually reinforcing strategies to reduce both inco-me and energy poverty.

To respond to the energy-poverty challenge, theGovernment of Mali, with support from the UnitedNations Development Programme (UNDP) and theUnited Nations Industrial DevelopmentOrganisation (UNIDO), has been implementing themultifunctional platform project since mid-1990.The project seeks to reduce rural poverty in generaland that of rural women in particular, while crea-ting income-generating opportunities through pro-vision of affordable energy services. As of June2001, a total of 149 platforms were operational inMali 1 , where the project intends to install plat-forms in 450 villages serving about 10 percent ofthe rural population by the end of 2004. The projecthas also expanded to other West African countries:Burkina Faso, Ghana, Guinea, and Senegal.

The multifunctional platform has a simple dieselengine that can power a variety of tools, such as acereal mill, husker, and/or battery charger. The engi-ne can also generate electricity for lighting andrefrigeration and to pump water. The advantages ofthe engine are its simplicity and multiple uses. Withits many functions, it can be used for a variety ofservices that can generate incomes for the groupoperating the platform. Because it is a very simplemachine, its installation and maintenance can behandled by local artisans and spare parts are readi-ly available across West Africa.

Installation of a platform is demand-driven. A dulyregistered women's association has to request it,

Multifunctional platform mountedwith food processing devices.

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annual income per woman increases when thefreed time is used for income-generating activitiesand when the multifunctional platform is used forproductive activities such as rice de-hulling or sheanut grinding. In addition, the multifunctional plat-form provides employment (and new incomeopportunities) for women operating the multifunc-tional platform.

• Freeing-up women’s time.One of the most important impacts that the multi-functional platform has brought to women is thetime to rest. For example, the aggregate timesaved per women over a week in the processing ofcereals amounts to an 8-hour working day. On ave-

suggest that the project has had great success instimulating expansion of multifunctional platform-based rural energy enterprises and an astonishinglevel of positive impact on the lives of rural people:

• Rapid expansion of access to • energy services by the poor.

The number of requests in Mali for multifunctionalplatforms is growing at an exponential rate, reflec-ting widespread awareness and appreciation of thepositive impacts a platform can have on communi-ty and individual lives. In mid-2001, there were 149platforms operation in Mali and the number isexpected to reach 450 by end 2004, covering about10 percent of Mali’s rural population. Each platformis estimated to serve an average of about 800clients per month, most of them women. Hence, inMali, as of mid-2001, some 120,000 clients (permonth) enjoy services that multifunctional plat-forms provide.

• Income generation.Almost all platforms were successful in operatingon a cash-positive and self-sustaining basis. Villagecase studies clearly indicate that the platform haspositive cash flows from the first day after installa-tion (see the example in Figure 2). Moreover, the

Figure 2Monthly cash flow and

cumulated cash flow,FCFA, Balanfina.

Figure 1 Cumulative multifunctionalplatform requests, feasibilitystudies, and installed multi-functional platforms, Mali,1999 -June 2001.

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income during the dry season, raising the total netincome of households, and empowering women toparticipate in economic decision making. Despiteseasonal needs and low ability to pay for the servi-ces, all multifunctional platforms for which datawere available have positive cash flows. However,the extent to which individual platforms achievedfinancial sustainability still varies widely. Figure 3provides an example of a monthly balance sheet.

Key Challenges of Scaling-Up

Results of the multifunctional platform initiative inMali demonstrate concrete linkages between thenumber of modern energy services a platform deli-vers and a range of interlinked poverty and deve-lopment outcomes. Lessons thus far have shownthat multifunctional-platform-based energy enter-prises can significantly help eradicate root causesof human insecurity such as income poverty andgender inequality.

The multifunctional platform approach in terms ofcontent and process offers real scope for expan-ding access to needed energy services for the poorand enhancing development prospects. It presentseffective ways to achieve NEPAD objectives andMillennium Development Goals based on a bot-tom-up approach originating from the communi-ties themselves.

In scaling up the multifunctional platform project, anumber of constraints need to be overcome andopportunities exploited if multifunctional platformsare to contribute significantly to sustainable deve-lopment.

Figure 3Balance sheet of the mul-tifunctional platform ope-ration at Kondogola, Mali,October 2000.

Source: Multifunctional Project Management Team in Mali.

rage, a multifunctional platform has freed 2 to 6hours daily per woman depending on the servicesof the platform. The time saved can be interpretedin two ways: less time per task and/or less arduoustasks enabling other activities to be done. Theequipment allows women more choices in determi-ning the uses of time and energy that they desireand are willing to pay for.

Moreover, the “invisible” time and energy spent onrepetitive work is made visible for all group mem-bers, as women re-organise their allocation of timeand gain social as well as economic recognition forthe work they do.

• Increased access to education by girls.Girls handle domestic chores (cereal grinding)generally from the age of eight and even earlier forwater carrying. Platforms have provided alternativemeans for the villagers to handle the tasks thatwould otherwise be handled by the girls and thushave released them from burdensome tasks. Theresults have been an increased level of girls’ atten-dance in primary school and improved school per-formance. The positive impacts on girls’ educationare among the most visible, appreciated, and pro-found impacts the multifunctional platforms haveproduced thus far.

• Financial sustainability.Multifunctional platforms help to reduce seasonalliquidity problems and mitigate adverse shocks(e.g., natural, economic, or political disasters) in ruralcommunities by improving health among commu-nity members, generating additional non-farm

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• Improving policy co-ordination.Although there is considerable knowledge and awa-reness of the platforms in Mali, there is little eviden-ce that the concept is being integrated explicitlyinto national energy, industrial, or other sectoraldevelopment plans. How a focus on provision ofenergy services for the rural poor can be an effecti-ve point of entry for cross-sectoral policy co-ordina-tion is poorly understood. For example, nationalpoverty reduction strategies do not address timeand human energy poverty. Enhanced data analysisis needed to help monitor the project’s achieve-ments in terms of changes in income, schooling, theway women spend time, etc. Case studies should beset up to analyse how the energy freed by the plat-form is spent and to create an indicator of humanenergy; this analysis should be done in collaborationwith Mali’s National Direction of Statistics andInformation. Enhanced data analysis and use will notonly contribute to monitoring multifunctional plat-form outcomes, but also support integration of ruralenergy concerns into national strategies on genderequity and health promotion.

• Developing an institutional framework.There is no available institutional framework foranalysing the multifunctional platform’s cross-secto-ral approach. Often, there is no clear policy or insti-tutional framework for decentralised energy supplyfor rural areas. A significant challenge is identifyingand working with appropriate legal and institutionalmechanisms to build the capacity to scale up andreplicate the platform approach. Building compe-tence and capability to mainstream the platformapproach into existing public and private institu-tions at meso and macro levels in ways that are sus-tainable also poses a significant challenge.

• Diversifying opportunities• for income generation.

If the multifunctional platform’s potential to breakthe energy-poverty trap is to be met, it will need tostimulate significant income-generating capabili-ties. But local markets, serving poor customers, havelimited scope for revenue growth. Diversification ofproductive activities combined with better marke-ting of products produced in the village to consu-mers within and outside the village is an under-exploited opportunity to increase local value-addedand generate economic growth. The multifunctionalplatform project must remain flexible in its imple-mentation approach and technology selections tomeet new rural needs.

• Diversifying energy sources.The multifunctional platform’s use of diesel is anobstacle to acceptance within environmentalmanagement and sectoral programmes that favourrenewable energy technologies. At the same time,at least one platform has demonstrated that theengine can run using locally available biomass, thejatropha curcas shrub, whose nuts can be convertedinto liquid fuel. The potential for wider use of jatro-pha as well as other biomass resources should beexamined, along with their income-generating andenvironmental regeneration potential.

• Creating markets.The platform approach favours private sector deve-lopment based on an effective marketing strategy.This, in turn, implies being able to achieve a highvolume in a given area. However, local rural indus-trial markets are narrow and the rural technical skillpool is very weak. The approach should focus ondeveloping market clusters, including measures toincrease public-private partnerships.

• Enabling access to financial instruments.Responsibility for easing transaction and informa-tion costs of many small loans to widen access tocredit still rests with national financial institutions.There are no intermediaries at present with kno-wledge and know how in managing energy loanprogrammes at the local level. In order to facilitateaccess at the community level to financial instru-ments such as micro credit, the capacity of both theusers (community) and the suppliers (financial insti-tutions and other venture businesses) needs to bereinforced.

• Building individual and institutional capacities.The multifunctional platform project has shownthat rural women, given appropriate training, arefully capable of managing business operations. Yetthe project has also identified a number of majorknowledge and capacity gaps in national institu-tions that would be needed for scaling up ruralenergy initiatives. It is therefore necessary that theproject devote more attention to training selectedgovernment and nongovernmental organisationsnot just in conducting feasibility studies, but inmanaging the whole process. This includes workingwith financial institutions to make loans accessible,monitoring and evaluating the platform’s impact,and co-ordinating policy dialogues and advocacy.

1. INTRODUCTION

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1.1 What is the Multifunctional Platform?

The multifunctional platform consists of a source ofmechanical and electrical energy, provided by a die-sel engine of 8 to 12 horse power (hp), that is moun-ted on a chassis and to which a variety of end-useequipment can be added. The configuration ofequipment modules – such as grinding mills, batte-ry chargers, electric water pumps, vegetable or nutoil presses, welding machines, carpentry tools, andmini electricity grids for lighting – is flexible and canbe adapted to the specific needs of each village.Technically, it provides decentralised energy servicesto rural populations. However, the platform conceptas implemented in the current project is much broa-der than merely the technology.

Some 50 to 80 percent of the population in Africalive in rural areas where the level of infrastructure isvery low and women are trapped in a daily grind ofsearching for energy as well as producing, transpor-ting, and processing food for their husbands andchildren. This report examines the multifunctionalplatform’s potential as a tool for liberating women’senergy and serving as a dynamic catalyst for sustai-nable development and rural transformation inAfrica.

1.2 Objectives of the Review

The main objectives addressed in this report are toreview and document experience to-date of multi-functional platform initiatives. First, multifunctionalplatform initiatives are assessed in terms of theirperformance and how well they have succeeded inmeeting and advancing development objectives.The assessment includes impacts at micro, meso,and macro levels; implementation strategies andtools; and potential replicability. Second, the relevan-ce of the platform concept to larger national/regio-nal development policies and frameworks on ener-gy for poverty reduction in the context of Africa isassessed. This includes the platform’s potential toaccelerate provision of affordable and needed ener-gy services and to advance poverty reduction objec-tives.

1.3 Methodology

The review team, composed of Abeeku Brew-Hammond (team leader) and Anna Crole-Rees,began with a desk review of available documentson the multifunctional platform project, followed bya field review in Mali and in Burkina Faso fromSeptember 5 to 19, 2001.

The review methodology consisted of the following:

� Desk reviews of available documents for countrieswith multifunctional platform projects (Mali, BurkinaFaso, Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea, and Senegal).

� Interviews with project beneficiaries, as well aswith public and private sector partners, in Mali andBurkina Faso. The mission team used a simple set ofguidelines for the interviews, which were conductedeither individually or in groups.

� Case studies of three villages in Mali with multi-functional platforms. Two of the villages, Balanfinaand Sampara, were visited. The mission conductedgroup interviews in each village with the communi-ty as a whole and then separately with the womenand the men (Appendix A). Data from these villageswere also collected from the project database toallow for some quantitative analysis. It was not pos-sible to visit the third village, Maurolo, but data forthis village were collected and analysed because ofthe relevance of this multifunctional platform forbiofuels use, since it is the only one in the UNDPproject to operate solely on jatropha oil.

Project personnel encountered several constraintsduring the mission, primarily because of time limita-tions:

� Experience in three out of the five countries parti-cipating in the current regional project had to beassessed mainly from secondary data (project/mis-sion reports).

� In the two countries visited, none of the local part-ners involved in the technical and socio-economicactivities (artisans, nongovernmental organisations,etc.) could be met.

1.4 Structure of the Report

This report is structured as follows:

� Chapter 2 discuses the origins of the multifunctio-nal platform project and the platforms implemen-ted as of June 2001. The Mali project is described, aswell as the role and purpose of the subsequentregional project.

� Chapter 3 reviews and documents experience todate of the platform initiatives in meeting andadvancing development objectives in Mali andother West African countries. It first briefly describesa conceptual framework and then uses this frame-work to assess benefits and impacts of multifunctio-nal projects in rural areas within the framework ofon-going projects.

� Chapter 4 reviews policies within the region in thesectors relevant to the platform concept. It then dis-cusses the potential contribution of the concept tosustainable development and rural transformationin the region. Finally, it highlights the key issues tobe taken into account in the formulation of anexpanded regional multifunctional project in sub-Saharan Africa.

� Chapter 5 offers a brief conclusion.

2. OVERVIEW OF PLATFORM INITIATIVES

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2.1 Origins of the Multifunctional 2.1 Platform Concept

Efforts to adapt the conventional grain-millingmachine to the local environment and respond tothe challenges of the time may be traced back to aproject started in Mali in the late 1980s by theGerman development agency GTZ (DeutscheGesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit). Theproject sought to use vegetable oil derived fromjatropha 1 seeds as an alternative to diesel fuel inthe engines that powered the milling machines.The project was terminated in 1996 when costcomparisons between jatropha oil and diesel fuelshowed jatropha to be more expensive than diesel.

The idea of a multifunctional platform as we knowit today was first put forward in a regional projectdeveloped jointly by the United Nations IndustrialDevelopment Organization (UNIDO) and theInternational Fund for Agricultural Development(IFAD) 2. The project was implemented in two WestAfrican countries, Mali and Burkina Faso, from 1993to 1995; it was aimed at reducing time spent on therepetitive and energy-intensive domestic non-reproductive tasks allocated to women, such asgrinding, de-hulling, and water fetching. Experienceshowed that existing grinding mills in the traditio-nal private sector were costly and their services notadapted to women’s need.

The project was designed to target women asprime beneficiaries; female ownership and manage-ment were made conditions of the project. The pro-ject was based in Sikasso, a town located in thesouthern part of Mali not far from the Burkina Fasoborder. The multifunctional platforms installed inthis project used diesel. Four platforms were instal-led in Mali, and six in Burkina Faso.

2.2 Platform Initiatives in Mali

In 1996, UNDP and the Government of Mali beganproviding support to existing platforms and set outto install diesel-fuelled multifunctional platformsacross Mali. The project base was moved fromSikasso to Sevare, a more central location in Mali,and two international consultants were brought into assist in the technical and socio-economicaspects. A participatory evaluation exercise wasundertaken in 1998 to assess the strengths andweaknesses of the platform operations and to reas-sess the project’s objectives and strategy.

In 1999, the project was transferred to theGovernment and became a nationally executedproject, located within the Department of Industryand Commerce. By the end of the year, a total of 48multifunctional platforms had been installed inMali 3. One of the platforms used only jatropha oiland was believed to continue to do so at the timeof the review. By end 1999, 240 women had beensuccessfully trained in functional literacy program-mes organised by the project as part of the plat-form development process and 47 male artisansbased in rural areas had been trained in mechanicaland electrical installation, maintenance, welding,etc. (Figure 1.1).

Following the participatory evaluation exercise, anew UNDP/Government of Mali project(MLI/99/001) started in 1999 and is scheduled toend in 20034. This project recognises the multifunc-tional platform’s potential as an engine of develop-ment and poverty reduction for the rural communi-ty as a whole. Its primary aim is to reduce povertyin rural areas in general and that of rural women inparticular, while creating income-generating oppor-tunities through the provision of affordable energyservices.

1 Jatropha is known in French as Pourghere.2 The Chief Technical Adviser for this UNIDO/IFAD project was Mr. Roman Imboden, a Swiss national, who is creadited with the first

elaboration of the multifunctional platform concept.3 Data provided by Mali Project, Sevare.4 The UNDP Mali Project Manager is Mr. Yaya Sidibe.

Figure 1.1Multifunctional platform installationsand women and artisans trained, Mali,1999-2001

Source: Project data.

21

Thus the project seeks to improve living conditionsin villages through direct and induced effects ofmultifunctional platforms, notably the time savings,energy production, and associated income genera-tion, plus the provision of lighting and potablewater, which have immediate consequences forhealth and education. The project is aiming toinstall a total of 450 multifunctional platforms by2004, out of which 150 are expected to feed intowater and electricity networks.

From the beginning of the year 2000 to mid-2001,the Mali project installed close to one hundred newplatforms and trained hundreds of additionalwomen and dozens of rural artisans. It is estimatedthat, as of June 2001, a total of 149 multifunctionalplatforms had been installed in Mali and that 862women had been trained in functional literacy and98 artisans had been trained in various technicaland income-generation activities associated withthe platforms (Figure 1.1).

2.3 Initiatives at Sub-Regional Level

As stated, the multifunctional platform concept wasfirst launched within the framework of aUNIDO/IFAD sub-regional project implemented inMali and Burkina Faso around the mid-1990s. Thecurrent sub-regional project (RAF/099/013) startedin October 1999 under the auspices of UNDP.The project is based on the experience gained inthe on-going UNDP-funded Mali project, as well asthe experience in Burkina Faso, and it covers fivecountries: Burkina Faso 5 , Côte d’Ivoire, Guinea,Mali, and Senegal.

The main aim of the UNDP sub-regional project isto develop technical capacity in the participatingcountries for initiating, operating, managing, andreplicating multifunctional platform projects. Inaddition to expanding the Mali project to four addi-tional countries, the goal is to develop a databaseof methodological, technical, financial, economic,and social information. The database will a) ensurethe transfer of knowledge and competencies, b)disseminate information on the various nationalprojects, and c) increase understanding and aware-ness of the MFP concept and approach and itspotential to reduce rural poverty.

The sub-regional project, funded primarily byUNDP, has additional funding from UNIDO, IFAD, theFrench Agency for Environment and EnergyManagement (ADEME), SHELL Foundation,Electricité de France - Programme ACCESS, AfriquesInitiatives, and the French Ministry of ForeignAffairs. The project has indeed launched platformprojects in four countries, with eight pilot platformsinstalled in Guinea and one each in Burkina Faso,Côte d’Ivoire, and Senegal. A database manage-ment system has also been developed and severalfora have been organised to facilitate the transferof knowledge and exchange of experiences.

Nevertheless, as discussed in chapter 3, much morework needs to be done in the four additional coun-tries. Many other African countries have alsoexpressed interest in having multifunctional plat-form projects, necessitating a careful review of theachievements to date and elaboration of specificstrategies, as detailed in chapters 4 and 5.

5 The UNDP/IFAD multifunctional platform project in Burkina Faso was interrupted in 1995, and started again in 2000 with supportfrom the regional project, which was originally designed to include Chad instead of Burkina Faso. The switch was made because ofstrong interest shown by Burkina Faso and because of political problems in Chad that made it difficult for the project to continue inthat country.

3. ACHIEVMENTS TO DATE

24

3.1 The Multifunctional Platform Concept

The multifunctional platform concept aims at ena-bling rural communities – and women in particular– to get out of the energy-poverty trap and haveaffordable and sustainable modern energy services(Burn et al. ,2001).

The multifunctional platform has a simple dieselengine that can power different tools, such as acereal mill, husker, and/or battery charger. The engi-ne can also generate electricity for lighting and topump water.

Development and installation of a multifunctional-platform-based energy enterprise generally occursthrough the following eight-step process.

1. Assessing demand and 1. selecting a women’s group.

To maintain an explicit focus on rural women, theproject only responds to firm requests for a plat-form from rural and duly registered entities such asa village women’s association.

2. Conducting participatory pre-feasibility 2. and feasibility assessments.

Before a platform is installed, participatory social,economic, and technical feasibility studies areundertaken. These assessments/self-evaluations areundertaken in two phases. First, a relatively shortassessment is undertaken to determine whetherthe basic conditions for multifunctional platform toperform are present. Once the first assessmentconfirms the potential for a self-sustaining multi-functional-platform-based energy enterprise in thevillage, a full participatory assessment is conductedto confirm social and economic viability. Thisassessment covers a wide spectrum of issues, suchas economic status, women’s time use, social andgender balances, technology choices to meet theexisting and potential market needs, etc. Thisextensive assessment enables the platform’s pur-chasers and the potential clients of the multifunc-

Multifunctional platform mounted with food processing devices.

Community energy and development priority settingin a village in Mali.

tional platform to decide based on informed choi-ces and clearly identified partners; it also establis-hes a social and economic baseline against whichresults can be tracked. From the initiation of thefirst assessment to the final decision by the com-munity itself, the process may take anywhere froma few weeks to three months depending on localconditions.

3. Configuring the multifunctional platform 3. to fit the community’s needs.

The clients of the end-use equipment and the pur-chasers themselves determine the type and level ofenergy services they are willing and able to pay for,based on the outcomes of the feasibility assess-ments. The configuration of tools installed is thusvillage-specific. Between 40 and 60 percent of thecost is financed by the beneficiaries themselves; aone-time subsidy to cover the rest is provided bythe project. All depreciation and variable costs(operations, maintenance, management, salaries,etc.) are borne entirely by the women’s manage-ment committee out of the business profits fromthe platform. Thus the feasibility assessments,which provide a business plan, are configured to bevery precise to facilitate the villages’ decisions. Theproject informs villages of existing financial andmanagement-support facilities and facilitatesaccess to credit.

4. Establishing women’s ownership 4. and management.

Once the feasibility studies have confirmed the fullviability of a platform operation in the village, thewomen’s association, which has submitted therequest and already mobilised funds to acquire theplatform, establishes management mechanisms toensure ownership and smooth implementation. Theassociation elects management committee mem-bers who will oversee platform operations, schedu-le the work, distribute benefits arising out of theplatform operation, and develop a mechanism toaddress any potential confrontations that mayarise.

25

5. Building women’s capacity to 5. operate the multifunctional platform.

Members of women’s associations are trained inmanagerial and entrepreneurial skills to ensure thetechnical and economic viability of the platform.This is a critical component of the platformapproach – ensuring that the business is led byand works for the women who operate it.

6. Implementing a business approach.Once a platform with the selected equipment isinstalled and women’s association members havegained the necessary knowledge and confidence tomanage the platform, a market-based businessapproach is adopted. The women’s associationdevelops a business strategy for its multifunctional-platform-based rural energy enterprise (pricing ofservices, etc.), with advice from project staff on anas-needed basis.

Agricultural products grinding has a lot of demand invillages in Mali.

Local artisans installing a generator on a platform.

7. Building the capacity of local artisans.The project identifies, networks, and strengthensthe capacity of existing mechanics and artisans toservice platforms. All technical operations requiredby the platform – including purchasing, installation,repair, and maintenance – are handled by the priva-te sector.

8. Monitoring and evaluation.Several tools have been developed to assist majorstakeholders in monitoring the multifunctionalplatform and its socio-economic impact at thehousehold and community level. Such tools make itpossible to track economic and social developmentin the village. Transparent collection of data makesit possible to pinpoint both deficiencies (e.g., dis-crepancies between cash on hand and cumulatedcash) and successes (e.g., the cumulated cash flow).

Multiple aplications a multifunctional platform can provide.

26

6 Villavicencio (2002) makes use of the following frameworks : the Sustainable Rural Livelihoods, the Co-Evolutionary Technological Change, and the Systems Orientation approaches.

7 The FCFA’S value in recent years has fluctuated between 500 and 700 FCFA per US$. Based on the median value over time, 2,800,000 FCFA is approximately US$ 4.500.

Table 3.1 Sustainability Criteria

Sustainability Criteria

Source: Based on Villavicencio, 2002.

Orientor (sustainability dimension)

Existence

Effectiveness

Freedom of action

Adaptivity

Coexistence

Sustainability of the affecting system(viability of the technologiy in the rural context)

Affordability

Efficiency

Freedom from risk of obsolescence

Flexibility

Technological capacity

Sustainability of the affecting system(contribution of the technology to sustainablerurallivelihoods)

Sustainability and urgence

Effectiveness and efficacy

Resilience

Diversification

Environmental protection

3.2 The Conceptual Framework

Reviewing the achievements to date of the multi-functional platform concept is a complex task invol-ving examination of the activities and impacts of,and the benefits to, various end-user groups andstakeholders at the micro, meso, and macro levels.The review begins at the micro level, not onlybecause end-users are the prime target, but alsobecause it facilitates better understanding of theneeds at project level.

At the micro and meso levels, the review’s concep-tual framework relies heavily on the conceptual fra-mework developed by Villavicencio (2002) and theproject’s concept paper (Burn et al. ,2001).Villavicencio combines concepts from differentapproaches 6 and develops criteria to assess thecontribution of a new technology to the variousdimensions of rural development, namely, to thesustainability of rural livelihoods and to the viabilityof the technology within the rural context. Table 3.1summarises the criteria developed by Villavicencioand adopted in this report.

Two elements have been added to Villavicencio’sframework to analyse the multifunctional platform.First, gender aspects are included to allow forheterogeneity in the rural population; differencesamong men, among women, as well as betweenwomen and men are all part of the analysis.Second, issues related to the implementation ofmultifunctional platforms are included.

Implementation methodologies are reviewedbased on interviews and available documents. Theopportunities for biomass-derived fuels are discus-sed separately.

3.3 Impacts and Benefits

3.3.1 Sustainability of the Multifunctional Platform

Affordability

The affordability criterion assesses the capacity ofthe end-users to pay for acquisition of the multi-functional platform on the one hand and ongoingservices on the other hand.

Installing a basic multifunctional platform, with anengine, rice de-huller, stone mill, battery charger,and housing, including the feasibility study and trai-ning for the women, has an average cost in Mali of2,800,000 FCFA (Franc Communauté Francophoned’Afrique), equivalent to about seventeen times theyearly GNP per capita 7 . The cost of a water net-work and/or an electricity network is much higherand varies widely according to its specific local cha-racteristics.

Instead of looking for an entity within the commu-nity requesting the multifunctional platform thatcan afford to pay for it, the strategy is to makeownership by a women’s association a condition ofthe project. This might decrease affordability, since

27

women tend to have less access to income andresources than men (see, for example, De Grooteand Coulibaly, 1996), as well as less bargainingpower.

Several measures have been taken to increaseaffordability. First, the project provides grants ofabout US$ 1,500 8 for the basic module and instal-lation, which represents around 40 to 60 percent ofthe total basic equipment cost 9 , provided that theownership condition has been fulfilled. The size ofthe grant for a particular village is determined aftertaking into consideration the cost of the basicmodule and the village’s ability to mobilise itsresources (economic, physical, and social). Villagesvary in size and in social, technical, and economicpotential 10 .

Second, the up-front cost is often lowered with thehelp of other members of the community, forexample, a men’s association from the village or, insome cases, a village member who has emigrated.In Sampara, for example, the women’s associationpaid 38 percent of the 2,430,000 FCFA, the men 12percent, and the project the remaining 49 percent(see Appendix A).

Third, specific arrangements can be made. Forexample, in one village (Maurolo), due to the parti-cular low resource level of the women, the projectsuggested a payment in-kind, namely 10 tonnes ofjatropha seeds. This was possible due to the projec-t’s and the villagers’ willingness to test the use ofbiomass-derived fuels in the pilot phase (Coche,personal communication).

Fourth, the project is developing a website to ena-ble potential benefactors anywhere in the world totarget particular villages, an entire platform, or anycombination of end-use equipment.

Fifth, existing collective and/or private infrastructu-re, such as a small house, a mill, etc., can reduce theinvestment cost since it can be combined with themultifunctional platform.

Finally, the use of credit institutions is currentlyunder consideration. The feasibility study can beused as a business plan, but this approach never-theless faces several challenges, including the needto find collateral accepted by formal institutions.Currently, cotton produced by men is used as colla-teral to obtain credit for agricultural inputs and

equipment in cotton-producing areas. Among localinformal credit institutions, with limited financialresources, the amount of credit required to set up amultifunctional platform might be a significantconstraint to their lending.

The project characteristics that increase affordabili-ty are the requirement that it be demand drivenand the feasibility study. Both ensure the communi-ty’s willingness to accept the multifunctional plat-form concept and its ability to afford the initialinvestment, the services, and the need for ongoingsustainable management in the long term.

Currently, the rate of multifunctional platform“affordability” for all of Mali is 96 percent, that is,according to project data, 96 percent of requestsfor the implementation of a multifunctional plat-form have met the affordability criteria. This “affor-dability rate” might become lower with time andgrowing demands. First, the geographical expan-sion of the multifunctional platform to regions withfewer resources, such as in the north of Mali, mightlimit affordability or increase the amount of timeneeded to save the required financial contribution.Geographical variations within Mali and within theregion could not be analysed. Second, if the projectcontribution is reduced, this, too, might affect affor-dability in the future.

Prices of the services are set to ensure the financialsustainability of the multifunctional platforms aswell as maximum affordability for local end-users.Prices are similar to those of the traditional cerealmills. Prices for milling and de-hulling are between20 and 50 FCFA/unit, the unit being a tomato tin orsimilar container. Other prices are the following:

• 9 to 16 FCFA/kg for milling

• 10 to 22 FCFA/kg for de-hulling

• 22 FCFA/kg for shea nut grinding

• 4 to 8 FCFA/litre for water

• 1,500 FCFA/hour for energy (water, electricity,

and soldering)

• 500 FCFA/battery for battery charging.

The participatory evaluation in 1998 estimated forsix village case studies that 40 percent of thewomen used the platforms for milling (Burn, 1998).This corresponds to one woman from each house-hold. In Anakaga, all households had access topumped water (Crole-Rees and Burn, 2001).

8 Note that the cost for feasibility studies, literacy training, and introductory business training for women operators, which amount s to about US$ 1,000, is additional and is borne entirely by the project.

9 The choice of equipment is flexible and demand driven. The basic platform equipment includes engine, mill, de-husker, and housing for the platform, and costs about US$ 3.000. In many villages, people opt for additional equipment, such as a generator and battery charger, pushing the total equipment cost up to US$ 4,500. In these cases, the subsidy from the project goes up proportionally, i.e., up to US$ 2,500.

10 For example, the average population size of 38 villages was 1,249 inhabitants (with a range of 100 to 4,000). Agricultural potential(crops, yield levels) varies according to soil fertility and agro-climatic characteristics. Differences in cultural values also impact the abilityof villages to mobilise resources.

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According to the data from the three case studiesanalysed in this review, namely Sampara, Balanfina,and Maurolo, the multifunctional platforms average698 client visits per month. The same data suggesthigh variation among villages and by season.Maurolo, a small village with 18 households, indica-tes 446 client visits per month on average for 14months, with a minimum of 317 and a maximum of699 in the twelve-month period May 2000 to April2001. Balanfina, a larger village with around 1,300inhabitants, shows an average of 558 client visitsper month (with a range of 130 to 1,091 client visitsper month) in the same period. Figure 3.1 showsboth the average number of client visits and expen-ditures per visit in Balanfina. It suggests that use ofthe multifunctional platform services, as well as theamount spent, varies by season. The number ofclient visits is lower during the dry season andhigher during the rainy season while expenditureper visit shows an opposite pattern. While expendi-tures spent per client average 296 FCFA per visit,clients spend less than 100 FCFA per visit duringthe rainy season 11 and more than 300 FCFA duringthe dry season. This clearly indicates the need todistinguish between need and affordability. Millingneeds are much higher during the harvest season,when external workers helping in the harvest haveto be fed, men and women’s time is scarce, andenergy needs are higher. During this season, thereis also less need for non-agricultural services.

Virtually all (99 percent) of the clients are women(not including clients of the water and electricitynetworks, whose numbers currently are not registe-red). Women use the multifunctional platforms on atwice-daily or daily basis while men, one percent oftotal clients, use multifunctional platform servicesless often. There are several reasons for this. First,not all multifunctional platforms have equipment

for battery charging, welding, sawing, etc., that is“directly” usable by men. Second, the need forthese services is not on a daily basis. Blacksmithsmainly use welding equipment during the dry sea-son. Batteries, generally owned by men, are char-ged once a month on average. This again showsthe importance of evaluating both need and affor-dability for each type of service and for variousgroups in the community.

The available data and studies suggest that multi-functional platform services are used by 33 percent(Sampara) and 80 percent (Maurolo) of householdsfor milling services and by 100 percent of house-holds for water in Anakaga. There is a need to fur-ther analyse the factors affecting affordability, suchas season, gender, household wealth and resources,the relationship between energy and poverty, etc.

Efficiency

The efficiency criterion measures the cost of theenergy service provided by the multifunctionalplatforms. According to Villavicencio (2002), oneway of analysing the efficiency of the technologyas a means of supplying mechanical and electricalenergy is comparing its price to the price ofconventional means of energy supply. For millingand de-hulling, prices are comparable to those attraditional mills, according to villagers interviewedand project data, making the multifunctional plat-form efficient for these services. Because energyand water services are rare in rural areas, prices aredifficult to compare.

Freedom from risk of obsolescence

This criterion looks at how well the multifunctionalplatform is insulated from the risk of becomingrapidly obsolete. The small water-cooled, Indian-

29

made Lister diesel engine was developed manydecades ago, and in the medium term no furtherdevelopments are likely to improve the engine’s effi-ciency. The air-cooled diesel engine, an alternative,requires special skill and facilities for repairs(Jonsson et al., 1994). The risk that the multifunctio-nal platform will soon be obsolete is low.Furthermore, alternatives such as electricity are notlikely in the medium term in some areas and in thelong term in others.

Flexibility

The flexibility criterion looks into the suppleness ofthe multifunctional platform to satisfy both currentand expanding energy needs. On many dimensions,the platform can be said to be very flexible, withconsiderable potential to accommodate increasedneed 12 .

First, the multifunctional platform concept allowsseveral pieces of equipment to be combined accor-ding to the needs of various population groups.Currently, there are 81 “basic modules”, 52 platformswith de-hullers, and 22 with water and/or electricity(DSEI, 2001).

Second, the number of operating hours is flexible.This is relevant as needs may vary according toregion, time of day, and season. For example, waterpumping and cereal grinding are primarily neededearly in the morning and at the end of the after-noon. Several multifunctional platforms were obser-ved to operate from 8 to 9 or 10 o’clock in the mor-ning and from 4 to 6 in the evening. Figure 3.1shows the variation in platform use by season.Figure 3.2 shows the variation in the number ofoperating hours per month in three case study villa-ges (although some variation may be attributable toequipment breakdown).

Third, the operational capacities are currently notexhausted in these villages. The average use is 96hours/month in Sampara, 77 in Balanfina, and 59 inMaurolo. This corresponds to an average of 2 to 3hours per day, leaving some margin for expandedplatform use. Furthermore, capacities can be expan-ded by performing two to three functions simulta-neously, such as battery charging and milling.

Fourth, energy from the multifunctional platformcan be used in a variety of additional ways byadding more functions to the platform. Some ofthese additional possibilities are already available asprototypes or concepts in one or two villages. Forinstance, electricity from the battery could be usedto run video systems. The addition of an electricgenerator makes it possible to provide irrigation,sawing, and refrigeration services. The Mali projectincludes several concepts that are still to be develo-ped: mill thresher, ventilator for dryers, and spinningmachine (Crole-Rees, 1998).

Fifth, the use of more powerful engines (10 to 12hp) has been tested and implemented successfullyin some villages where increased power was nee-ded. There are other engines on the market, mostly16 and 20 hp Chinese models using similar techno-logy, that could be adapted to the multifunctionalplatform, but these engines had not been tested asof June 2001. One option that has been successfullytested is a device to couple two engines togetheron the same platform, thus doubling the power pro-duced.

Technological capability

The technological capability criterion assesses theavailability of human and organisational resourcesto install, operate, and manage the multifunctionalplatform.

12 Some aspects of this question overlap with the suitability and urgency criterion examined below.

Figure 3.2Multifunctional platform operatinghours per month in three villages,September 1998 - June 2001.

Source: Project data.

30

had been coached by the project to teach women(and men) to read and write and to teach the futu-re female millers.

3.3.2 Sustainability of Rural Livelihoods

Suitability and urgency

The suitability and urgency criterion assesses themultifunctional platform’s ability to meet theimmediate requirements of rural people. Energytechnologies in rural areas must be able to relievethe stresses generated by the patterns of energyconsumption; these stresses undermine the liveli-hood resources base and constrain livelihood stra-tegies, hence constraining the welfare of the localpopulation (Villavicencio, 2002).

At present, most of the energy expended in ruralareas is human energy, primarily that of womenengaged in small-scale agriculture or livestock pro-duction as well as in basic subsistence activities(Burn and Coche, 2001). According to Jonsson et al.(1994), the biggest challenge is to find a way toreduce time allocated to domestic activities andtheir burden and to offer women opportunities tobenefit from new technologies.

The most urgent problem confronting women inrural communities is physical exhaustion (Burn,1998). Women spend many hours and considerableenergy procuring food and caring for their familieseven though the number of working hours per dayis already higher for women than men (World Bank,1999, and Table 3.2). One of the most importantshort-term consequences is that rural families fore-go evening meals in some areas and/or seasons(Burn, 1998); this reduces the energy potential ofthe family members for the next day, with possiblenegative consequences in agricultural production,school attendance, school outcome, health, etc.Other consequences are:

• employment of children for domestic activitiessuch as water fetching, grinding, and meals prepa-ration, hence reducing school attendance,• social tension within the household as mealsmight be served late, and• lack of time and energy for income-generatingactivities, training, etc.

Results of feasibility studies show that potentialclients’ two most important desired and expectedoutcomes from new energy services are rest andincome generation. Women’s willingness to pay forrest is a clear indication of the urgent need forrelief from physical exhaustion. It is a compellingindicator of the depth and severity of their energypoverty (Burn et al., 2001).

The small Indian-made Lister diesel engine andsimilar ones manufactured in other parts of theworld, particularly China, are widely available throu-ghout rural Africa and they are often used by priva-te millers for grinding grain (Burn and Coche, 2001).These engines had been imported and commercia-lised (installed, repaired, and managed) long beforethe multifunctional platform was introduced.Although these engines have had some problems(e.g., poor-quality engines and lack of availability ofspare parts), these problems are not platform-speci-fic. The Mali project is working with producers inAsia to solve the problem of low-quality engines.

The strategy of the project is to train existing repai-rers and/or mechanics to install and repair the mul-tifunctional platform. This has the two-fold benefitof providing cost savings for the project and, moreimportantly, enabling mechanics to be more fullyoccupied, to diversify their income sources, and toenhance the quality of their services. As of June2001, seventeen mechanics had been trained as fit-ters and forty-four as repairers (DSEI, 2001). With atotal of 149 platforms, this means that each mecha-nic was in charge of maintaining approximatelythree multifunctional platforms. Several reports(Ferrari, 1999, 2000, 2001) suggest that training is aniterative process and that socio-economic aspectsshould not be underestimated.

The project utilises the same strategy with respectto specific equipment such as wood saws and wel-ding machines. As of mid-2001, 27 men had beencoached to become welders. In Balanfina, thereview team was able to observe the use of wel-ding equipment to make high-quality chairs andcarts next to the multifunctional platform. The localcommunity claimed that the quality of work hadincreased since the welding equipment had beenadded to the platform.

A key strategy of the project is to assign ownershipand management to women’s groups. This does notinvolve merely assessing existing managementresources and choosing the best available, butrather “creating” the needed capacities. Accordingto traditional criteria, most community membersmight be assessed as not capable of managing themultifunctional platform. Most cannot read orcount in the national language (French in Mali)and/or in local languages. Yet as of June 2001, some862 women had been trained (DSEI, 2001), namely,six women per installed platform on average. Thetraining includes basic accounting, functional rea-ding and writing in their local language, and fillingout the monitoring tools, the “management sheets”.

Most training at the platform level is being done byexternal manpower. As of June 2001, 121 trainers

31

The cause of women’s exhaustion is structural.Women are responsible for the daily food securityand nutritional well being of their families(Johnson, 1997). This requires food production andprocessing and/or earning income to purchasefood. In addition, women have a range of familymaintenance and reproductive tasks, including fuel-wood collection, water procurement, sanitation,child bearing, child care, and food preparation(Johnson, 1997). Depending on geographical zones,seasons, and resources available, these so-callednon-productive activities can take from 30 to 80percent of women’s time (Tables 3.2 and 3.3). Thesetasks are energy-intensive, although precise data onenergy expenditure organised by the nature of acti-vities are lacking.

Women generally have less access to income andresources. Furthermore, research has been seriouslybiased in favour of technology for agricultural andproductive activities. Technologies for reproductiveactivities have been far less researched. The intro-duction of a multifunctional platform makes radicalshort- and long-term changes possible. It giveswomen access and ownership to technology andresources while maintaining their social role andresponsibility for the food security and nutritionalwell being of their families. Access to platform ser-vices frees up both time and energy, reducing dailytime spent on chores by 2 to 6 hours (Box 3.1),depending on the services of the platform (with orwithout water pump).

Table 3.3 Womens Daily Activity in Sampara, Mali, percentages

Source: Sahel Consult, 2000.

Total Time Worked

Water fetching

Preparation of meals and washing-up

Cereals grinding and de-hulling

Meals

Coton spinning

Private (washing, praying)

Entertainment

Dry season

6:00 to 23:00

6%

35%

15%

6%

20%

5%

13%

Rainy season

6:00 to 21:00

7%

16%

30%

13%

10%

4%

0%

Table 3.2 Daily Activities of Women and Men in Madjoari, Burkina Faso, hours and percentages

Source: PAICB/LCB, 2001a.

Women Men

Total time

Milling, grinding and dehulling 3 hours (17%) 2 hours (12%) - -

Other domestic activities (water,wood, meals preparation, etc)

7 hours 30 min(43%)

4 hours (12%)

- -

Agricultural work onhousehold collective field

4 hours (23%) -10 hours 50 min

(68%)-

Agricultural work on private field 30 min (3%) - - -

Training in reading and writing -6 hours 30 min

(40%)- -

Livestock reading - - 45 min (5%)2 hours 20 min

(14%)

Housing, construction - - -7 hours 40 min

(45%)

Petty trade - 2 hours (12%) - -

Rest and leisure2 hours 30 min(14%)

2 hours (12%)4 hours 25 min

(28%)7 hours(41%)

17 hours 30 min 16 hours 30 min 16 hours 17 hours 30 min

Rainy season Dry season Rainy season Dry season

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women’s work rises and so, too, does women’sempowerment. Hence, the multifunctional plat-form fulfils the suitability and urgency criterion byreleasing women’s time and energy for rest andincome generation. The facts that within one year,149 multifunctional platforms were installed inMali, that each multifunctional platform has bet-ween 500 and 1,000 clients, and that clients (most-ly women) are willing to pay between 77 and 296FCFA per visit are indicative of the need and itsurgency.

Effectiveness and efficacy

This criterion assesses whether the system is effec-tive in the long term (and not merely efficient) inits efforts to secure scarce resources and itsinfluences on its environment (Villavicienzo, 2001).The basic question is whether the strategy develo-ped for the multifunctional platform concept isefficacious for reaching the project objective ofenabling rural communities – and women in parti-cular – to get out of the energy-poverty trap andhave affordable and sustainable modern energyservices, with women both using and controllingthe energy supply. Do the strategy’s main ele-ments – that it be demand driven, begin with aparticipatory feasibility study, be women-owned,be decentralised, and strengthen resources –contribute to that objective?

The condition that it is demand driven andresponds to requests from women’s associationsmeans that interested rural communities alreadyhave acquired information about multifunctionalplatforms (their benefits, how they work, andconditions attached to participation in the project)and that they have mobilised themselves to fulfilsome of these conditions before they evenapproach the project about acquiring a platform.Since no publicity is being done to promote theproject, rural communities are clearly learningabout it by seeing multifunctional platforms andtheir impacts in other villages.

Participatory feasibility studies allow communitiesto make an informed choice, based on the assess-ment of the community’s financial, economic,social, technical, and human capacities.

Women’s ownership and management in this pro-ject has lower initial costs than generally thoughtin the long term and the installation of the multi-functional platform reduces those costs even fur-ther 14 . As Burn and Coche (2001) write,“since it issolely women who perform grinding, hulling, and

Measuring Platform EfficiencyAn alternative method of analysing the efficiency ofthe technology is to compare it to the cost ofhuman energy and time that it replaces. For cerealsgrinding and de-hulling, three cases can occur:

• There were no mills and/or de-hulling availablenearby. Women ground cereals at home before theintroduction of the multifunctional platform. In thiscase, the multifunctional platform replaces thishuman energy and time minus time and energy tobring the cereals to the multifunctional platform.• Women used a mill in a village nearby. The intro-duction of the multifunctional platform in the villa-ge replaces time and energy to transport thecereals to and from the mill in the nearby village.• Women used facilities within the village.

Data on time and energy saved by mechanicalmilling and de-hulling is sparse. In Guinea, a studyindicated that rice de-hulling machines took twentyminutes for a task for which each woman previous-ly needed half a day (AFSC, 1987. Quoted byMalmberg Calvo, 1994).

The participatory evaluation estimated that womenin charge of cooking needed two to four hours perday for grinding (Burn, 1998). Diagana (2001) obser-ved that women needed 1.13 hours to grind 3.5 kgcereals per day without external mechanical ener-gy. Hence, use of the multifunctional platform’s ser-vices allows savings of 8 hours per week perwoman. For each 10 kg of shea nut, using multi-functional platform services saves 5 hours oftedious work.

Transport for domestic purposes, namely water andwood fetching and going to a mill, was estimatedto be 3 to 4 hours/day/household and 120 to 240kg/km/household/day (Malmberg Calvo, 1994).According to these data, the introduction of themultifunctional platform with a mill and a pumpcould reduce this transport time by about 1.5 to 2.5hours/day/household 13 and the transportationenergy burden by 65 to 40 kg/km/household/day.

Source: AFSC, 1987, in Malmberg Calvo, 1994.

In the short term, introduction of the multifunctio-nal platform makes the “invisible” time and energyspent on repetitive and tedious work visible for allgroup members as women re-organise their alloca-tion of time. Social and economic recognition of

13 Generally there is a rotation for these activities among the wives. In several villages in Mali, rotations are weekly.14 Multifunctional platforms have often not been included in project designs because they were considered too costly. They wereconsidered to have high initial costs and to require too much time and energy in persuading men in general and village elders in parti-cular and in training and organising women. However, the project has shown that these costs are in fact lower than thought and thatthe installation of a multifunctional platform in a community reduces them.

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water collection”, the village elders can more easilybe persuaded that the equipment has to be underwomen’s control, thus using the existing social divi-sion of labour to the project’s advantage.

Moreover, once the platform is installed, even as abasic module, it is much easier for women toattend training, since they are now freed from theirtedious grinding time and energy and have 2 to 10hours daily to allocate to other activities thanmanual grinding and water pumping. Variousexamples of men’s positive arguments for the mul-tifunctional platform are given in Appendix A.Impacts on women can be considered as sustaina-ble as now “women would not marry into a villagewhere there is no platform” (a female client). Inorder to ensure that these benefits are maintainedand that the men in a village do not take over theplatform, the project monitors it for at least twoyears after installation.

The project has ensured that the approach remainsdecentralised by setting up four regional advisoryunits that co-ordinate all the support activities intheir areas.

The whole concept is based on the mobilisationand strengthening of resources at each level of themultifunctional platform’s supply chain. Engineimporters, who have been importing the sameengine for decades now, have been invited to tra-vel to India in order to increase their ability toassess quality and to create trade relationships. Theplatform is manufactured by local artisans, withlocally available parts, and local artisans handle itsongoing functioning and repair. Local repair isimportant not only for regular maintenance visits,but also for local capacity building and trust buil-ding between repairers and their clients. Trainingin bookkeeping is under consideration. The opera-tors are all from the community acquiring the plat-form and, except for a few millers, are all women.The potential clients – indeed the whole communi-ty – of any particular platform participate in thefeasibility study. Women are mostly members ofthe women’s association owning the multifunctio-nal platform and may attend training in literacy.

One of the key innovations of this strategy is thatall members of the community acquiring a multi-functional platform are involved in the process.Moreover, all the elements of the concept are lin-ked and re-enforce themselves. For example, parti-cipatory feasibility studies re-enforce the existingprocess of resource mobilisation and strengthe-ning at community level. These inter-linkagescontribute to securing scarce resources. Constantupgrading of the various working methodologies(feasibility studies, etc.), regular training of the

various actors in the supply chain, close relations-hips established through the decentralisedapproach, minimum of two years of monitoring, allthese elements help to promote long-termimpacts of the multifunctional platform.

Resilience

The resilience criterion assesses the multifunctionalplatform’s contribution to rural communities’ abilityto cope with and recover from shocks and tempo-rary stresses. It has several dimensions.

One important dimension is whether, under currentproject conditions, acquisition of a multifunctionalplatform creates a debt burden for communities orothers. The feasibility study ensures that whenloans are provided, repayment can be madewithout threatening the multifunctional platform’sfinancial viability.

A second dimension is whether introduction of amultifunctional platform helps community mem-bers deal with seasonal stresses and shocks. It doesso in several ways. In the short term, it alleviates thetime bottleneck in the rainy season, when agricul-tural workload is highest, by making it possible forwomen to spend more time in the field during thiscritical period15 without threatening food produc-tion or the cooking and serving of meals. This isimportant because approximately 95 percent ofrural household income in southern Mali comesfrom agriculture (De Groote, 1994, and Crole-Rees,2002). During less critical periods, the multifunctio-nal platform may also contribute to income genera-tion, hence increasing communities’ capacity tocope with shocks.

Cash flow and net income in general are highly sea-sonal. It is acknowledged that many householdssuffer from a “cereal gap” (translated from French:période de soudure) by the end of the dry season,before the next harvest. The existence of the multi-functional platform and its various services canhelp alleviate this seasonal stress by diversifyingand/or increasing non-farm income. For example, insome villages in the Dogon area, more water isbeing sold for the animal herds passing by. Womencan increase their production of de-hulled rice andshea nut butter, and so on. Non-farm income notonly has a positive impact on total net income butalso helps in coping with temporary shocks (seeReardon et al., 1992, for Burkina; and Crole-Rees,2002, for Mali).

Women’s income, in cash and in kind, generally isused for households’ basic needs and children’snutrition (Von Brown et al., 1994, and World Bank,1999). The improvement in health gained from

15 Planting time is an important factor in determining yield levels. Delay in planting may reduce yield potential.

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women’s income is a positive factor for coping withstresses and shocks. Additionally, when womenearn their own income, a number of social benefits– including increased capacity to negotiate and tomanage conflict – result.

Diversification

The diversification criterion measures the ability ofa multifunctional platform to expand people’soptions and choices and to decrease their depen-dence on agricultural activities. The introduction ofa multifunctional platform in a community hasimpacts on several groups within the community:women, men, children, entrepreneurs, traders, shop-keepers, etc.

By using the services of the multifunctional plat-form, women are able to reduce the time spent onsome domestic activities by 30 to 50 percent andthus are able to re-allocate their time and energy toother activities, with positive impacts for the com-munity as a whole. One important impact is thatdaughters are relieved from helping with domestictasks – and are thus able to return to or beginschool. Women who had been trained by the pro-ject to read, count, and manage perceive the bene-fit of increased learning and in turn encourage theirdaughters to attend school (Box 3.2).

“We prefer to pump water than to take our daughters away from school.”-- Members of the Water Management Committee in Sampara

The new allocation of time also has several socialimpacts. The working capacity of household mem-bers and health in general depends on women’ssubsistence activities. The ability to serve morevaried, higher-quality meals on a regular basis andat a regular time is a positive factor for health, workand school capacities, and interpersonal relations-hips. Frutigi is the word for improvement in marria-ge relationships that has been used by an olderperson to describe the introduction of the multi-functional platform in his village. Burn (1998) givesmany such examples.

Impacts on men vary according to their activities.For example, time bottlenecks can be alleviated forsmiths repairing tools and machinery in the periodjust before planting time. Building construction andrenovation are made easier and more rapid withavailable running water.

Better health and more time available for agricultu-ral and non-agricultural activities might have posi-tive impacts on total household net incomethrough bigger fields, higher yields, increased pro-duction, etc. These aspects could not be analyseddue to lack of data.

The platform allows additional income-generatingactivities for women in general and for the womenactively involved in the management of the multi-functional platform in particular. Estimates basedon the available data in one village, Sampara, indi-cate average increased earnings of 100 FCFA/hourfor each operator 16 of the multifunctional plat-form. In the three case studies, each operator recei-ved the equivalent of a salary of 6,000 to 10,000FCFA/month (Appendix A) 17 . Box 3.3 shows thepotential for increased productivity from the multi-functional platforms.

Increased Productivity from the Multifunctional Platform

In the village of Noumoula, women compared handproduction of shea butter with butter productionusing the multifunctional platform. They estimatedthat using the multifunctional platform increaseddaily production from 3 kg to 10 kg. The increasedproductivity results from time liberated by the milland increased production through mechanicalpressing (Diourté and Diallo, 1999).

This finding was confirmed by another study thatobserved that production of shea butter with themultifunctional platform reduces work time from 8hours to 4.5 hours per 10 kg of raw shea nuts andincreases the yield from 35 percent to 45 percent(Diagana, 2001).

The multifunctional platform functions as a “profit-centre”, generating benefits for individuals andcommunities. Crole-Rees (1998b) observed that forthe ten platforms with available data, cash flow(before amortisation) was positive and averaged350,000 FCFA (a range of 80,000 to 780,550) aftertwelve months of activity. The three case studiesundertaken by the review indicate that multifunc-tional platforms generate immediate positive cashflows (Figure 3.3). However, income opportunitiesdiffer according to the village and its specific cha-racteristics.The positive income from a multifunctional plat-form can be an important factor in development.For example, Diagana (2001) observed an increase

16 The contribution might be overestimated as it is calculated based on engine hours. The number of hours women spend working on the platform (in preparation, for example) might be higher.

17 The official Malian minimum wage for a full-time job is 22,000 FCFA per month.

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in use of financial institutions. A shopkeeper inSampara indicated to the review team that he isnow selling fuel that was not previously available inthe village to both the multifunctional platformand motorbike owners. Evidence of these changesand of how income from the multifunctional plat-form is being used and its impacts on the local eco-nomy should be further documented.

Environmental protection

The environmental protection criterion looks athow well a technology contributes to environmen-tal sustainability. In the case of the multifunctionalplatform, the use of diesel is an obstacle to accep-tance within environmental management and sec-toral programmes that favour renewable energytechnologies (Burn et al., 2001). In the Mali project,one multifunctional platform currently operateswith vegetable oil from the jatropha bush.According to the agro-climatic conditions, this plantcan easily grow in three of the four areas where theMali project operates. The opportunities to usevegetable oil are reviewed more closely in section3.5. However, the environmental costs of diesel andother fuels should be considered in conjunctionwith the economic and social gains resulting fromintroduction of multifunctional platforms, particu-larly in income-poor and energy-poor areas. Eachmultifunctional platform directly benefits around800 individuals a month and reduces tedious andrepetitive domestic work that is not directly “pro-ductive” (domestic activities) by 1,500 to 2,000hours per month using an average of 70 to 80 litresof fuel. The benefit from multiple multifunctionalplatforms outweighs any environmental costs (Box3.4).

Valuing Environmental and Social Aspects

With the current mean use of the multifunctionalplatform in Mali, 450 multifunctional platformswould use 45,000 litres of fuel per month, whichwould cost around 12 million FCFA/month. Thedomestic time that can be freed with these 450multifunctional platforms amounts to over 1 millionhours of tedious work. Valued at rural currentwages, it corresponds to over 60 millionFCFA/month.

3.3.3 Contribution to Macro-DevelopmentFrameworks and Policies

Each month, around 800 clients buy services ateach of the current 149 multifunctional platforms,not including the clients for drinking water andelectricity. Assuming that women can save twohours per day by using these services and that 99percent of the clients are women, it can be estima-ted that currently almost 3 millions hours per yearare being made available to women. These hourscan be used for resting, enhancing the number andquality of family meals, educating the children,obtaining training, working on the collective cropfield, generating additional income, etc.

This is only one example of the impact that multi-functional platforms are having at the nationallevel. The same kind of estimation could be madefor other benefits, such as increased monetisationof the economy, increased petty trade and othernon-farm income, etc. These estimates may beimpressive, but more importantly, they show theneed for re-allocation of local, regional, and natio-nal budgets. For example, the introduction of multi-

Figure 3.3 Cumulated cash flows forSampara, Balanfina, and Maurolo

Source: DSEI, 2001

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functional platforms contributes to a higher level ofschooling for girls and/or better concentration inclass. This has to be taken into account when plan-ning resources in education. The results of the parti-cipatory evaluation hinted at the need to includedirect and indirect impacts in the feasibility studyin order to facilitate estimation of the multifunctio-nal platform’s costs and benefits (Burn, 1998). At thesame time, new planning will be needed torespond to new demand for increased classes,school materials, a new health strategy, etc. To ourknowledge, these actions have not taken place inMali, nor are they perceived as necessary adjust-ments to the introduction of multifunctional plat-forms.

The sparse data available indicate that the multi-functional platform increases non-farm income athousehold and local levels, which in turn helps toreduce income inequalities in communities.According to a study in Mali (Crole-Rees, 2002),non-farm income reduces inequalities, althoughonly slightly since non-farm income comprises onlya small share of total net household income.Introduction of multifunctional platforms in morerural communities can thus help reduce incomeinequality in rural areas.

As of June 2001, some 61 mechanics had been trai-ned by the project. Although it is assumed thatthey have more work as a result, more diversifiedactivities, and eventually will have more income, noempirical evidence could be found to support thisassumption.

There are several positive signs that multifunctio-nal platforms are becoming mainstream. In theSikasso area, 19 platforms were installed withoutany subsidies from the project. In these cases, thevillages directly contacted private artisans who hadbeen trained by the project, and procured andinstalled the multifunctional platforms on a com-mercial basis. These multifunctional platforms arenot monitored by the project and no informationhas been gathered. It is hence not possible to knowwhether this replication limits itself to the platformtool or whether it includes the whole concept,including how the platform is managed and howthe benefits are allocated. Since 1994, six to eightplatforms have been installed by the public sectorsolar energy research institution CNESOLER. Areview is under way by the Mali Folkcentre withsupport from UNEP’s Sustainable Energy AdvisoryFacility, but its results were not available at the timeof this study. Figure 3.4 shows the number of instal-led multifunctional platforms in Mali by fundingsource.

Figure 3.4 Number of installedplatforms in Mali, by funding

source, 1993 - June 2001

Source: DSEI, 2001

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The multifunctional platform as currently imple-mented by the project has a high added value forthe end-users, particularly women. The componentsof this added value are:

� The product is new and thus enjoys novelty sta-tus.

� It is exclusive to rural areas, and de facto towomen.

� Services provided before and after sale of theplatform – feasibility study, training, monitoring –are free of charge.

� Because both the equipment and the services aremonitored by the project, quality is guaranteed, atleast in the short term. In the long term, quality isguaranteed through training.

Because management training and feasibility stu-dies are free of charge, potential “competitors”might have serious difficulty competing with theproject to help rural communities, particularlywomen, acquire a multifunctional platform. Thelength of time that rural communities are willing towait in order to acquire a multifunctional platformis an indicator of the level of benefits and gainscommunity groups perceive the platform as provi-ding.

Despite the advantages, a number of factors act asbottlenecks against mainstreaming the multifunc-tional platform concept:

� The rightly argued insistence on ownership bywomen might be perceived as a constraint. Thereare several counter-arguments. First, women aloneperform grinding, de-hulling, and water collection.The equipment therefore has to be their propertyand under their control (Burn and Coche, 2001).Second, the project subsidy is a very attractive fea-ture. Without this help, the social resistance of othergroups might not be contained in the short term,even though the social and economic impacts andbenefits are increasingly recognised by local com-munities and others. There is need for more impactstudies of the costs and benefits of this strategy,particularly the requirement of women’s ownership.

� The initial cost of the multifunctional platform inMali might prevent rural entrepreneurs from instal-ling additional platforms, knowing that formal cre-dit facilities are sparse for entrepreneurs as well asfor traditional rural associations (both women’s andmen’s), except for village associations. Figure 3.5shows the initial costs to be around US$ 4,500 or2,800,000, including basic equipment (engine, mill,de-husker, and housing for the platform), feasibilitystudies, and training for women operators. The costof a traditional mill is lower.

� The rates of return for traditional mills and/orpumps are well known, while those for multifunc-tional platforms are not.

� The complexity of the multifunctional platformmight impede its mainstreaming. On the seller side,logistical (transport of equipment, for example),financial, and organisational requirements are high.Risks might be perceived as high for the sellers aswell as for the buyers because of the multifunctio-nal platform’s high cost and the risk of default ofpayment by the buyers. Furthermore, technicalpartners have to be willing to invest time to learnabout the concept and to develop technical andsocial capacity to manage it.

� The full impacts of the multifunctional platformsuch as better health, freed time, timely meals andadditional income for women and men might notbe comprehended or, more importantly, apprecia-ted since they do not directly benefit the potentialprivate investor.

� A private seller may not be able to “compete” aslong as the project is active in one area, as he maynot be able to offer similar allowances.

� Finally, the project’s overall objectives are largerthan those of private sellers. The project’s mainobjective is to allow the reduction of time andenergy spent on reproductive tasks in all ruralareas, while the private seller is mainly looking forthe payment guarantee. This might reduce geogra-phical expansion of the multifunctional platform.Furthermore, the project is constantly looking toimprove both the concept and its implementation.Thus there are barriers of access for private sector

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� Documentary evidence of the impacts of multi-functional platforms at local and national levels issparse even though potential gains and benefitshave been clearly described (see particularly Burn,1999, 2001a, 2001b).

� The only somewhat large-scale experience so faris the Mali project, which may now have reach a“critical mass” that could give the concept somevisibility. The multifunctional platform is currentlyused in fewer than 2 percent of rural Mali villages.

� Lack of communication and occasional competi-tion among government ministries has not augu-red well for clear national leadership in promotingthe multifunctional platform concept.

� The project needs to formulate active informa-tion and co-operation strategies with and for deci-sion makers, at local, national, and at regional levels.The project rightly only responds to firm demandat micro level. However, this strategy might not besuitable for involving decision makers and otherstakeholders in spreading the concept.

� There is a need for more emphasis on relations-hip with all stakeholders (current and potential),end-users, and decision makers, in order to increasetheir awareness of the multifunctional platform’spotential and the need to reallocate resources tofacilitate the multifunctional platform’s expectedresults.

� The decentralisation process is on going, andlocal, decentralised governments are not fully ope-rational yet, hence reducing their potential as pro-ject partners.

partners to further disseminate the multifunctionalplatform concept without the kind of external fun-ding that the current project provides.

� For the multifunctional platform manufacturers:• High organisational and logistics requirements• High liquidity requirements

� For the repairers:• New product (preventive maintenance)• Cost of the new product perceived as very high• High organisational requirement: regular visits

� For the consultancy firms:• Product (feasibility study, monitoring, etc.)

and its benefits not well known • High acquisition cost for the new product• High “selling” cost of the product

� For the women:• Lack of information about the product• Low negotiating power• Low liquidity • Lack of credit facilities• Low empowerment

The multifunctional platform’s contribution to policyformulation at the national level is not yet visible.There is no evidence of concrete actions at thenational level, except for keen interest in Mali and inBurkina Faso. Several constraints deserve mention:

� The process from awareness to action is long andslow at all levels of decision making.

� The multifunctional platform project generallydoes not generate direct publicity or have high visi-bility.

Figure 3.5 Installationcosts of the multifunctionalplatform tool and concept,

FCFA

Note: MFP = multifunctional platform.Source: Data from PAICB, 2001.

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3.4 Implementation Methodologies 3.4 and Strategies

3.4.1 Project Tools

The various tools developed by the project aim to:

� ensure beneficiaries’ participation as well astransparency at each step: feasibility assessment,implementation, and monitoring;

� assess the feasibility of installing and running amultifunctional platform in a specific rural commu-nity in a sustainable way;

� monitor results of the project as a whole as wellas for the various stakeholders;

� guarantee durable relationships between ruralcommunities and their partners; and

� ensure efficient use of project resources.

The feasibility study

The demand by a rural community for a multifunc-tional platform is followed by a pre-study, mainly toensure the firmness of the demand, to inform thevillagers about procedures, and to confirm techni-cal opportunities, particularly for water pumping.When the findings from this initial study are positi-ve, a participatory feasibility study is undertaken.

The key element of the feasibility study is the use ofparticipatory tools and methods. A team of fourfacilitators works within the requesting communityfor four days. The feasibility study yields greatlyincreased knowledge about the community andthe conditions in which people live. The resultinginformation serves as a base line for setting concre-te objectives at community level and for monito-ring in case the project proceeds. Ideally, it serves asa business plan to be presented to credit institu-tions. Since 1998, the feasibility study has beendeveloped through an iterative process, taking intoaccount the multifunctional platform’s economic,social, and technical aspects as well as its impacts.

Whenever the feasibility study shows negativefinancial results, further analysis is done to determi-ne ways of making a multifunctional platform profi-table. Possibilities include:

� Combining it with existing equipment. For exam-ple, if a village has water pumps, the multifunctio-nal platform’s energy could be used to operate thepumps and the redundant engine could then besold.

� Adjusting the price. In some villages, some clientsmight be willing to pay higher prices.

� Looking for new complementary income-genera-ting activities. The multifunctional platform reducesgrinding time by two to four hours per women.Assuming that the first need is for rest, some of thetime gained might still be used for an additionalincome-generating activity that increases the num-ber of times the clients use the platform’s servicesand/or makes the services affordable for others,thus helping to make the multifunctional platformprofitable.

These comments illustrate the complexity of a fea-sibility study, apart from the fact that it is participa-tory. Another aspect of this complexity is the choiceof weighting allocated to various aspects of sustai-nability, namely, the social, economic, technical, andenvironmental. Yet another is the opportunity givento the community to respond to a refusal by re-assessing its objectives, needs, and resources. Thesuccess of this “re-assessment” highly depends onthe social characteristics of the local communityand the support given to the community. Hence, incase of a negative result, a plan of action should bemade with the help of the project. Technicalaspects should also not be underestimated duringthis phase. For example, Peyres (2001) reports oftechnical insufficiencies in a feasibility study invol-ving a new “technology”, the optimised micro-grid.Technical problems might threaten the sustainabili-ty of the multifunctional platform and thereforeshould be properly addressed in all feasibility stu-dies. Box 3.5 summarises one feasibility studywhose outcome was negative.

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Income and Gender

A feasibility study in a village in the Bougouni areaconcluded that a multifunctional platform was notviable in the village.Total population: 664Available services at the village: private mill (cerealsand shea nut), water pump, manual mill for shea nut

Main income sources for men: cotton, goldMain income sources for women: gold (Women of avillage in the Bougouni area allocate 70 to 85 per-cent of their time to gold, which can pay from 500to 10,000 FCFA/day)

The decision taken was to postpone installing amultifunctional platform for the following reasons:- Mill services of good quality were already availa-ble in the village.- Opportunities for women to increase their incomethrough the multifunctional platform were consi-dered lower than the actual income they alreadyearned from gold (guaranteed outlet)- The multifunctional platform was determined tohave low financial returns.- A water pump was already available in the village.- The village was deemed to lack social cohesion.(CAC-Bougouni, 2000).

This result raises several issues:- The financial and social results of the multifunctio-nal platform should have been compared to thecurrent financial and social costs and benefits (twoseparate engines for the pump and the mill).- Currently the pump is managed by a committeecomposed of men. Both the mill and the manualmill for shea nut are privately owned. The genderaspect might have been under-weighted: womenownership and management, access to energy forpoorer women, etc., might have made installationof a multifunctional platform worthwhile.- The postponement proposed by the feasibilitystudy does not seem to have been followed by aplan of action.

The feasibility study occurs at a specific time.Whenever the result is positive, several weeks, evenmonths will pass until the multifunctional platformis implemented. Social, economic, and technicalconditions might change at the local level due topolicy changes (for example, trade measures) orother reasons (climatic shock, another projectbeginning activity, etc.). There is a need for a sensiti-vity analysis, or some other measure, to test thevarious hypotheses made in the feasibility study.

Experience to date shows that internalisation bythe project staff of the feasibility study is an iterati-ve process (Burn, 2001) and hence takes time andcontinuous training. One workshop and one guidemight not suffice to grasp the relationship bet-ween the theoretical and the practical aspects onthe one hand (Burn, 2001a) and the complexities ofrural development and the gains and risks associa-ted with introduction of a multifunctional platformon the other. One symptom of this problem is thatfeasibility studies may look very similar except forthe data. There is thus a risk of mechanically fillingout the report. The fact that external stakeholdersare responsible for the feasibility study but are notinvolved in follow-up activities in specific villagesincreases this risk.

The feasibility studies are mainly directed at instal-lation of the multifunctional platform. Demands foradditional equipment will be processed in thesame way.

Participants in the feasibility studies (and feasibilitystudy training sessions) include various villagegroups (women, men, youngsters, elders, etc.), pro-ject staff, and consultants. Potential installers andrepairers, for example, do not participate.Furthermore, there is no “formal” feasibility studyfor installers, repairers, and advisory units.

The Project Management Manual (le Manuel deGestion)

The project management manual aims at suppor-ting project staff in their tasks. It was developed bythe sub-regional project together with the Maliproject. It provides all available information basedon the Mali project: its origin, objectives, role of thestakeholders, tools, etc. It consists of individualinformation sheets assembled in a file that allowseasy transportation and updating. The informationis divided into three sections:

� A description of the regional multifunctionalplatform project.

� Information about the multifunctional platformconcept: the technical description, the role of eachactor, prices, monitoring, etc. This section consistsmainly of the fiches techniques developed in 1998that describe various aspects of the multifunctionalconcept and tool.

� A description of the Results Management Systemsoftware developed to support the project staff intheir management by objective.

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The main strength of the manual is that it assem-bles all basic information on the project in a single,easy-to-access place. However, at the time of thereview, the July 2001 version of the manual stillneeded some minor changes and updates. Longerterm, it needed to be reviewed to determine whatadditional tools should be included to make it use-ful in other countries. The project was also revie-wing options for sharing information among coun-try teams; these options included a committee ofcountry team representatives and the ability todownload new information via the intra-net.

Management sheets

Management sheets are the basic tool used by themultifunctional platform operators at the villagelevel to provide information on engine data, clients,income, etc., to project management.

The Results Management System

The Results Management System (RMS) is softwaredeveloped by Focus International, a private consul-ting firm based in Bamako, to analyse the results ofprojects rather than management of specific activi-ties. It was first developed for project managementat the national level and then expanded to includedata on multifunctional platforms.

The RMS provides various advantages:

� It provides a single format for all project levels,advisory units as well as national and sub-regionalco-ordination centres.

� It reduces the need for report writing by local staff.

� It facilitates easy transfer of information betweenadvisory units and national and sub-regional centres.

The construction of the RMS was a long and iterati-ve process. The current (eighth) version is under-used, and measures should be taken to optimise itspotential.

3.4.2 Project Cycle

Feasibility study

The feasibility study represents a substantial butnecessary investment of time and resources tominimise the risk that equipment will be misused,underused, or inappropriate (Burn and Coche,2001). Figure 3.6 shows the cumulative number ofrequests received by the project from the end of1999 to June 2001, including almost exponentialgrowth in demand since the end of 2000. As ofJune 2001, the project had received 452 requests –equivalent to the total number of budgeted plat-forms for the Mali project – without explicit publici-ty from the project.

Figure 3.6 Cumulativemultifonctional plat-form requests, feasibili-ty studies, and installedmultifonctional platforms, Mali,1999 - June 2001

Source: National Coordination Unit, Sévaré, 2001.

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The duration between when a platform is reques-ted and when a feasibility study is conducted varieswidely, but can be quite long. In Sampara, for exam-ple, the time from first request to project imple-mentation was approximately a year; in Diossan, itwas a year and a half. This raises the question ofhow to respond to the rapid growth in demand, interms of human resources and financial flow, toavoid an increase in the amount of time that passesfrom request/feasibility study and the implementa-tion of a platform? Only 4 percent of the feasibilitystudies conducted as of June 2001 had negativeresults. How are the next requests going to be trea-ted? What criteria are going to be used to selectwhich requesting villages will receive a platform?

The feasibility studies are undertaken by a team offour people, from different consultancy firms, whohave been trained by the project (as a team) in col-laboration with the requesting community. Figure3.7 shows the number of feasibility studies under-taken by each team, as well as the number ofrequests for multifunctional platforms relative tothe number of trained consultant teams as of June2001. The first team of consultants was trained inthe second half of 2000, after which each team

conducted an average of eleven feasibility studiesper half quarter. Field time is organised to take fourdays. Assuming one day for preparation and threeto four days to produce the report, one feasibilitystudy takes eight to nine days. Assuming 22 wor-king days per month, the results suggest that eachof these teams are working full time on feasibilitystudies and doing a lot of overtime. According tothese numbers, the maximum number of feasibilitystudies per team of consultants should be approxi-mately eight per quarter.

The feasibility study also addresses the number ofmultifunctional platforms that can be maintainedand repaired with the number of available trainedpersonnel. On average, each trained repairer isresponsible for the maintenance of two to threemultifunctional platforms (Figure 3.8). Further ana-lysis is needed to advise repairers (and manufactu-rers) on the optimal number of additional multi-functional platforms they can monitor (construct)per year while keeping their current customers.There are more multifunctional platforms permanufacturer than per repairer. This makes it possi-ble to compare multifunctional platforms from thesame manufacturer, across repairers.

Figure 3.7 Number of multi-fonctional platform requests

and number of feasibility stu-dies per consultant team,

December 1999 to June 2001

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The importance of well-prepared participatory fea-sibility studies and of the monitoring process isshown in Box 3.6, which relates a conflict that washighlighted during the visit of the review team inone of the villages, Balanfina.

Water and Energy Costs in Balanfina

The price of energy in Balanfina was set at 1,500FCFA/hour. This is the price at which the Women’sManagement Committee was prepared to provideenergy to the Water Committee.

The Water Committee faces financial problems.With a water tank of 20 cubic metres and a pumpof 1.5 cubic metres, the energy cost for a full tank iscurrently 7,500 FCFA/tank. Water is sold at around0.5 FCFA per litre. According to the WaterCommittee, total income reaches between 6,000FCFA and 10,000 FCFA per tank. In addition to thecost of energy, the Committee has to pay the“controllers” at the distribution points. This costvaries according to the number of clients.Consequently, the Water Committee regularly facesliquidity problems.

The Water Committee argues that energy costcould be lowered through multifunctionality. Thepump, for example, can be used while cereals arebeing ground.

Both committees also argue that prices were set bythe project. Even though the Water Committeecould not provide an indication of “salary” costs (nomanagement sheet was available), it is clear thatthe problems might continue as amortisation costsstill have to be added.

Based on the discussion in the village, the followingcan be concluded:

• No formal participatory feasibility study had beendone for the water tank (Annexe A), leading tofinancial losses and lack of transparency in thewater management.• Social or, in this case, gender aspects were proba-bly weighted much higher than financial aspects.• Women’s empowerment has been raised. They arenot ready to risk reducing the financial sustainabili-ty of their multifunctional platform.

Monitoring

As mentioned before, several tools have been deve-loped to assist major stakeholders in the manage-ment and monitoring of the platform and itsimpact at both household and community levels. Itappears that the use of these tools could be impro-ved. As noted, several tools are being filled out in arepetitive and mechanical way (Burn, 2001a),without yielding information specific to the localsituation. Similarly, the process of data collectionand transmission could be improved if the necessa-ry human resources are available.

Figure 3.8 Number ofmultifonctional platformsper manufacturer andrepairer

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No examples of the kind of analysis provided bythis review (see also Appendix A) could be foundfor the village or other levels. Figure 3.9 illustratesthe kind of analysis that could easily be conductedat the village level using the same data and noticeboard that each management committee alreadyworks with. Such information could increase inter-est and involvement in regular platform meetingsamong members of the women’s associations.Moreover, visual presentations are easier to unders-tand, particularly in societies with “oral” traditions.They also allow real transparency of data and makeit possible to pinpoint both deficiencies (for exam-ple, discrepancies between cash on hand andcumulated cash) and success (Figure 3.9 showscumulated cash in Balanfina as well as monthlycash flow). Finally, increasing the use of existingdata may increase empowerment of women.

The examples provided here are only some of theways in which currently available data could be fur-ther used and analysed.

Existing monitoring tools seem to be focused onthe platform itself. Tools for monitoring the repai-rers, manufacturers, the “artisans” (clients of themultifunctional platform), the water committee,new income from multifunctional platform services,freed time and energy, successes and bottlenecks inthe additional trade of non-agricultural items, andso on were not discussed during the review.

The review team is also not aware of the results ofongoing processes at the community level. Themanagement committee is to organise a yearlyGeneral Assembly including all women’s associationmembers (not only the operators of the multifunc-tional platform) and community members. Thesemeetings should occur twice in each village with amultifunctional platform during the monitoring

period 18 and address questions such as: Haveobjectives been reached? How does the multifunc-tional platform’s functioning relate to the feasibilitystudy recommendations? If not, what are the cons-traints? These General Assembly meetings, andmonitoring in general, should be used to furtherimprove the project experience.

Exit

According to the available documents and intervie-wed persons, the project should withdraw approxi-mately two years after the platform installation. Thesecond yearly General Assembly in each village isset up to take this decision, provided that themanagement committee and the village experien-ced several phases and reached specific indicators(DSEI, 2001).

The Mali project is expected to end by 2004. Anexit strategy is required not only at the village levelbut at the national level as well. It is foreseen that:

� The advisory units will disappear or evolve intoprivate providers of services such as feasibility stu-dies, monitoring, advising, etc.

� There will be sufficient manufacturers and repai-rers able to repair and install current and futureplatforms.

As of June 2001, there was no formal experience ofthe project withdrawing from villages. The onlyexperiences, which have not been monitored, arethe several multifunctional platforms that were lefton their own because of project re-orientation orlack of finance (in Burkina and in Guinea).According to our sources, it seems that most ofthese projects were still running as of June 2001but how well they were doing is not known.

18 The current project foresees a two-year monitoring programme for each multifunctional platform.

Figure 3.9 Monthlycash flow and

cumulated cashflow, FCFA,Balanfina

Source: Project data.

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Although these were not discussed during thereview process, several issues require consideration:

� Who will develop and be responsible for addingequipment and functions to existing platforms, asforeseen in the project? To whom can platformowners turn for information or to purchase equip-ment?

� One “set” of committee members per village hasbeen trained by the project. How should the turno-ver of human resources occur at the platform level?How can the risk of a decline in the quality of servi-ces and equipment be avoided after the projectwithdraws?

� Will the women still be able to have access to thetechnology and own it? What are the consequencesif platform ownership is taken over by men? Isownership by men acceptable to the various parti-cipating governments?

� If the use of jatropha (or other vegetable fuels) inthe test sites has positive results, who will introducethe new technology?

3.5 Opportunities for Biomass-Derived Fuels

The multifunctional platform’s Indian-made Listerengine can run on vegetable oil as well as on diesel.Technical trials between 1993 and 1996 showednot only that the engine can be run with a localvegetable oil, but also that there were no signs ofpower reduction between the two kinds of fuel.

Jatropha curcas is a shrub, originally from SouthAmerica, which grows easily in different parts ofAfrica and is resistant to drought. The shrub is wellknown locally and is used to create living hedgesagainst wind erosion, to protect vegetable gardens,and to pen in livestock. Most parts of the shrub,depending on the variety, can be used: the leavesas vegetables and for medicinal purposes, latex formedical use, the whole fruit as a combustible mate-rial, the seeds as pesticides. The most important by-products are oil and cake. The oil can be used as amedicine, fuel, and the base for a much-appreciatedsoap. The cake can be used as organic matteragainst erosion and declining soil fertility.

Beginning in 1987, research to evaluate jatropha oilas a fuel was conducted in Mali with support fromGTZ and UNDP. Although the tests were technicallysuccessful, an audit concluded that jatropha usewas not financially sustainable, and the jatrophaGTZ project was stopped. No further research was

conducted on the issue until the Mali Folkcentreexpressed renewed interest in 2000. Ibrahim Togolaof the Mali Folkcentre makes the following argu-ments for a re-assessment of jatropha use (personalcommunication):

� The Folkcentre has adapted a Soundara pressfrom Asia, which is much cheaper than pressesused previously (1 million FCFA versus 3 million).

� The previous analysis did not include the addedvalue from soapmaking and other uses.

� Jatropha seed price is lower than a few years ago(45 to 50 FCFA compared with 200 FCFA) 19 .

The multifunctional platform project at national aswell as sub-regional level aims to encourage theuse of jatropha oil as fuel. By 2004, 15 percent ofthe Mali platforms are to be run on jatropha oil.Experience to date is ambiguous. In Mali, a platformin Maurolo is said to run exclusively on jatropha oil,but could not be visited due to time constraints 20.The CNESOLER platforms, which are said to run onjatropha oil, were assessed in 2001, but the resultswere not available at the time of the review.

The following factors favour the use of locally pro-duced jatropha oil in multifunctional platforms:

� The processing of the jatropha fruits adds valueto local resources.

� Planting jatropha creates a barrier against windand soil erosion through the living hedges.

� The jatropha bush is a low-input product that canbe grown on low-fertility soils.

� The production of jatropha oil for fuel reducescash outflow from the village (fuel and soap fromoutside can be substituted with jatropha oil andsoap).

� The production of jatropha oil creates opportuni-ties for income-generating activities such as soap-making with sediment and oil.

� The cake by-product provides an organic fertiliserfor crops. The press cake offers more nitrogen anddry matter than that provided by conventionalmineral fertilisers (GTZ, no date).

� The use of jatropha oil as fuel is carbon dioxideneutral: jatropha oil releases no more carbon dioxi-de when burned than is invested in its growth.

19 According to the project management manual (2001), prices (dated 1998) are different depending on the use of seeds: 120 to 200FCFA/kg as seeds and 60 FCFA/kg for oil making. At the time, a project from the Compagnie Malienne de Développement des Textiles(CMDT) aiming at increasing living hedges bought seeds from households, hence discouraging the use of seeds for other uses. Thatproject has now ended.

20 The data show fuel expenditure without distinguishing between jatropha oil and other fuel consumption, so no analysis has beendone.

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The factors that may constrain use of jatropha oil inmultifunctional platforms are the following:

� The quantities required. Three to four kg of jatro-pha seeds are required to produce one litre of oil.This corresponds to the yield from 3 to 4 linearmetres of jatropha bush. The Balanfina platform, forexample, needed 610 litres of fuel in one year (May2000 to April 2001). Assuming that the consump-tion of jatropha oil is similar to fuel, the requiredquantity of jatropha seeds is between 2 and 2.5tonnes, that is, 2 to 2.5 km of living hedges.

� Time required for collection and preparation ofoil. Jatropha fruits are mainly collected andtransported by women and children. Fruits have tobe shelled. The seeds have to be stored and thenpressed. No data could be found on the time requi-red for these activities that would need to beadded to women’s already constrained time andenergy budgets.21

� Potential for gender conflict. According to the tra-ditional social division of labour, men are responsi-ble for planting hedges. They, of course, are mainlyinterested in the production-securing aspects ofprotective hedges. Women are allowed to collectand use the nuts for making soap, thus meetingtheir responsibility to provide for family hygienewhile tapping an additional source of income. Theuse of jatropha as a source of oil for fuel productionopens up new economic potential for the plant. Asthe monetary significance of the plant expands, themen show waxing interest in such matters as whois to enjoy rights of ownership and use of the nuts.Accordingly, they become more disposed to plantjatropha, potentially leading to social conflict alonggender lines over access to and use of such a pro-mising economic resource (GTZ, no date).

� Potential conflict over land ownership. Most localland laws do not recognise individual ownershiprights. The village authorities retain the right toallot the village’s land to certain individuals for cer-tain lengths of time. Frequently, however, trees areplanted on arable land as an expression of a perma-nent claim to possession or beneficial enjoymentthat is then formally recognised through documen-tation. If jatropha is promoted for hedge cultivation,ownership conflicts may result (GTZ, no date).

There is need for further analysis of the feasibility ofjatropha oil use as fuel. The following aspectsshould be included in any analysis:

� Conditions required to stock jatropha seeds indifferent zones (humidity, containers, period, etc.) toyield oil of good quality.

� Time required for collection, transport, and prepa-

ration (shelling, pressing, etc.) as well as the conse-quences on time allocation for different groups inthe community.

� Market analysis (prices and outlet opportunities)for jatropha soap and cake in various zones.

� Comparative cost/benefit analysis for traditionalfuel and jatropha oil.

� Information about jatropha varieties whose fruitsare not toxic.

� Ways to reduce the cost of oil (by increased yield,intensification of processing, and/or new ways ofadding value).

These issues should be analysed for specific situa-tions. Furthermore, the use of other biomassresources should not be overlooked for variousagro-climatic zones. Perennial crops that are ofinterest are: oil palm (Elaeis guineensis), babassupalm (Orbigniya speciosa), coconut palm (Cocosnucifera), karite tree (Butryospermum parkii), castoroil plant (Ricinus communics), neem tree(Azadirachata indica), iron wood or argan tree(Argania sideroxylon), and cardoon (Cynara cardun-culus). The use of oil from cottonseed and soybeanshould also be examined.

3.6 Lessons Learned and Challenges

3.6.1 Lessons Learned

Important lessons can be learned both about themultifunctional platform concept and about itsspecific implementation in this project.

The multifunctional platform concept

1. The acquisition of a multifunctional platform atcommunity level is affordable; 96 percent of therequesting communities in Mali could afford a mul-tifunctional platform under current conditions.

2. The affordability of the services is determined byseveral factors: the season, the area, households’wealth, women’s time budget, etc.

3. Between 30 and 80 percent of women use theservices of multifunctional platforms, and 100 per-cent of households are willing to pay for safe drin-king water wherever a water network is installed.

4. About 99 percent of clients are women. They buymilling, de-hulling, and/or water services once ortwice a day for domestic purposes. Other servicesare more seasonal and for commercial purposes.Men’s use of multifunctional platform services isless frequent: welding during the dry season, batte-ry charging about once a month, etc.

21 Henning et al. (1997) observed that shelling and grinding one kg of jatropha seeds take four hours.

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5. The multifunctional platform shows flexibility inits use. Despite seasonal needs and low ability topay for the services, all multifunctional platformsfor which data were available have positive cashflows (before amortisation). The availability ofpower and equipment can easily be extended tocover higher and/or specific needs for domesticand income-generating activities for men as well asfor women. The risk of the multifunctional platformbecoming obsolete is low.

6. The most frequently used services of multifunc-tional platforms are cereals milling and de-hulling,substituting mechanical energy for human energy.The relatively few specific data on energy require-ments for domestic and income-generating activi-ties indicate that the platform eliminates a highproportion of women’s tedious, repetitive, daily, andenergy-intensive work.

7. Introduction of a multifunctional platform and itsservices allows for income diversification at house-hold and local levels.

8. The fact that end-users are mostly illiterate doesnot constrain the introduction and expansion ofmultifunctional platforms, owned and managed bywomen, provided preliminary investments aremade in training. The success of the multifunctionalplatform suggests a new, innovative, and powerfultechnology path, namely first providing basic trai-ning and then introducing a complex conceptrather than focusing on finding an “appropriate”technology for illiterate populations.

9. The introduction of modern energy through themultifunctional platform concept breaks a structu-ral cause of gender inequality, namely access andownership of technology. The social obligations ofwomen towards their families are not being modi-fied as a result of this ownership.

10. The way the platform is currently implementedmakes women’s non-paid tedious and repetitivework visible and even transforms it. By makingvarious groups in the community aware of the roleand the importance of subsistence activities provi-ded by women, the implementation process pro-motes men’s acceptance of control and manage-ment of the energy supply by women and allowswomen to mobilise men’s financial and social sup-port. At the same time, it creates the conditions forwomen to negotiate more equitable terms of co-operation over time (Burn et al., 2001).

11. The multifunctional platform has the potentialto reduce the frequent and repetitive tasks associa-ted with post-harvest food preparation, such as fet-ching water, grinding grain, and pressing forcooking oil. It does not reduce other tasks relatedto agricultural production and the gathering offood, fuel, and other resources.

12. The multifunctional platform meets an urgentneed by women for increased rest, which – alongwith income generation – is the most frequentlymentioned expectation women have for the intro-duction of platforms.

13. Introduction of a multifunctional platform canhelp reduce seasonal liquidity problems and miti-gate adverse shocks (e.g., natural, economic, or poli-tical disasters) in rural communities by improvinghealth among community members, generatingadditional non-farm income during the dry season,raising the total net income of households, andempowering women to participate in economicdecision making.

14. The multifunctional platform contributes toreducing income and energy inequality and pover-ty in rural areas.

15. Requesting villages are of various sizes andhave varying social, technical, and economic poten-tial. However, they have common features such aslack of access to energy and high proportions oftime and energy spent by women on daily domes-tic activities that are not directly productive.

16. Where women’s associations that adopt multi-functional platforms are pre-existing, they frequent-ly are enterprises with economic and social objecti-ves. The multifunctional platform contributes to ful-filling these associations’ objectives and increaseswomen’s empowerment.

The project

1. At every phase of the project, the social and tech-nical aspects cannot be separated from the finan-cial aspects.

2. The project is introducing innovative strategiesand tools, such as the participatory feasibility study,despite their higher requirement in time andresources. These tools have proved to be powerfulin terms of decision making, data collection, andtheir impacts on project staff as well as communitymembers.

3. The “grid of competence level” developed byBurn (2001), adapted for use in the feasibility study,could also be used for the management sheetsfilled out at the village level and the fiches tech-niques that describe the project. Furthermore, it hasbeen recognised that the participatory feasibilitystudy developed for the multifunctional platformproject could be a powerful tool in other projectsas well.

4. The dissemination of information in rural com-munities about the multifunctional platform isthrough basic technology, namely inter-villagevisits, whether organised by the project or not.

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expected outcome from installation of a platformrequires a facilitator with strong theoretical kno-wledge, down to earth experience, and good inter-personal skills.

6. Village communities as well as countries havebenefited from sharing experience.

7. The platform must be multifunctional right fromthe start, incorporating equipment for its varioususes and providing for simultaneous use of theengine.

8. The multifunctional platform concept must beclearly and understandably described for each pro-ject level.

9. The project has strong links with the private sec-tor that help increase entrepreneurship in ruralareas. Women’s associations, male and femaleclients, technicians, repairers, etc., all learn to diver-sify and intensify their activities and thus increaseboth their professionalism and their income.

3.6.2 Challenges

As the project approaches its end in 2004, it facessome important challenges.

1. Capacity to respond to the growing demand.

As the Mali project demonstrates, demand growsexponentially – an element that must be taken intoaccount in planning new projects at national andlocal levels.

In the meantime, growing demand for new plat-forms raises several issues for the Mali project. Howwill it match its resources to the growing demand?Will it undertake action to avoid increasing thetime communities must wait for a response afterrequesting a platform? What will the project dowhen its quota (based on existing resources) is rea-ched but demand remains unmet? These issuesmust also be addressed at the regional level (num-ber of countries to be included in the project, forexample).

2. Balancing the need for a clear strategy with the need to remain flexible.

Maintaining the balance between these competingpressures requires a high level of competence byproject staff, at each level.

To be successful, the project needs a strategy withclear project boundaries and key non-negotiableelements such as female ownership and manage-ment, participatory tools at every level, etc. Theexpected results from introduction of a multifunc-tional platform cannot be solely monitored andpromoted by the project staff, since the impacts aremulti-disciplinary, complex, and occurring atvarious levels. For example, there might be need toanalyse market opportunities for increased shea

butter production to advise producers on specificpackaging needs. The boundaries of the role andresponsibilities of the project staff within the largercontext of rural development have to be clearlydefined.

However, the project must also be able to remainflexible. Requesting communities are heteroge-neous in terms of availability of and access toresources, mobilisation capacity, traditions, incomeopportunities, etc. This heterogeneity leads to diffe-rent needs, abilities, and willingness to pay for ser-vices, as well as various paces of appropriation,transformation, and development.

3. Reaching the poor.

Some communities are not able to purchase a mul-tifunctional platform and/or make it sustainableunder current conditions, even with the project’ssupport. Figure 3.10 shows a theoretical distribu-tion of villages in the current project by availableresources. The A area indicates communities thathave enough resources to acquire and manage aplatform (or other energy-supplying tools) withoutexternal help. In the B zone, communities needsome form of support from the project (training,credit, etc.) in order to acquire and manage a plat-form in a sustainable way. Communities in the Carea do not have sufficient resources to acquireand/or run a platform sustainably, i.e., they are thepoorest communities. The challenge is to eitherlower the cost of acquiring and managing a plat-form so that more communities fall into the A cate-gory or to provide additional resources that enablemore communities to acquire a platform with someproject assistance (the B area) by:

• Finding ways to increase the multifunctionality ofthe multifunctional platform and reduce running •costs with additional equipment. Several opportu-nities have been identified that will respond to •current needs (for example, vaccine refrigerators) •and increase income opportunities.• Establishing a limit beyond which communities •cannot receive financial resources from the projectbut must instead acquire the multifunctional •platform at market value with little or no projectassistance, as in the A area, for example.• Seeking partnerships with financial institutions.The feasibility study can be used as a business planto present to financial institutions for credit toinvest in a multifunctional platform. These ••requests to financial institutions might face severalchallenges. Women’s associations generally do nothave legal recognition, a potential constraint whendealing with formal institutions such as banks.Similarly, collateral is needed that banks will reco-gnise. After the multifunctional platform is instal-led, both women and men, with more • •choices, time, and energy, will need access to addi-tional credit to support new income-generatingactivities.

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4. Maximising rural transformation after installation of a multifunctional platform.

To maximise potential gains after installation of amultifunctional platform, the following are needed:

• Effective use of available tools. Mainly due to timeand resources constraints, several project tools tendto be used and transmitted rather mechanically. Theproject database is under-used at village, advisory,and national levels. The project faces the challengeof transforming these processes so that the toolsdeveloped are used as real strategic instruments atall levels in order to promote support for theconcept and the project, pinpoint problems, increa-se management capacities at village level, etc.• A clear statement of objectives at the village/com-munity level, arrived at in a participatory way andregularly adjusted according to results and/orexternal events.• A clear information strategy. The increasing num-ber of requests and the increasing number ofactors involved in the project, at each level, requirea firm information strategy at both the national andthe regional level. The quality and the use of theinformation have to be enhanced. Informationshould flow equally in both directions, upstreamand downstream.

5. Ensuring long-term sustainability.

Exit strategies have not yet been applied at eitherthe local or the national level, but as the projectdraws to a close, this issue must be addressed.

6. Strengthening political awareness, commit-ment, and co-ordination at both national andcommunity levels.

Mali has no clear policy or institutional frameworkfor promoting decentralised energy supply for ruralareas (Burn et al., 2001). However, communes (calleddistricts in other countries) can move in this direc-tion by allocating part of their budgets to suppor-ting local multifunctional platform initiatives.

The argument in favour of decentralisation in gene-ral and for energy in particular is public participa-tion for a public good. Decentralisation’s progressvaries across countries; Mali, for example, is far moreadvanced in moving toward decentralised govern-ment than Burkina Faso. To move toward greaterawareness of the advantages of decentralised ener-gy policy in general and wider dissemination ofmultifunctional platforms in all rural areas, moreillustrations are needed of the positive gains resul-ting from such platforms, i.e., more impact studies.The introduction of a multifunctional platformwithin a community induces radical/complex socialand economic changes that have long-termimpacts. When the multifunctional platform projectreaches a critical mass, these changes will be per-ceived at a more regional level and may promptrural communities and national policy makers to re-allocate resources towards provision of decentrali-sed energy as well as towards new initiatives suchas increasing schooling opportunities.

Enhanced data analysis of existing platforms willhelp to strengthen political awareness and commit-ment at all levels. Enhanced data analysis will alsohelp to monitor the project’s achievements in termsof the activities described in section 3.1, such asbuilding entrepreneurial and management capacityto own and manage an energy enterprise and tooperate end-use equipment for the energy end-usesdesired. Burn (2001) rightly argues that two kinds ofstudies have to be initiated. The first involves a sam-ple of multifunctional platforms to monitor financialprofitability. The second should be conducted on amicro-meso-macro basis, namely, linking progress athousehold, platform, and community levels. Casestudies should also be set up to analyse the freedenergy and to create an indicator of human energy;this should be done in collaboration with Mali’sNational Direction of Statistics and Information.Enhanced data analysis will not only contribute tomonitoring the desired outcome of the multifunc-tional platform, namely enabling rural communitiesto get out of the energy-poverty trap, but also sup-port gender equity and health promotion.

Figure 3.10 Market for multifonctional platforms

4. STRATEGIES FOR FUTURE INITIATIVES IN AFRICA

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In many sub-Saharan African countries, povertyreduction is the highest development priority (seeAppendix B for a discussion of this issue withrespect to Mali, Burkina Faso, and Ghana). Genderimperatives are also clearly identified as key toreducing poverty and accelerating national deve-lopment. What this suggests is that the policy envi-ronment is favourable for implementing the multi-functional platform concept – making it possible totackle the challenge of getting rural women out ofthe energy-poverty trap – in a large number ofcountries across the region. This chapter discussesthe rationale for, and the potential focus of, a multi-functional platform initiative on a regional scaleacross sub-Saharan Africa.

4.1 Development Challenge 22

Women in the rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa areat the bottom rung of the “energy ladder” forcooking, which associates users of progressivelycleaner, more efficient fuels with correspondinglyhigher levels of income. Rural women rely on tradi-tional biomass – in the form of wood, plant resi-dues, and dung – as sources of thermal energy forcooking. Traditional biomass is at the bottom of theladder for cooking, with charcoal, then kerosene,and finally liquified petroleum gas and electricityfollowing progressively towards the top.

Rural women are also at the bottom rung of theenergy ladder. They have little access to mechani-sed energy for either food preparation (peeling,pounding, grinding, mashing, etc.) or for use in theextraction, transportation, and distribution of food-stuffs. These women depend entirely on their ownhuman energy and are normally without any otherresources such as animal power, or mechanical orelectrical devices, for such activities. Even whereanimal power and/or mechanical equipment areavailable, gender norms, power relations, and divi-sions of labour tend to exclude women from use,and certainly ownership and control, of theseassets.

This energy situation for women has tremendoussurvival and development implications since thetasks associated with food preparation are criticalto the prevailing socio-economic systems. The maineconomic activity in rural areas is agriculture, andsmall-scale farmers – men and women – make upabout three-quarters of the rural population.Agricultural production is therefore the main sour-ce of rural livelihood and income, and it is primarilybased on human and animal energy (musclepower), which requires the biological conversionand storage of food into useful energy. Food intake,crucial for the daily production of human energyfor agricultural labour, in turn depends on proces-

sing and preparing the food harvested or gathered.The frequent, repetitive tasks associated with post-harvest food preparation, such as fetching water,collecting firewood, grinding grain, pressingcooking oil, and processing other ingredients arewomen’s responsibilities and obligations. These arein addition to women’s other labour inputs in agri-cultural production and in gathering the “wild”resources used in food preparation, oil and soap-making, and other household provisioning needs.

Dependence on such traditional energy systemsleads to multiple social and economic costs, whichare overwhelmingly borne by poor women. Linkedto the lower energy efficiency of fuelwood combus-tion (15 percent efficiency for firewood cookingstoves compared to kerosene at 50 percent and gasat 65 percent) are the higher emissions of sulphur,carbon dioxide, and particulates, pollutants resul-ting from incomplete combustion. The occupatio-nal hazards for women – and for their young child-ren – from exposure to indoor air pollution, smoke,and particulates when cooking are the negativehealth impacts: burns, acute respiratory infections,lung disease, internal disorders, and eye problems.Load carrying of fuel and other materials, for exam-ple in palm oil processing, takes a health toll interms of injury, miscarriages, and fatigue.

Poor women pay a disproportionate price for ener-gy services not only because of the inefficiency andassociated health costs. Long hours are spent col-lecting water and firewood for both food prepara-tion and agricultural processing, as well as the mul-tiple other tasks that sustain rural livelihoods. Thearduous and time-consuming nature of women’sactivities has significant opportunity costs in termsof agricultural production and other productiveand income-generating uses of time and energy, aswell as time and energy for child care, health, edu-cation, rest, social and cultural activities, recreation,and personal maintenance. As traditional fuelwoodsources and water get increasingly scarce, the costsbecome more severe, including time and energyspent in activities to generate cash to buy firewoodthat is no longer possible to collect individually.

Widening access to modern energy services can bea catalyst for sustainable human development,given these patterns of energy use. However,increased income is necessary to be able to affordto climb to higher rungs of the energy ladder andrelease human energy and time for sustainabledevelopment purposes. Unfortunately, rural womenhave found it impossible to generate this increasedincome without increasing their already highexpenditures of time and human energy. Such isthe energy-poverty trap that women in sub-Saharan Africa are struggling to get out of.

22 This section has been adapted slightly from the UNDP Concept Paper prepared for this review mission (Burn et al., 2001).

53

The challenge is how to enable poor women, andmen as well, to get out of the energy-poverty trapand have affordable and sustainable modern ener-gy services. The main lesson from many energy andbroader development projects around the world isthat for energy services to be affordable by poorwomen (and men), the energy has to be for end-uses that are directly productive and income gene-rating 23 . Thus it is the chain of conversion fromenergy to income that can facilitate the transitionover time to cleaner and more efficient fuels, andthereby generate opportunities for reducing pover-ty and enhancing the quality of life in rural areas ofsub-Saharan Africa.

4.2 Potential Contribution of the MultifunctionalPlatform Concept

4.2.1 Liberating Poor Women’s Energy and Time

The multifunctional platform concept is designedto help poor rural women by releasing their humanenergy and time for sustainable development pur-poses. By providing a modern source of energy forfood preparation and the extraction, transportation,and distribution of foodstuffs as well as traditionalbiomass fuels, the multifunctional platform helpsrural women of Africa to progress up the energyladder for motive power. The savings in humanenergy and time then enable rural women to turntheir attention to more gainful activities for them-selves and their families. The achievements in Maliprovide ample evidence of the multifunctional plat-form’s capability in this regard. Replicating theseachievements throughout Mali and in other sub-Saharan African countries can help change thesocio-economic landscape of rural Africa quitesignificantly.

First, some of the barriers associated with high ratesof illiteracy in rural areas, and even higher ratesamong rural women and girls, can be overcomewith wide-scale implementation of the multifunc-tional platform concept. The integration of literacyprogrammes in the village multifunctional platformprocess is one dimension. The release of young girlsfrom time-consuming chores and thus enablingthem to go to school is another. The provision ofelectricity for lighting and, possibly, television is yetanother dimension of how the multifunctional plat-form can help increase literacy rates in the ruralareas and improve access by the poor to basic edu-cation.

Second, the multifunctional platform can increaseaccess by the poor to potable water and thusimprove health. Many village multifunctional plat-forms in Mali include potable water supply net-works in the package of services provided. Some

multifunctional platforms with electric generatorsalso provide basic lighting and vaccine refrigerationservices to rural clinics and village health posts.

The multifunctional platform concept has directrelevance to the development policies and frame-works of sub-Saharan African countries. It has thepotential to make major contributions in accelera-ting the provision of affordable and needed energyservices and in advancing poverty reduction goals.Widespread implementation of the concept shouldhelp in no small measure the realisation of UNDP’scommitment to the goal of halving the world'spoverty rate by 2015 – an internationally agreedgoal set by the Millennium Summit at the UnitedNations in September 2000.

4.2.2 Expanding Opportunities for Growth

An important component of rural transformation isenterprise development in the rural areas – a majorobjective of poverty reduction programmes throu-ghout the region. Furthermore, as already noted, forenergy services to be affordable by poor women(and men), they have to be for end uses that aredirectly productive and income generating.Enterprise development is therefore of criticalimportance to successful implementation of themultifunctional platform concept, as shown in Mali,where a number of enterprises have emergedaround the multifunctional platforms. Petty tradehas both increased and diversified. Welding ofmetal chairs, donkey carts, farming implements,etc., is a new business in many places that haveacquired multifunctional platforms. Entrepreneurspurchasing electricity from the multifunctionalplatforms provide battery charging services forhome (lighting/ entertainment) and other applica-tions.

Although some progress has been made in Mali inoil production and related industries like soapma-king, more could be achieved if vegetable oils likejatropha replace diesel fuel on a wide scale.Replacing diesel with vegetable oils, together withthe provision of electricity for lighting and otherrural energy services like vaccine refrigeration,makes the multifunctional platform very relevant topolicy objectives for the energy sector. In Mali, forinstance, plans are under way to develop rural elec-trification projects for 500 villages between 2001and 2007, and a programme to increase the shareof renewable energy to 3 percent of national ener-gy by 2007 is under consideration. Increased use ofrenewable energy (in this case, using biofuels toreplace diesel) could also serve an income-genera-ting purpose and allow more money to stay in ruralcommunities.

23 See, for instance, Farinelli et al (1999) and Barnett (2000).

54

Rural telephony is practically non-existent in manycountries of sub-Saharan Africa. The non-availabilityof electricity is one reason for this anachronisticsituation. Electricity generation by the multifunctio-nal platforms therefore opens up possibilities forestablishing rural telecentres – a potentially impor-tant step towards the eventual introduction of theInternet and other information technology services.The impacts on rural commercial activities, educa-tion, and health could be far-reaching.

There are several international initiatives to introdu-ce the Internet into rural areas of sub-SaharanAfrica. One such initiative, promoted by the U.S.-based not-for-profit organisation Greenstar, usessolar-powered communication systems. Electricityfrom multifunctional platforms could help reducethe capital costs considerably and make it possiblefor more rural areas to be reached through suchinitiatives.

4.2.3 Strengthening Pro-Poor Local and National Policy Frameworks

The multifunctional platform concept as currentlydefined and implemented in West Africa (particu-larly Mali) shows great potential for bringing toge-ther a wide range of actors at the micro and macrolevels for the purposes of influencing policy frame-works in favour of poverty reduction. At the micro(village) level, the insistence on women’s ownershipand the supporting role played by men in mostcases are resulting in the mobilisation of wholecommunities (both women and men) for localdevelopment. In many villages, the men and thelocal authorities have contributed towards theinitial payment by the women’s groups. This andthe multifunctional platform’s positive impacts aregiving rise to a co-operative spirit among the keyactors, which in turn should lead to better decisionmaking with respect to development activity.

At the national level, the multifunctional platformconcept is bringing together key policy makers andimplementers with respect to poverty reduction.Government ministries and departments alreadyinvolved in implementing multifunctional platformprojects have the potential (and, indeed, the impe-rative) to bring on board other ministries anddepartments whose activities have a bearing onpoverty reduction. Their interactions among them-selves and with donor agencies and nongovern-mental organisations point to the emergence ofpro-poor consortia that can act in individual coun-tries to influence poverty reduction policy frame-works. These frameworks can draw on the experien-ces of multifunctional platform initiatives at themicro level and cut across many different sectors(energy, industry, women’s affairs, etc.)

Many sub-Saharan African countries acting inconcert with key multilateral and bilateral develop-ment agencies are putting in place poverty reduc-tion strategies with emphasis on gender, enterprisedevelopment, and improved access to financial ser-vices as well as education and health (Appendix B).The multifunctional platform concept has demons-trated its potential to have wide-ranging impactson existing and evolving poverty reduction strate-gies. The pro-poor consortia emerging at both localand national levels can therefore have far-reachingimplications for the fine-tuning and successfulimplementation of these strategies.

4.2.4 Increasing Access to Private Capital

The multifunctional platform concept as currentlydefined hinges on community ownership andmanagement of the platform through women’sgroups. Many services provided to the multifunctio-nal platform (supply of equipment and spare parts,installation and maintenance, sale of diesel fuel,etc.) and some of the activities occurring aroundthe platform (welding, soapmaking, etc.) are privateenterprises, but the platform itself and the electrici-ty and water networks are community based. Themerits of this community-based approach includeliteracy programmes for many women, creditaccess and direct income mainly for women’smanagement committee members, free electricitysupply to rural schools and clinics where available,and free or reduced prices for the very poor of thecommunity (mainly for water).

The disadvantage of the community-basedapproach is that communities may become toodependent on free project services that then maycollapse when the project closes. In Mali, there is norecord of any village multifunctional platform wea-ning itself from the project during more than sixyears of platform activities. However, some villagesin Burkina Faso and Mali that are not part of theproject and thus not monitored appear to havemixed results. Their main achievement is that allengines are functioning, but no further evaluationhas been made.

Private ownership of multifunctional platformswould lose the advantages listed above for commu-nity-based platforms. Fewer individuals would ownand manage the platforms, the prices charged forplatform services would likely be higher than thosefor the community-owned platforms, and free servi-ces (mainly lighting and water) to facilities thatbenefit the whole community and to the poorestwould almost certainly be curtailed. Thus privateenterprise development frameworks are likely tolead to socio-economic impacts not quite as com-prehensive as those currently observed.

55

On the positive side, privately owned multifunctio-nal platforms would be more attractive to manyfinancial institutions and therefore should be moresuccessful at accessing private capital. Privatelyowned multifunctional platforms may thus havegreater potential for becoming self-sustaining inthe shortest possible time. If the ownership werevested in women, privately owned multifunctionalplatforms would still offer great prospects forwomen’s empowerment through non-farm incomegeneration and improved access to private capital.It is therefore worth undertaking a separate pilotproject in one or two countries to establish theboundary conditions for private-enterprise-basedwomen-owned multifunctional platform initiatives.

4.3 Key Issues for the Expanded Regional Project

4.3.1 Scope of Future Multifunctional PlatformInitiatives

Multifunctional platform initiatives are currentlyunder way in five countries: Mali, Burkina Faso, Côted’Ivoire, Guinea, and Senegal. As noted in chapters2 and 3, the Mali project is at an advanced stagewith 149 MFP installations and many hundreds ofwomen trained in functional literacy. The othercountry projects – Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire,Guinea, and Senegal – are at the pilot stage.

The multifunctional platform, as clearly demonstra-ted in Mali, is such a powerful tool for rural transfor-mation that many other sub-Saharan Africa coun-tries – in West Africa as well as East and SouthernAfrica – are interested in initiating platform pro-

jects. An important lesson from the early history ofmultifunctional platform initiatives in West Africa isthat the multifunctional platform project shouldnot be in too much of a hurry to extend itself.

The first priority in an expanded regional program-me, therefore, would be to reinforce the experiencein West Africa by moving the multifunctional plat-form activities in Burkina Faso, Guinea, and Senegalfrom the pilot stage to the consolidation stage.Other poor Francophone countries like Niger andMauritania, which lie just outside the coverage ofthe present regional project, should be allowed tojoin in the initial stages of the expanded regionalproject. These countries have socio-economicconditions similar to those prevailing in the projectcountries; moreover, the pedagogical tools arealready available in French.

An Anglophone country like The Gambia, whichalso lies just outside the coverage of the presentregional project, could be allowed to join in theinitial stages of the expanded regional project. Thiswould facilitate piloting of English-language peda-gogical tools and help preparation for expansioninto East and Southern Africa, where most countriesare Anglophone.

The experience gained so far with multifunctionalplatform initiatives suggests strongly that theseinitiatives may have the most relevance for coun-tries whose incomes and human developmentindex (HDI) are both low 24 . The countries listed inTable 4.1 are among the poorest and the most like-ly candidates for the regional programme when itstarts activities in East and Southern Africa.

Table 4.1 Indicators for Eight Selected Low HDI Countries in East and Southern Africa

24 The Human Development Index (HDI) is a summary measure of human development; it measures the average achievements in acountry in three basic dimensions of human development, namely, a long and healthy life, as measured by life expectancy at birth, kno-wledge as measured by the adult literacy rate and the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary school gross enrolment ratio, and adecent standard of living as measured by GDP per capita (PPP US$). (UNDP, 2001a).

Source: GNP per capita from World Bank, 2001 ; other data from UNDP, 2001a.

Tanzania

Uganda

Zambia

Eritrea

Malawi

Rwanda

Mozambique

Ethiopia

0.44

HDI(1999)

GNP per capita, US$(1999)

Adult LiteracyRate, %(1999)

Traditional FuelConsumption as % of

total energy use(1999)

0.44

0.43

0.42

0.40

0.40

0.32

0.32

240

320

320

200

190

250

230

100

74.7

66.1

77.2

52.7

59.2

65.8

43.2

37.4

91.4

89.7

72.7

96.0

88.6

88.3

91.4

95.9

56

It will be important to time the onset of multifunc-tional platform initiatives in East and SouthernAfrica such that they do not compromise consolida-tion of platform initiatives in West Africa. For thisreason, a fairly long period, say five years, should beconsidered for the expanded regional project, the-reby allowing initiatives in East and Southern Africato start after a mid-term evaluation (Figure 4.1).Pilot countries from the East and Southern Africasub-region should be carefully selected to ensurethat multifunctional platform initiatives are under-taken not only in the poorer countries but also inthe poorer rural areas where the platforms canhave the expected positive impacts. Well-designedfeasibility studies will have to be conducted, prefe-rably by experienced consultants from the currentplatform countries working in collaboration withlocal experts in the target countries. These feasibili-ty studies could be conducted in the second year ofthe expanded regional project, prior to the mid-term evaluation, to enable full start-up activitiesaround the middle of the proposed five-year pro-ject duration. To start with, three or four (at mostfive) neighbouring countries should be selected inorder not to overburden the expanded regionalproject team.

4.3.2 Roles of Key Stakeholders at Country Level

The many different actors required for successfulimplementation of the multifunctional platformconcept and the multi-dimensional nature ofimpacts associated with multifunctional platforms,as discussed in chapter 3, require that many diffe-rent stakeholders be involved in the implementa-tion of platform projects. The key actors are thewomen’s groups that manage the multifunctionalplatforms and the artisans/technicians who install,maintain, and repair them. Other actors includenongovernmental organisations and private sectorentities, such as small consulting firms and indivi-dual consultants/experts, who provide functionalliteracy training and conduct the various feasibilitystudies. It has also been suggested that private andpublic organisations like university departmentsand research centres are needed to provide suchservices as technical support, socio-economicimpact analysis, and ongoing improvement/adjust-ment. Various government ministries and depart-ments (rural development, women’s affairs, industry,energy, water, health, and agriculture) are also rela-ted directly or indirectly to the activities andimpacts of village multifunctional platforms. Thus ineach country, a consortium of government minis-tries/departments, nongovernmental organisations,community groups, and private sector organisa-tions, with the donor community playing a catalyticrole, is required to ensure successful implementa-tion of the multifunctional platform concept (Figure4.2).

Figure 4.1 Proposed timelines forkey activities in expanded regionalproject

Note: MFP = multifunctional platform.

0 1 2 3 4 5 Time (years)

New MFP Initiatives inEast and SouthernAfrica Countries

Mid-TermEvaluation

Feasibility Studies inEast and SouthernAfrica Countries

MFP Activities in Neighbouring Francophone and AnglophoneWest African Countries

Consolidation of Experiences in Current MFP Countries(Mali, Burkina Faso, Cote d’Ivoire, Guinea and Senegal)

57

As far as government ministries and departmentsare concerned, their role in policymaking withrespect to multifunctional platform-type activitiesin particular and poverty reduction in general can-not be over-emphasised. Their role in possibly fun-ding and supporting broader fundraising activitieswill be crucial in enabling widespread implementa-tion of the multifunctional platform concept. Theparticular ministry or department taking the lead atgovernmental level will vary from place to place. Inthe current regional project, the Department forIndustry (under the Ministry of Industry, Trade, andTransport) plays the lead role in Mali. In BurkinaFaso, the Department for NongovernmentalOrganisations (working under and in close co-ope-ration with the Ministry of the Economy andFinance) plays a similar role. Whichever departmentor ministry plays this lead role in other countries inthe expanded programme, it must co-ordinate acti-vities and share information with other relatedministries/departments, especially those involvedwith energy and women’s affairs.

In the renewed and expanded regional project,country project teams or lead nongovernmentalorganisation will be required to play major fundrai-sing and management roles in any given country.As pointed out earlier, a stand-alone country pro-ject team with full-time staff and various logisticalresources is in place in Mali. Because this has beenthe case in Mali for close to ten years, the stand-alone country project team may have a tendency totry to institutionalise the direct involvement ofdonors at country level; this holds the risk of slo-wing down mainstreaming of the multifunctionalplatform concept. Furthermore, current trendswithin UNDP and the donor community at largemake it highly unlikely that this situation will bereplicated in future multifunctional platform coun-tries.

In most countries, a nongovernmental organisationis likely to be the lead organisation, with other non-governmental organisations emerging in the coun-try as needed over time. This approach is alreadyevident in Senegal (ENDA) and Burkina Faso(TinTua). A lead nongovernmental organisationmay be one that is involved with energy (e.g.,ENDA) or it may be one that specialises in commu-nity development (TinTua), gender issues, or anyparticular sector/issue relevant to the multifunctio-nal platform concept. Most important is that a lea-ding nongovernmental organisation have the inter-est and capacity to manage the multifunctionalplatform project, to build a network of nongovern-mental organisations to complement itself (espe-cially in areas where it may be deficient), and toextend multifunctional platform activities throu-ghout a given country in due course.

Community groups play critical roles in implemen-tation of the multifunctional platform concept,since success or failure of the whole initiative in anyparticular village rests primarily on their shoulders.Community groups include the women’s associa-tions that own multifunctional platforms, with thewomen’s management committees actually opera-ting and managing them. They also include thenew community groups/committees being formedto manage the water and electricity supply systemsthat are offshoots of a growing number of multi-functional platforms.

A network of private sector entities and local finan-cial institutions will play crucial roles in the expan-sion and implementation of the multifunctionalplatform concept. Already private consulting firms(in addition to nongovernmental organisations) areproviding village-level feasibility study services.Private individuals are involved in functional litera-cy training and technical services at the village leveland in technical/management consulting services

Figure 4.2Multifonctional

platform consortiumat country level

Government MinistriesGovernment Departments

Public-Sector

Foreign Multilateral AgenciesForeign Bilateral Agencies

Lead NGO (s)Other NGOs

Community Groups

Private Sector EntitiesLocal Financial Institutions

58

at the national level. The multifunctional platformsare also generating a new breed of private ruralentrepreneurs (such as the welders) who dependon energy from the platforms. As the multifunctio-nal platform concept reaches advanced stages ofimplementation, many more such private ruralentrepreneurs (including some women) are likely todevelop small-scale industrial and commercial acti-vities like soapmaking and oil production for sale inlocal and external markets, as well as, eventually,information services like telephone and e-mail.

In the near future and beyond, the funding role thatuntil now has been played mostly by externaldonors will need to be taken up by local financialinstitutions ranging from city-based banks to ruralmicro-credit organisations. This promises to be oneof the most difficult challenges ahead but it is onlywhen the country-level multifunctional platformconsortium succeeds in getting the local financialinstitutions to rise up to this task that platforminitiatives in the county can be said to have rea-ched full sustainability. There are no limits withrespect to what the private sector can accomplishwith and around multifunctional platforms – bothin terms of providing services to multifunctionalplatform projects and in terms of related entrepre-

neurial activities. Private sector ownership of multi-functional platforms together with private enterpri-se activities around platforms could unlock finan-cial resources from the private sector to achievenoticeable gains with respect to poverty reductionand rural transformation.

The regional or sub-regional project team shouldsupport the process of building such a consortiumof government ministries/departments, nongovern-mental organisations, community groups, and pri-vate sector organisations in each country. How suc-cessful this consortium building is should be amajor factor in determining the overall success ofthe multifunctional platform concept in that coun-try. The consortium approach should facilitate thepromotion of “upstream-downstream-upstream”linkages, which are critical for informing better poli-cymaking on the poverty-energy / gender-energynexus at country level. The roles of the lead nongo-vernmental organisation should include monitoringthe performance and impacts of the multifunctio-nal platforms on a regular basis and ensuring thatthe experiences being acquired in a particularcountry and elsewhere in the region are fed intothe “upstream-downstream-upstream” linkages.

5. CONCLUSION

60

The experiences of the multifunctional platformproject show that modern energy services canmake significant contributions to improving thelivelihoods of the rural poor. Given appropriatetools, such as multifunctional platforms, poor peo-ple in rural areas can develop the rural economyand mobilise necessary local capital, with limitedassistance from outside.

Rural development should remain the overall priori-ty in meeting the challenges associated withexpanded energy access. These challenges includeincreasing investment, deploying decentralisedenergy systems, promoting local energy entrepre-neurs, establishing national mechanisms, and

strengthening policies and regulatory systems toexpand the level of energy services.

In order to tackle these challenges, macro policiesare needed that reflect micro-scale good practices.A well-designed community-level intervention likethe multifunctional platform should inform thedevelopment of national policies and strategies –such as poverty reduction strategies and nationalgender action plans – that reflect concerns of thepoor. Drawing on successful community-level inter-ventions to develop broad policies and strategies isan important step in scaling-up rural energy deve-lopment.

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Malmberg Calvo, C. 1994. Une étude de cas sur le rôle des femmes dans le transport rural: L’accès aux sources ——d’approvisionnement pour les besoins domestiques. Working Paper, Sub-Saharan Africa Transport Policy ——Programme. World Bank and Economic Commission for Africa.

Ministère de l’Economie et des Finances. 2000. Profil et évolution de la pauvreté au Burkina Faso. 1st ed.——Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

——. n.d. Burkina Faso: Cadre stratégique de lutte contre la pauvreté. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

Ministère des Mines et de l’Energie. 1999. Lettre de politique sectorielle de l’électricité et de l’eau potable.——Bamako, Mali.

National Development Planning Commission (NDPC). 1999. Update on Government of Ghana’s Poverty ——Reduction Programmes. Government of Ghana.

Programme d’appui aux initiatives communautaires de base pour la lutte contre la pauvreté (PAICB/LCP).——2000. Contrat de services. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

——. 2001a. Rapport de l’étude de faisabilité pour l’installation d’une plate-forme multifonctionnelle dans le ——village de Madjoari, département dudit, province de la Kompienga. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

——. 2001b. Rapport de l’étude de faisabilité pour l’installation d’une plate-forme multifonctionnelle dans le ——village de Nagbingou, département de Manni, province de la Gnagna. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

64

——. 2001c. Rapport de l’étude de faisabilité pour l’installation d’une plate-forme multifonctionnelle dans le ——village de Zambéndouré. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.——. 2001d. Rapport de formation des partenaires à l’étude de faisabilité participative des plates-formes ——multifonctionnelles. Pama. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

——. n.d. Projet de protocole de collaboration PNUD et association TinTua. Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

Peyres, L. 2001. Compte-rendu de mission. Bamako, Mali: Agence de l’environnement et de la maîtrise——de l’énergie.

Reardon, T., C. Delgado, and P. Matlon. 1992. Determinants and effects of income diversification amongst ——farm households in Burkina Faso. Journal of Development Studies: January.

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SERT. 2001. Compte-rendu mission Dakar. Bamako, Mali.

Social Investment Fund (SIF). n.d. Operations Handbook. Government of Ghana.

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United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 1998. UNDP Poverty Report 1998: Overcoming Human ——Poverty. New York.

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——. 2001a. Human Development Report, 2001: Making Technologies Work for Human Development. New York.

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——. 2001c. Revue tripartite du projet cellule d’appui à la promotion de la plate-forme. Bamako, Mali.

——. n.d. Gender and Energy: How Is Gender Relevant to Sustainable Energy Policies?

——. n.d. ProDoc. Project Document, SPPD Guinea. Conakry.

——. n.d. Proposition de protocole de financement plate-forme multifonctionnelle PNUD et Nyèsigiso.——Bamako, Mali.

Villavicencio, A. 2002. Sustainable energy development – The case of photovoltaic home systems.——Sustainable Energy Advisory Facility Working Paper. Denmark: United Nations Environment Programme.

Von Braun, J., and E. Kennedy, eds. 1994. Agricultural Commercialisation, Economic Development and Nutrition.——Baltimore, MD: The John Hopkins University Press.

World Bank. 1999. World Development Report, 1999/2000: Entering the 21st Century. Washington, DC.

——. 2001. World Development Report 2000/2001: Attacking Poverty. Washington, DC.

APPENDIX A.CASE STUDIES OF

THREE MULTIFUNCTIONAL PLATFORM VILLAGES

66

1 W

om

en h

ave

org

anis

ed t

hem

selv

es s

o t

hat

th

e m

ult

ifun

ctio

nal

pla

tfo

rm o

pen

s at

a s

pec

ial t

ime

the

even

ing

bef

ore

mar

ket

day

s.W

om

en c

an t

hen

mill

th

eir

cere

als

the

day

bef

ore

an

d a

re t

hen

free

to

go

to

th

em

arke

t,lo

cate

d 9

km

aw

ay,o

n m

arke

t d

ays.

Bef

ore

imp

lem

enta

tio

n o

f th

e m

ult

ifun

ctio

nal

pla

tfo

rm,m

ost

wo

men

co

uld

no

t le

ave

the

villa

ge

on

mar

ket

day

s b

ecau

se m

eal p

rep

arat

ion

to

ok

so m

uch

lon

ger

.

Sam

par

a

Bas

ic S

tati

stic

s

�Po

pu

lati

on

:602

�St

atu

s:vi

llag

e eq

uip

ped

an

d

mo

nit

ore

d�

Typ

e:n

ew g

ener

atio

n

(fea

sib

ility

stu

dy

con

du

cted

)

�Re

qu

est:

Mar

ch 1

5 an

dJu

ne

10,2

000

�Fe

asib

ility

stu

dy:

July

16

– 20

,200

0�

Inst

alla

tio

n:m

id-M

arch

200

1

�En

gin

e 10

hp

�1

mill

�1

rice

de-

hu

ller

�B

atte

ry c

har

ger

�

Lig

ht

for

the

mu

ltifu

nct

ion

al

pla

tfo

rm b

uild

ing

Tota

l inv

estm

ent:

2,43

0,00

0

�C

um

ula

ted

cas

h fl

ow

(3

.5 m

on

ths)

:118

,955

FC

FA

�A

vaila

ble

cas

h o

n h

and

:70

,965

FC

FA�

Cas

h in

ban

k:0

FCFA

�A

mo

rtis

atio

n:2

43,0

00FC

FA/y

ear

Tota

l inv

estm

ent:

2,43

0,00

0FC

FA.

Wo

men

’s as

soci

atio

n:3

8%O

ther

mem

ber

s o

f th

e vi

llag

e:12

%Pr

oje

ct:4

9%

Pro

cess

Equ

ipm

ent

Fin

anci

al R

esu

lts

Acq

uis

itio

n

Dat

a A

nal

ysis

FCFA

�M

on

thly

rep

ort

fro

m

faci

litat

or

�D

ata

no

t en

tere

d in

th

e Re

sult

s M

anag

emen

t Sy

stem

�O

ne

of t

he

two

tra

der

s in

th

evi

llag

e is

no

w s

ellin

g fu

el a

t th

e sa

me

pri

ce a

s in

Fat

om

a (9

km

aw

ay) t

hu

s d

iver

sify

ing

su

pp

ly a

nd

pro

vid

ing

bet

ter

acce

ss fo

r cu

sto

mer

s,m

ain

ly w

om

en

�In

crea

sed

de-

hu

skin

g a

nd

tr

ade

of r

ice

�O

per

ato

r ea

rns

80-1

20

FCFA

/en

gin

e h

ou

r;m

ore

o

pp

ort

un

ity

for

rem

un

erat

ed

emp

loym

ent

�“W

e p

refe

r to

pu

mp

wat

er

than

to

tak

e o

ur

dau

gh

ters

aw

ay fr

om

sch

oo

l”�

“Mar

ket

day

is li

ke a

Su

nd

ay”1

on

e o

per

ato

r�

“Fru

tig

i”(im

pro

vem

ent

in

mar

riag

e re

lati

on

s),

a vi

llag

e el

der

�So

me

men

are

no

w

con

trib

uti

ng

fin

anci

ally

to

th

ed

om

esti

c ta

sk b

y p

ayin

g t

he

mu

ltifu

nct

ion

al p

latf

orm

se

rvic

es fo

r th

eir

wiv

es

�St

ron

g s

up

po

rt b

y th

e m

en

in c

ase

of t

ech

nic

al p

rob

lem

s,

“mo

tor

no

ise

is li

ke m

usi

c to

the

ears

”(th

e el

der

s)

�Sp

ecifi

c w

ork

ing

ho

urs

for

the

pla

tfo

rm o

rgan

ised

by

the

wo

men

Inco

me

Wel

fare

Org

anis

atio

n/O

wn

ersh

ip–

67

Sam

par

a M

ult

ifu

nct

ion

al P

latf

orm

:Ave

rag

e H

ou

rly

Inco

me

and

Exp

end

itu

re,M

arch

– J

un

e 2

00

1,F

CFA

Sam

par

a M

ult

ifu

nct

ion

al P

latf

orm

:Mo

nth

ly In

com

e an

dEx

pen

dit

ure

,Mar

ch –

Ju

ne

20

01

,FC

FA

68

1 Ea

ch m

ult

ifun

ctio

nal

pla

tfo

rm is

op

erat

ed b

y a

cash

ier,

a tr

easu

rer,

a m

iller

,an

d t

wo

co

ntr

olle

rs.T

hes

efu

nct

ion

s ar

e re

mu

ner

ated

by

a p

erce

nta

ge

of t

he

mu

ltifu

nct

ion

al p

latf

orm

’s (g

ross

) in

com

e.

Sam

par

a M

ult

ifu

nct

ion

al P

latf

orm

:Ave

rag

e M

on

thly

an

d H

ou

rly

Rem

un

erat

ion

of

the

Mu

ltif

un

ctio

nal

Pla

tfo

rm O

per

ato

rs 1 ,

FCFA

/mo

nth

an

d F

CFA

/ho

ur,

Mar

ch –

Ju

ne

20

01

Sam

par

a M

ult

ifu

nct

ion

al P

latf

orm

:Mo

nth

ly a

nd

Cu

mu

late

d C

ash

Flo

w,M

arch

– J

un

e 2

00

1,F

CFA

69

Bal

anfi

na

Bas

ic S

tati

stic

s

�Po

pu

lati

on

:1,3

42�

Stat

us:

villa

ge

equ

ipp

ed

and

mo

nit

ore

d�

Typ

e:o

ld g

ener

atio

n

(pilo

t vi

llag

e w

ith

no

p

arti

cip

ato

ry fe

asib

ility

stu

dy

bef

ore

imp

lem

enta

tio

n)

�Re

qu

est:

No

exp

ress

ed

dem

and

�Fe

asib

ility

stu

dy:

no

ne

�In

stal

lati

on

:199

4 (a

pp

rox.

)

�En

gin

e 8

hp

�2

mill

s�

1 ri

ce d

e-h

ulle

r�

Bat

tery

ch

arg

er�

Lig

ht

for

the

ho

use

an

d

the

nu

rser

y�

1 p

um

p (1

.5 c

ub

ic m

etre

)�

Wat

er t

ank

(20

cub

ic m

etre

)an

d 4

dis

trib

uti

on

po

ints

Tota

l inv

estm

ent:

14,8

94,2

50 F

CFA

�C

um

ula

ted

cas

h fl

ow

(3

2 m

on

ths)

:1,0

98,8

60 F

CFA

�A

vaila

ble

cas

h o

n h

and

(2

9 m

on

ths)

:346

,455

FC

FA�

Cas

h in

ban

k (2

9 m

on

ths)

:41

9,80

0 F

CFA

�A

mo

rtis

atio

n:n

ot

avai

lab

le

Cu

mu

late

d c

ash

(en

d 1

999)

:31

8,72

5 FC

FAC

um

ula

ted

cas

h (e

nd

200

0):

219,

855

FCFA

Tota

l inv

estm

ent:

14,8

94,2

50FC

FA

Pro

cess

Equ

ipm

ent

Fin

anci

al R

esu

lts

Acq

uis

itio

n

Dat

a A

nal

ysis

�M

on

thly

rep

ort

fro

m

anim

atri

ce�

Dat

a en

tere

d in

Res

ult

s M

anag

emen

t Sy

stem

(D

ecem

ber

199

9-A

pri

l 200

1)

and

in E

xcel

file

(Sep

tem

ber

19

98-N

ovem

ber

199

9)

No

data

ava

ilabl

eN

o ob

serv

atio

n�

Dis

pu

te b

etw

een

th

e

Wo

men

’s A

sso

ciat

ion

an

d t

he

Wat

er M

anag

emen

t C

om

mit

tee

over

th

e p

rice

of e

ner

gy

(pu

m-

pin

g)

Inco

me

Wel

fare

Org

anis

atio

n/O

wn

ersh

ip–

70

Bal

anfi

na

Mu

ltif

un

ctio

nal

Pla

tfo

rm:M

on

thly

Inco

me

and

Exp

end

itu

re,S

epte

mb

er 1

99

8 –

Ap

ril 2

00

1,F

CFA

Bal

anfi

na

Mu

ltif

un

ctio

nal

Pla

tfo

rm:A

vera

ge

Ho

url

y In

com

e an

dEx

pen

dit

ure

,Sep

tem

ber

19

98

– A

pri

l 20

01

,FC

FA

71

Bal

anfi

na

Mu

ltif

un

ctio

nal

Pla

tfo

rm:M

on

thly

an

d C

um

ula

ted

Cas

hFl

ow

,Sep

tem

ber

19

98

– A

pri

l 20

01

,FC

FAM

auro

lo M

ult

ifu

nct

ion

al P

latf

orm

:Mo

nth

ly a

nd

Cu

mu

late

d C

ash

Flo

w,J

anu

ary

20

00

– F

ebru

ary

20

01

,FC

FA

No

te:T

his

vill

age

was

no

t vi

site

d.

Mau

rolo

:Th

e Ja

tro

ph

a P

latf

orm

Bas

ic S

tati

stic

s

�Po

pu

lati

on

:No

t av

aila

ble

�St

atu

s:vi

llag

e eq

uip

ped

an

d

mo

nit

ore

d�

Typ

e:o

ld g

ener

atio

n

(no

par

tici

pat

ory

fe

asib

ility

stu

dy

bef

ore

im

ple

men

tati

on

)

�Re

qu

est:

No

exp

ress

edd

eman

d�

Feas

ibili

ty s

tud

y:n

on

e�

Inst

alla

tio

n:J

anu

ary

1999

�En

gin

e 8

hp

�1

mill

�1

pre

ss

Tota

l inv

estm

ent:

1,71

2,38

7 FC

FA

�C

um

ula

ted

cas

h fl

ow

(1

4 m

on

ths)

:133

,625

FC

FA�

Ava

ilab

le c

ash

on

han

d:

116,

685

FCFA

�C

ash

in b

ank:

0 FC

FA�

Am

ort

isat

ion

:n

ot

avai

lab

le

Cu

mu

late

d c

ash

(en

d 2

000)

:92

,835

FC

FA

Tota

l inv

estm

ent:

1,71

2,38

7FC

FA

Vill

age

con

trib

uti

on

:10

ton

nes

of j

atro

ph

a,eq

uiv

alen

t to

500,

000

FCFA

(wit

h 5

0 FC

FA/k

g)

or

29%

of t

he

tota

l inv

estm

ent

cost

.

Pro

cess

Equ

ipm

ent

Fin

anci

al R

esu

lts

Acq

uis

itio

n

Dat

a A

nal

ysis

�D

ata

ente

red

in R

esu

lts

Man

agem

ent

Syst

em(J

un

e 19

99-F

ebru

ary

2001

)

No

data

ava

ilabl

eN

o ob

serv

atio

nN

o ob

serv

atio

n

Inco

me

Wel

fare

Org

anis

atio

n/O

wn

ersh

ip–

72

73

No

tes:

Nu

mb

ers

in p

aren

thes

es a

re t

he

ran

ge.

aD

ata

for

25 m

on

ths.

Ove

rvie

w o

f th

e C

ase

Stu

die

s

Mo

nth

s

Ave

rag

e ca

sh fl

ow

(FC

FA/m

on

th)

Ave

rag

e in

com

e /

ho

ur

(FC

FA/h

ou

r)

Ave

rag

e ex

pen

dit

ure

/ h

ou

r (F

CFA

/ho

ur)

Ave

rag

e o

per

ato

r’s r

emu

ner

atio

n

(FC

FA/h

ou

r)

Ave

rag

e fu

el u

sed

(l/h

ou

r)

Ave

rag

e h

ou

rs o

f en

gin

e o

per

atio

n

(ho

urs

/mo

nth

)

Nu

mb

er o

f clie

nts

(%

of p

op

ula

tio

n)

Nu

mb

er o

f ser

vice

s p

er d

ay(%

of p

op

ula

tio

n)

3.5

29,3

00(-

35,0

00 -

76,0

00)

912

(222

- 1,

266)

529

104

(79

- 130

)

0.93

(0.7

1 - 1

.0)

96.0

(71

- 124

)

No

t av

aila

ble

No

t av

aila

ble

32

34,0

00(-

12,0

0 - 2

50,0

00)

1,57

6(6

33 -

5,50

0) a

1,05

9(1

93 -

2,99

0)a

No

t av

aila

ble

0.87

(0.7

3 - 1

.16)

76.5

(16

- 233

)

No

t av

aila

ble

No

t av

aila

ble

14

9,50

0(-

41,0

00 -

46,0

00)

678

(400

- 85

7)

512

No

t av

aila

ble 0.9

(0.6

1 - 1

.1)

58.7

(37

- 93)

No

t av

aila

ble

No

t av

aila

ble

Sam

par

aB

alan

fin

aM

auro

lo

74

Mo

nth

ly C

ash

Flo

w:S

amp

ara,

Bal

anfi

na,

Mau

rolo

,FC

FA

Cu

mu

late

d C

ash

Flo

w:S

amp

ara,

Bal

anfi

na,

Mau

rolo

,FC

FA

75

APPENDIX B.POVERTY INDICATORS AND

STRATEGIC RESPONSES IN AFRICA

76

Overview

Sub-Saharan Africa is synonymous with poverty inthe world today. The 28 countries with the lowestHuman Development Index (HDI) for 1999 are all insub-Saharan Africa. The region also accounts for 30out of the world’s 49 least developed countries (61percent) and 38 out of 64 low-income countries (59percent), using the World Bank’s classification.Poverty-related indicators for the five West Africancountries involved in the UNDP RegionalMultifunctional Platform Project – Burkina Faso,Mali, Guinea, Senegal, and Côte d’Ivoire – and for

three other sub-Saharan African countries areshown in the table below. The five project countriesall have HDI numbers less than 0.5 and adult litera-cy rates less than 50 percent. Also, all five countriesplus Ghana in West Africa have GNPs per capita ran-ging from US$ 240 in Burkina Faso to US$ 710 inCôte d’Ivoire. This is in sharp contrast to the fewsub-Saharan African countries that are relativelybetter off, such as Botswana and South Africa,whose GNPs per capita exceed US$ 3,000. The poo-rest countries also have high levels of traditionalfuel consumption ranging from 91.2 percent inCôte d’Ivoire to 56.2 percent in Senegal.

Sources: GNP data from World Bank (2001); other indicators from UNDP (2001a).

Poverty-Related Indicators for Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries

Burkina Faso 0.32 240 23.0 84.1

HDI(1999)

GNP percapita, US$

(1999)

Adult LiteracyRateracy,% (1999)

Traditional FuelConsumption,

% of total energyuse (1999)

Mali 0.38 240 39.8 88.9

Guinea 0.40 510 35.0 74.2

Senegal 0.42 510 36.4 56.2

Côte d’Ivoire 0.43 710 45.7 91.5

Ghana 0.54 390 70.3 78.1

Botswana 0.58 3,240 76.4 . . .

South Africa 0.70 3,160 84.9 4.9

77

Trends in the HDI over the last quarter century areshown in the figure below for the project countries,as well as a few selected countries with higher HDIlevels both within and outside Africa. Althoughsome progress has been made in individual coun-tries, the gap between poorer and richer countries

HDI Trends for Selected Countries

remains wide. In order to deal more decisively withpoverty, many African governments have been wor-king in partnership with the major multilateral andbilateral agencies, particularly the World Bank andUNDP, to formulate national development andpoverty reduction strategies.

Sources: UNDP (2001a).

78

Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso has 45.3 percent of its populationliving below the national poverty line, measured asan annual income of US$ 140 per capita (adult) in1998 3 , with rural poverty accounting for about 95percent of national poverty. Furthermore, ruralwomen are comparatively more affected by pover-ty than men: school enrolment ratios are 47.7 per-cent for boys and 34.6 percent for girls (1999/2000academic year), and literacy rates are 33.0 percentfor men and 13.3 percent for women (1999).Malnutrition affects 14 percent of women and 29percent of children (1995). Even though the coun-try’s economy grew at an average rate of 5 percentper annum between 1995 and 1998, populationgrowth rates averaged 2.4 per year and the coun-try’s environmental situation is characterised bycontinual degradation of its natural resources.Wood continues to be the principal type of fuelused in households, rising from 87.3 percent ofhouseholds in 1994 to 88.2 percent in 1998.

The Government of Burkina Faso has responded tothis gloomy economic situation with a strategicinitiative for the elimination of poverty and also joi-ned the World Bank Group’s Highly Indebted PoorCountries (HIPC) Debt Initiative. The primary objec-tives outlined in Burkina Faso’s strategic initiativeare: (a) to accelerate growth on an equitable basis;(b) to guarantee access to basic social services forthe poor; (c) to expand employment opportunitiesand income-generating activities for the poor; and(d) to promote good governance.

Mali

In Mali, the rural population lives in about 11,000villages, most of which are remote and isolated. Apoverty level of 69 percent was reported for 1998 –76 percent in rural areas and 36.3 percent in urbanareas. Literacy rates (1999) are 47.3 percent for menand 32.7 percent for women. Only 8.6 percent ofthe total population of the country had access toelectricity in 1998; 46 percent of villages had accessto potable water supply (wells and boreholes) in1996.

The Government of Mali adopted a NationalPoverty Reduction Strategy in 1998 with the sup-port of UNDP and the World Bank. The strategy haseight objectives: [authors’ translation from theFrench]

1. To improve the economic, political, legal, social,1. and cultural environment in favour of the poor;2. To promote income generation and self-em-1. ployment activities targeted at the poor;3. To improve access by the poor to financial ser-1. vices and other factors of production;4. To promote development and improve the1. performance of agricultural and food industries1. where the poor are concentrated;5. To improve access by the poor to education 1. and training;6. To improve access by the poor to basic health, 1.1. nutrition, potable water, and sanitation.7. To improve housing conditions for the poor; and8. To ensure effective co-ordination of the poverty1. reduction strategy.

The Mali Government’s energy policy objectivesare: (1) to improve access to modern energy servi-ces, (2) to rationalise utilisation of existing energysources, (3) to make better use of local energy sour-ces (hydroelectricity, solar energy, and wind), (4) topreserve and protect forest resources, notablywood fuels, through sustainable harvesting, and (5)to improve the public management of various sub-sectors by simplifying procedures, concentratingeffort, and utilising the private sector more effecti-vely.

Accordingly, the Government has privatised thenational electric utility, Energie du Mali. TheGovernment is currently in the process of settingtargets to improve access to electricity from 7 per-cent in 1995 to 23 percent in 2007, and plans areunder way to develop rural electrification projectsfor 500 villages by 2007. Mali is also in the processof developing polities to reduce wood energyconsumption by 20 percent by 2007 and to increa-se the proportion of national energy use that isrenewable energy to 3 percent during that timeperiod. Under consideration, are measures toimprove equipment and to promote gas and kero-sene use.

3 The 1998 poverty line, in local currency, is 72,690 CFA francs.

79

Ghana

Ghana had 31.4 percent of its population below thenational poverty line in 1999, (UNDP, 2001a) withthe majority of poor people being women and girls(SIF, n.d.). Ghana’s adult literacy rate in 1999 was79.4 percent for men and 61.5 percent for women.In that same year, 62.1 percent of the populationlived in rural areas and 32 percent had no access toimproved water sources (wells, boreholes, etc.).

In the 1990s, Ghana developed a twenty-five-yeardevelopment strategy, known as Vision 2020, withthe aim of becoming a middle-income country withGDP per capita of about US$ 4,000 by the year2020. The long-term development objective ofVision 2020 is to improve the quality of life andexpand opportunities (for employment and leisure)for the entire society. The Vision is to be realised by:

� reducing poverty by improving access to basic � social , technical, and economic infrastructure, � �

� especially among the poor;� increasing participation of the poor and the � vulnerable in the decision-making process;� enhancing human resources by implementing �� programmes on population, health, nutrition, � �

� women’s empowerment, etc.;� increasing employment opportunities through �� vocational training and skill development,� promoting labour-intensive programmes, and � �

� supporting the informal sector;� safe-guarding the rights of women and � improving educational opportunities for girls; and� providing a safety net for the extremely poor andmost vulnerable (the aged, the disabled, etc.)

A National Poverty Reduction Programme develo-ped in tandem with Vision 2020 in 1997 took intoaccount the finding from numerous studies whichindicate that reducing gender inequities andincreasing women’s access to productive resourcesare strongly correlated with improvements in fami-ly health and well-being, and poverty reduction(SIF, n.d.). The Programme had five main objectives:

1. Build management capacity to plan and 1. co-ordinate poverty reduction interventions, both1. at the national and at the district level, including1. interventions by civil society organisations;2. Adapt technology to reduce workload and 1. drudgery at the community and household levels1. and to improve productivity;3. Develop skills to enable people to engage in

1. productive self-employment and income 1. generation and to develop innovative projects;4. Establish a Social Investment Fund to support the1. provision of social services and infrastructure; and5. Create a social development mechanisms to 1. 1.1. empower women and girls and to address the 1.1. problems of society’s disadvantaged.

Five districts were selected to participate in theNational Poverty Reduction Programme. TheGovernment’s decentralisation policy was used as astrategy to help build capacity of the districts toparticipate in the Programme.

In January 2000, a new Government was electedand quickly took Ghana into the World Bank’s HIPCDebt Initiative. A new national poverty reductionstrategy was prepared to satisfy HIPC requirements.

Immediately following assumption of office,Ghana’s Government committed itself to reversingthe social and economic decline facing the countryand creating a conducive environment for strongand sustainable growth and prosperity. ThePresident of Ghana further identified the followingas the Government’s priority developmental objec-tives:

1. Bringing down the cost of living

2. Creating jobs within the economy

3. Alleviating poverty

4. Providing more affordable health care

5. Improving access to quality education.

Ghana’s Ministry of Energy developed an energypolicy framework to respond to these priority deve-lopmental objectives. This framework recognisedthe critical need for injection of substantial levels ofinvestment capital into Ghana’s economy as well asfor availability of adequate, secure, and reliableenergy services to drive productive value-addedindustries and services. Specific objectives withinthe energy policy framework include increasingaccess to high quality energy services, minimisingenvironmental impacts of energy supply andconsumption, and accelerating the developmentand utilisation of renewable energy sources. Anational electrification project, which has been inprogress since the late 1980s and aims to electrifythe whole country by 2020, has increased access toelectricity from about 23 percent in 1988 to nearly50 percent in 2000 4.

4 Oteng-Adjei, J.,“Overview of Ghana’s Rural Electrification Programme”, Sustainable Energy Advisory Facility Workshop,Kumasi, Ghana (2001).

80

Abeeku Brew-Hammond is an Associate Professor

and Head of the Department of Mechanical

Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science

and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana. He also ser-

ves as the Director of KITE, a Ghana-based nongovern-

mental organisation with a regional outlook speciali-

sing in energy technology policy and project develop-

ment. Abeeku Brew-Hammond has undertaken seve-

ral energy technology and policy research projects

with funding from international organisations like the

United Nations University (UNU) and the International

Development Research Centre (IDRC) of Canada. He

served on the Year 2000 Review Panel for the World

Bank’s Energy Trust Funded Programmes and, more

recently, he has played active roles in the development

of several rural and renewable energy partnerships as

Type II Initiatives under the World Summit on

Sustainable Development (WSSD) process. He has a

DPhil in Science and Technology Policy Studies, obtai-

ned from Sussex University in 1998. He earned his

Master’s and Bachelor’s degrees in mechanical engi-

neering from McGill University (Canada) and KNUST

in 1984 and 1977, respectively.

Email: Abeeku@kiteonline.net. URL: www.knust.edu.gh

and www.kiteonline.net.

Note on Authors:

Anna Crole-Rees, an agricultural economist, is princi-

pal consultant at Crole-Rees Consultants, a firm she

created in 1997. She works mainly in Western and

Eastern Africa and Switzerland. Her driving interest is

sustainable development in rural areas, more particu-

larly the synergies between the economic, social, and

environmental aspects in both theory and practice.

Her principal areas of interest are: market access and

supply chains, income diversification, project manage-

ment, and human resources. She collaborates with

UN-agencies (ECA, UNDP, UNCTAD), nongovernmental

organisations, research institutes, and private firms.

She also contributed to the multifunctional platform

project (UNDP-UNIDO) from 1997 until 2001. Before

that she was a research assistant at the Institute of

Agricultural Economic of the Swiss Federal Institute of

Technology in Zurich (Switzerland), where she wrote

her doctoral thesis on the role and the determinants

of income diversification in rural Mali. Her first profes-

sional job was head of the crop protection depart-

ment at the extension service of the Canton de Vaud,

Switzerland. She holds a Doctorate [PhD???] from the

Swiss Federal Institute for Technology, a MSc in

Agricultural Economics from Reading University

(England), and a MSc in Agriculture from the Swiss

Federal Institute for Technology (Switzerland). E-mail:

crolerees@bluewin.ch.

For further information, please contact:United Nations Development Programme - Bamako OfficeBP 120, Bamako, MaliTel: (223) 222 01 81Fax: (223) 222 62 98website: www.ml.undp.org

or

The Multifunctional Platform Project in Mali

DNI/BP 278, Bamako, Mali

Tel: (223) 22 57 56

Fax: (223) 22 61 37dnplatforme@datatech.toolnet.org

website: www.ptfm.net

or

The Multifunctional Platform Regional Projectc/o United Nations Development Programme - Dakar Office.BP 154, Dakar, Senegal.Tel: (221) 839 90 50Fax: (221) 823 55 00