reframing human resource management in africa: a · pdf filereframing human resource...

Reframing human resource managementin Africa a cross-cultural perspective

Terence Jackson

Abstract Current approaches to understanding the management of people in Africa areoften framed within a pejorative lsquodevelopingdevelopedrsquo world paradigm that not onlypaints a negative view of management in Africa but also assumes the need to developtowards the lsquodevelopedrsquo world approach Cross-cultural analysis that focuses rst onhistorical and current cultural interaction across continents suggests a difference betweenan instrumental view of people as a resource to serve the ends of the organization and ahumanistic view which sees people as having a value in themselves This offers a moreuseful paradigm for progressing both research and practice in this area Both a conceptualmodel and a typology of management systems are offered as a way forward Researchshould also focus on cross-cultural difference and interactions at cross-national and inter-ethnic levels This will facilitate a cross-cultural approach to management developmentand team building through developing synergies in organizations in Africa

Keywords Management in Africa locus of human value humanism instrumentalismcross-cultural management

Introduction a pejorative view of management in Africa

The current literature on management in lsquodevelopingrsquo countries generally (eg Jaegerand Kanungo 1990) and management in Africa speci cally (eg Blunt and Jones1992) presents a picture which sees management in these countries as fatalisticresistant to change reactive short-termist authoritarian risk reducing contextdependent and basing decisions on relationship criteria rather than universalisticcriteria Apart from the pejorative nature of this description and contrast withlsquodevelopedrsquo countries there is the danger that the objective of development is to makethe lsquodevelopingrsquo world more like the lsquodevelopedrsquo world and that this should bere ected in the direction of organizational change and the way people are managed

It is unfortunate that this perspective paints a rather negative picture of managementin Africa and one within the lsquodevelopingdevelopedrsquo world paradigm that is not justpejorative but actually hampers constructive research into the nature of management ofpeople and change in Africa Yet it is likely that the perceived lsquoAfricanrsquo approachre ects a colonial legacy rather than an indigenous approach to organizing Indeed thedynamics of management of organizations in Africa arise fundamentally from theinteraction of African countries with foreign powers and corporations (often as anexperience unique to a particular country but also having aspects in common with other

Terence Jackson Centre for Cross Cultural Management Research EAP-ESCP EuropeanSchool of Management 12 Merton Street Oxford OX1 4JH UK (tel 1 44 1865 253212fax 1 44 1865 251960 e-mail tjacksoneapnet)

Int J of Human Resource Management 137 November 2002 998ndash1018

The International Journal of Human Resource ManagementISSN 0958-5192 printISSN 1466-4399 online copy 2002 Taylor amp Francis Ltd

httpwwwtandfcoukjournalsDOI 10108009585190210131267

African countries) as well as through exposure to foreign management education Inaddition managers in Africa increasingly have to manage cross-border dynamics asregional co-operation increases (Mulat 1998) and have had to manage the internaldynamics of inter-ethnic cross-cultural difference and diversity since the lsquoscramble forAfricarsquo ensured national boundaries that conformed to the claims of European powersrather than existing African ethnic divisions

If anything lsquoAfrican managementrsquo is cross-cultural management The objective ofresearch should be in understanding the complex cross-cultural dynamics in Africancountries and their variation in each African country in each region and amongFrancophone Anglophone and Lusophone countries The aim of management devel-opers and human resource specialists (the term lsquohuman resourcersquo is challenged later inthis article as re ecting a view which although not necessarily alien to Africa may becontrary to the way people see themselves there) should be to ensure the more effectivemanagement of these dynamics by rst understanding them and then addressing theneed to develop effective cross-cultural managers and management teams

This article therefore attempts to reframe our understanding of the management ofpeople organizations and change in sub-Saharan African countries by employing aparadigm which re ects the different perceptions of the value of human beings inorganizations (Jackson 1999) and by exploring a model of cross-cultural dynamics inAfrica which incorporates at least some of the complex elements which may beimportant to our understanding (see Figure 1)

The African context

The context of Africa (despite considerable historical economic political and socialvariation across countries which should not be down-played) can best be understood asan historical dynamic that has created a number of paradoxes in Africa The paradoxescan only be really understood by rst considering the inter-continent level of culturalanalysis (AfricandashWestern) The main paradox is between the nature of organizationsand the need to develop human capacity Many African economies are going through astage of transition from large and often overly staffed public corporations to enterpriseswhich are more publicly accountable and private enterprises which have to competeglobally and be pro table (Ibru 1997 Barratt Brown 1995) (this aspect is shown aslsquoEconomic Reformrsquo in Figure 1) At the same time there is an overriding need todevelop people (Ki e 1998 Bazemore and Thai 1995 Kamoche 1997) and to do thispredominantly within work organizations (cf Anyanwu 1998) Yet organizations thatcan take this development role are divesting of people

A legacy of under-skilling largely through a concentration on export-led primaryproduction and low development of consumer economies (Barratt Brown 1995Adedeji 1999) now hampers human capacity building particularly in the service sectorAlso the current need to develop relevance exibility responsiveness and account-ability in the public sector is hampered by a legacy of administration that was tackedonto African societies with a standardization of functions and low transferability ofskills (Carlsson 1998 Picard and Garrity 1995) (lsquoLegacyrsquo in Figure 1) More recentlyan imposition of economic structural adjustment programmes which have reducedgovernment spending removed subsidies deregulated goods money and labourmarkets and decontrolled prices to respond to market forces and liberalization of trade(Mbaku 1998 Wohlgemuth et al 1998) has militated against protecting anddeveloping indigenous organizations through long-term government and private

Jackson Reframing HRM in Africa 999

investment in organizations to develop human capacity (lsquoEconomic Reformrsquo in Figure1) The accompanying trend to downsize organizations has also militated againsttraining and developing people in these organizations

Although as was said above there are considerable differences among Africancountries the paradox (and con icts in policies and practices) between historical legacyand future requirements between the need to downsize organizations through economicreform to make them lsquomeaner and leanerrsquo and globally competitive on the one handand the future requirement to skill re-skill and develop people in work organizations upto managerial levels on the other hand may be understood through a conceptualizationof an antithesis between the cultural need in Africa to recognize people as having avalue in their own right and as part of a social community which may be in directcontradiction to a predominant Western view in organization and management theorywhich sees people as a means to an end within the organization (Jackson 1999) Thisperception of the direction and nature of the value that is placed on people inorganizations or locus of human value shown as lsquoHumanisticrsquo and lsquoInstrumentalrsquocultural values in Figure 1 may be central to understanding at least one level of cross-cultural interaction within organizations in Africa It may also be central tounderstanding many of the dif culties of managing people in organizations inAfrica

Figure 1 A model of cross-cultural dynamics in sub-Saharan Africa

1000 The International Journal of Human Resource Management

It is to this level of analysis that we must turn to further understand the changingmanagement systems depicted in Figure 1

Levels of cultural analysis

The inter-continental cultural level is fundament to a number of theories such as thelsquodisconnectrsquo thesis (Dia 1996 Carlsson 1998) At the na otilde ve level of theorizing thismay be seen as a difference between lsquodevelopingrsquo and lsquodevelopedrsquo countries (Jaegerand Kanungo 1990 Blunt and Jones 1992) A number of studies have incorporatedHofstedersquos (1980) cultural dimensions to explain some of the differences betweenAfrican and lsquoWesternrsquo countries (Kanungo and Jaeger 1990 Dia 1996 Iguisi 1997)The shortcomings of these approaches will be examined below Recent cross-culturalstudies have incorporated more sophisticated value constructs such as those of Schwartz(1994) (eg Munene et al 2000) or have tried to develop value constructs thatincorporate lsquoAfricanrsquo values (Noorderhaven and Tidjani 2001) An alternative orcomplementary approach is offered here which develops a theory of lsquolocus of humanvaluersquo and helps in an understanding of management and organization systemsoperating in Africa that draws on inter-continental cultural interactions

Less developed is work on other levels of cultural analysis that often requires moresophisticated concepts and research tools Hence analysis at the regional and cross-national levels which is becoming more important with the establishing of regionaltrading agreement (Mulat 1998) and more inter-country interaction is at very earlystages Some of the studies mentioned above in connection with inter-continentcomparisons are suggesting differences among African countries (particularly Noorder-haven and Tidjani 2001) However the lack of sophistication of quantitativemeasurement instruments and the lack of qualitative comparisons has hamperedunderstanding at this level As a result of a countryrsquos unique interaction with a formercolonial power inter-continental interactions are likely to be bound up with inter-country differences and similarities

Inter-ethnic cultural analysis has remained largely within the domain of socialcultural anthropology and has been investigated or applied rarely to management andorganization theory This level of analysis is important for understanding potential andactual con ict in the workplace and in addressing resulting issues of cross-culturalmanagement in African countries The inter-continental level of analysis is primarilyfocused upon here as this has a direct bearing on a discussion of locus of human valueand on the changing management systems depicted in Figure 1

Inter-continental cultural level

Cross-cultural management theory has been criticized for its lack of theory thatconnects cultural values to management and work practices particularly at thebehavioural level (Cray and Mallory 1998) The focus of interest in this paper is atthe level of management and organization systems their cultural derivatives how theyare manifested particularly in the management of people and how they operate inAfrica This focus has the most relevance to practising management in understand-ing the in uence of cultural factors and for management and organizationaldevelopment practices Although at the theoretical level these systems can beconstructed only as ideal types they can form the basis for cross-cultural investigationas well as informing management practices in Africa which often have to reconcilethese various systems These different lsquosystemsrsquo will interact in different ways indifferent countries industrial sectors (including private parastatal public and


governmental sectors) and organizations and give rise to different types and levels ofhybridization This approach is particularly useful in attempting to overcome andintegrate some of the complexities of the effects of different cultures on Africansocieties generally and management and organizational practices in particular Thesesystems are described as lsquopost-colonialrsquo lsquopost-instrumentalrsquo and lsquoAfrican RenaissancersquoTable 1 also includes a comparison of the three systems with that of a fourth ideal typean East AsianJapanese system Table 2 postulates how these management systems maybe manifested in different sets of management attributes

Post-colonial management systems

Description of management in Africa has largely been informed by the developeddeveloping world dichotomy as was noted above and is exempli ed in the work ofBlunt and Jones (1992) one of the most thorough descriptions and that of Jaeger andKanungo (1990) on management in lsquodevelopingrsquo countries in general This isparticularly so in the distinction made between lsquoWesternrsquo management styles (team-work empowerment etc) and lsquoAfricanrsquo styles (centralized bureaucratic authoritarianetc) (Blunt and Jones 1997)

Organizational systems However systems of management identi ed in the literatureas lsquoAfricanrsquo (Blunt and Jones 1992 1997) or as lsquodevelopingrsquo (Jaeger and Kanungo1990) are mostly representative of a post-colonial heritage re ecting a theory X styleof management (from McGregor) which generally mistrusts human nature with a needto impose controls on workers allowing little worker initiative and rewarding a narrowset of skills simply by nancial means This system is identi ed in the literature asbeing lsquotacked onrsquo to African society originally by the colonial power (Carlsson 1998Dia 1996) and being perpetuated after independence perhaps as a result of vestedpolitical and economic interest or purely because this was the way managers in thecolonial era were trained (Table 1) Quite often the literature conveys this as amonolithic system of management that is discernible throughout Africa and eventhroughout the lsquodevelopingrsquo world There may in fact be substantial differences inthese lsquotacked-onrsquo systems among the hangovers from different forms of colonialadministration There will also be differences between public- and private-sectoradministration although commentators such as Blunt and Jones (1992) have notedsimilarities In the following the commonalities are referred to with differencespointed out where appropriate

In terms of strategies there is an emphasis on inputs (particularly in the publicsectors such as in increasing expenditure on health education and housing afterindependence) to the exclusion of outputs such as quantity quality service and clientsatisfaction (Blunt and Jones 1992) or on the supply side rather than the demand sideof capacity building (Dia 1996) Best use is not being made of inputs or the supply toorganizations (generated through improvement in education and training) throughcapacity utilization within organizations Table 1 therefore indicates a lack of resultsand objectives orientation and a possible associated risk aversion Kiggundu (1989)adds that there is typically a lack of a clear mission statement or sense of direction

He also characterizes organizational structures in terms of their governance anddecision making as having top management that is overworked having authoritarianand paternalistic decision styles with centralized control and decision making(Kiggundu 1989) This is also re ected in Blunt and Jonesrsquos (1997) view thatleadership is highly centralized hierarchical and authoritarian They also add that there


Tabl

e 1

Com

pari

son

of d

iffer

ent

orga

niza

tion

al m

anag

emen

t sy

stem

s in

Afr

ica

Post

-col

onia

lPo

st-i

nstr

umen

tal

Afr

ican

Ren

aiss

ance

Eas

t A

sian

Jap

anes

e

Mai

n pr

inci

ples

cT

heor

y X

cW

este

rnp

ost-

inde

pend

ence

Afr

ican

cIn

stru

men

tal

cT

heor

y Y

cW

este

rnlsquo

mod

ernrsquo

cF

unct

iona

list

cH

uman

isti

cc

Ubu

ntu

cC

omm

unit

y co

llec

tivis

m

cH

uman

isti

cc

Cor

pora

te c

olle

ctiv

ism

Impo

rtan

cec

Con

tinui

ng l

egac

y th

roug

hpo

liti

cal

and

econ

omic

inte

rest

s

cL

ooke

d to

as

alte

rnat

ive

cIn

ue

nce

from

mul

tina

tion

als

man

agem

ent

educ

atio

n an

d co

nsul

tant

s

cS

ome

elem

ents

may

pre

vail

in i

ndig

enou

s or

gani

zati

ons

cO

f gr

owin

g in

tere

stin

tern

atio

nall

y

cD

evel

opin

g im

port

ance

thro

ugh

Eas

t A

sian

inve

stm

ent

cM

ay b

e se

en a

sal

tern

ativ

eSt

rate

gyc

Inpu

ts a

nd p

roce

ssor

ient

atio

nc

Lac

k of

res

ults

and

obje

ctiv

esc

Ris

k av

ersi

ve

cR

esul

ts a

nd m

arke

t or

ient

edc

Cle

ar o

bjec

tive

sc

Cal

cula

ted

risk

tak

ing

cS

take

hold

er o

rien

tati

onc

Mar

ket

and

resu

lts

orie

ntat

ion

cC

lear

obj

ecti

ves

cL

ow r

isk

taki

ng

Stru

ctur

ec

Hie

rarc

hica

lc

Cen

tral

ized

cF

latt

er h

iera

rchy

cO

ften

dec

entr

aliz

edc

Fla

tter

hie

rarc

hyc

Dec

entr

aliz

ed a

nd c

lose

r to

stak

ehol

ders

cH

iera

rchi

cal

and

conf

orm

ity

Gov

erna

nce

and

deci

sion

mak

ing

cA

utho

rita

rian

cN

on-c

onsu

ltat

ive

cO

ften

con

sult

ativ

ec

Incr

easi

ng e

mph

asis

on

lsquoem

pow

erm

entrsquo

cP

arti

cipa

tive

co

nsen

sus

seek

ing

(ind

aba )

cC

onsu

ltati

ve b

utau

thor

ity

from

top

Con

trol

cR

ule

boun

dc

Lac

k of

ex

ibil

ityc

Out

side

in

uenc

e or

con

trol

(fam

ily

gov

ernm

ent)

oft

ense

en a

s ne

gativ

e

cC

lear

rul

es o

f ac

tion

cF

lexi

ble

cO

utsi

de g

over

nmen

tin

ue

nce

decr

easi

ng

cB

enig

n ru

les

of a

ctio

nc

Out

side

in

uenc

e(g

over

nmen

t fa

mil

y) m

ay b

ese

en a

s m

ore

beni

gn

cC

onse

nsus

and

har

mon

yab

ove

form

al r

ules

cM

ay h

ave

a la

ck o

f

exib

ility

Cha

ract

erc

May

not

act

eth

ical

lyto

war

ds s

take

hold

ers

cN

ot v

ery

efc

ient

cS

tati

cc

Pro

babl

y no

t fo

reig

n ow

ned

cM

ore

ethi

call

y re

spon

sibl

ec

Aim

s to

be

succ

essf

ulc

Cha

nge

is a

fea

ture

cP

roba

bly

fore

ign

owne

d

cS

take

hold

er i

nter

est

may

be

mor

e im

port

ant

than

lsquoet

hics

rsquoc

Suc

cess

rel

ated

to

deve

lopm

ent

and

wel

l be

ing

of i

ts p

eopl

ec

Indi

geno

us

cH

arm

ony

and

face

may

be m

ore

impo

rtan

t th

anet

hics

cE

fci

ency

cM

ay b

e sl

ow t

o ch

ange


Tabl

e 1

Con

tinu

ed

Post

-col

onia

lPo

st-i

nstr

umen

tal

Afr

ican

Ren

aiss

ance

Eas

t A

sian

Jap

anes

e

Inte

rnal

pol

icie

sc

Dis

crim

inat

ory

cE

mpl

oyee

pol

icie

s ai

med

at

duti

es r

athe

r th

an r

ight

s

cN

on-d

iscr

imin

ator

yc

Acc

ess

to e

qual

opp

ortu

niti

esan

d cl

ear

empl

oyee

pol

icie

son

res

pons

ibil

itie

s an

d ri

ghts

cS

take

hold

er i

nter

ests

cA

cces

s to

equ

al o

ppor

tuni

ties

cC

an b

e di

scri

min

ator

y(t

owar

ds w

omen

)c

Em

ploy

ee r

elat

ions

may

be m

ore

impl

icit

Inte

rnal

clim

ate

cE

mpl

oyee

ali

enat

ion

com

mon

cW

eak

trad

e un

ions

cIn

ter-

ethn

ic f

rict

ion

cD

isco

urag

es d

iver

sity

of

opin

ions

cP

rom

otio

n by

asc

ript

ion

cE

mph

asis

on

empl

oyee

mot

ivat

ion

cW

eak

or c

o-op

erat

ive

unio

nsc

Mov

e to

war

ds i

nter

-eth

nic

harm

ony

cD

iver

se o

pini

ons

ofte

nen

cour

aged

cP

rom

otio

n ba

sed

onac

hiev

emen

t

cM

otiv

atio

n th

roug

hpa

rtic

ipat

ion

impo

rtan

tc

Uni

ons

prot

ect

righ

tsc

Inte

r-et

hnic

har

mon

y ta

ken

into

con

side

rati

onc

Eve

ryon

e sh

ould

be

able

to

stat

e th

eir

opin

ions

cP

rom

otio

n ba

sed

onle

giti

miz

atio

n of

sta

tus

cA

ims

at e

mpl

oyee

com

mit

men

t (j

obsa

tisf

acti

on m

ay b

e lo

w)

cC

ompa

ny t

rade

uni

ons

cIn

ter-

ethn

ic r

elat

ions

may

not

be

an i

ssue

cC

onse

nsus

rat

her

than

dive

rsit

y of

opi

nion

sst

ress

edc

Pro

mot

ion

by s

enio

rity

Ext

erna

l po

licie

sc

Lac

k of

cus

tom

erc

lient

poli

cies

cL

ack

or r

esul

ts o

rien

tati

on

cC

lear

pol

icie

s on

cus

tom

ers

clie

nts

cR

esul

ts o

rien

tati

on

cA

cle

ar a

war

enes

s of

and

arti

cula

tion

of

stak

ehol

der

inte

rest

s

cA

foc

us o

n bu

sine

ss a

ndcu

stom

er n

etw

orks

rath

er t

han

expl

icit

poli

cies

Man

agem

ent

expe

rtis

ec

Edu

cate

d m

anag

emen

t el

itew

ith

low

man

geri

al e

xper

tise

cH

igh

res

ults

-ori

ente

dm

anag

eria

l ex

pert

ise

isai

med

for

cM

anag

emen

t ex

pert

ise

base

don

peo

ple

orie

ntat

ion

cM

anag

emen

tef

fect

iven

ess

base

d on

coll

ecti

ve s

kills

Peop

leor

ient

atio

nc

Con

trol

ori

enta

tion

cP

eopl

e an

d re

sult

s or

ient

atio

nc

Peo

ple

and

stak

ehol

der

orie

ntat

ion

cP

eopl

e (i

n-gr

oup)

orie

ntat

ion


Tabl

e 2

Com

pari

son

of d

iffer

ent

man

agem

ent

attr

ibut

es i

n A

fric

a

Post

-col

onia

lPo

st-i

nstr

umen

tal

Afr

ican

Ren

aiss

ance

Eas

t A

sian

Jap

anes

e

Man

agem

ent

mot

ivat

ors

cE

cono

mic

sec

urit

yc

Con

trol

cM

anag

ing

unce

rtai

nty

cS

elf-

enha

ncem

ent

cA

uton

omy

cIn

depe

nden

cec

Ach

ieve

men

t

cB

elon

ging

cD

evel

opm

ent

of p

erso

nal

and

grou

p

cB

elon

ging

cD

evel

opm

ent

in c

orpo

rate

cont

ext

cE

lem

ents

of

econ

omic

secu

rity

Man

agem

ent

com

mit

men

tc

To

busi

ness

obj

ecti

ves

cT

o re

lativ

esc

To

orga

niza

tion

cT

o se

lfc

To

resu

lts

cT

o et

hica

l pr

inci

ples

cT

o w

ork

cT

o gr

oup

cT

o pe

ople

cT

o bu

sine

ss o

bjec

tive

s(t

he c

orpo

rate

)c

To

resu

lts

cT

o w

ork

cT

o re

lativ

esM

anag

emen

tpr

inci

ples

cE

xter

nal

locu

s of

con

trol

cD

eont

olog

yc

The

ory

Xc

Mis

trus

t of

hum

an n

atur

ec

Sta

tus

orie

ntat

ion

cIn

tern

al l

ocus

of

cont

rol

cT

eleo

logy

cT

heor

y Y

cC

ondi

tiona

l tr

ust

of h

uman

natu

rec

Ach

ieve

men

t or

ient

atio

n

cIn

tern

al a

nd e

xter

nal

locu

s of

cont

rol

cT

rust

of

hum

an n

atur

ec

Sta

tus

and

achi

evem

ent

orie

ntat

ion

cE

xter

nal

locu

s of

con

trol

cT

heor

y Y

(in

-gro

up)

theo

ry X

(ou

t-gr

oup)

cT

rust

of

in-g

roup

mem

bers

cR

elat

iona

l an

d re

lati

vity

aspe

cts

of d

ecis

ion

mak

ing

cS

tatu

s th

roug

h se

nior

ityM

anag

emen

tpr

acti

ces

cR

elia

nce

on h

iera

rchy

cU

se o

f ra

nkc

Low

ega

litar

iani

smc

Lac

k of

ope

nco

mm

unic

atio

nc

Lac

k of

ope

n in

form

atio

n

cS

ome

part

icip

atio

nc

Mos

tly c

omm

unic

atin

gop

enly

cP

rovi

ding

ope

n in

form

atio

nw

hen

nece

ssar

yc

Con

fron

tatio

nal

cP

arti

cipa

tion

cE

gali

tari

anis

mc

Com

mun

icat

ing

open

lyc

Pro

vidi

ng o

pen

com

mun

icat

ion

cC

onsu

ltati

ve (

ring

i )c

Com

mun

icat

ing

and

info

rmat

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ng h

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Man

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oces

sc

Man

agin

g po

wer

rel

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Man

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Man

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)


is an emphasis on control mechanisms rules and procedures rather than performance(and a high reluctance to judge performance) a bureaucratic resistance to change and ahigh level of conservatism together with the importance of kinship networks Theseaspects are indicated as control factors in Table 1

The character of such organizations may well re ect public-sector parastatal orrecently privatized organizations that are not foreign owned The public sector andState-owned enterprises in lsquodevelopingrsquo countries generally and sub-Saharan Africaspeci cally have been widely criticized as being too large bureaucratic and changeresistant (Blunt and Jones 1992) There is broad agreement concerning the poorperformance of the public sector which has engendered support for a reduction in itssize (Balogun 1989) and an assertion that it is detrimental to the development ofentrepreneurship and competitive production (Kiggundu 1988) Some of the in-adequacies which Joergensen (1990) draws attention to in relation to State-ownedenterprises in East Africa include lack of clear objectives over-staf ng lack of jobdescriptions and job evaluation lack of incentives and political interference as well aspoor infrastructure and lack of systems These all point to the inef ciencies indicated inTable 1 Yet there is little empirical evidence to suggest that private-sector organiza-tions are any better equipped to meet the challenges of change and development inAfrica (Blunt and Jones 1992) Montgomeryrsquos (1987) study among SADC countriessuggests private-sector organizations are no more rational in goal seeking than thepublic sector Part of the inef ciency of post-colonial organizational systems may be thelevels of corruption and lsquounethicalrsquo behaviour towards their stakeholders (Table 1) Thishas been well documented in the literature (eg de Sardan 1999)

Internal policies may be discriminatory as a result of preferences given to in-groupor family members Kanungo and Jaeger (1990) suggest that because of the associativethinking in developing countries there is a tendency for behaviour in organizations tobe context-dependent rather than the developed country orientation towards context-independent behaviour orientation where explicit and universal rules apply to a situationrather than the situation and context determining the responses to it This may lead todecisions based on relationships rather than the application of universal rules and maytherefore be regarded as discriminatory (Table 1) A re ection also of the theory Xnature of management and general distrust of human nature as well as a lack oforganizational democracy may be revealed in employee policies aimed at duties ofworkers rather than of rights (Table 1)

The internal climate of organizations may be revealed in employee alienation (Table1) Understaf ng poor motivation risk aversion and unwillingness to take independentaction close supervision of subordinates with little delegation operations ofteninef cient and high cost with low productivity over-staf ng under-utilizations poorpay and poor morale indicated by high turnover and absenteeism are all features whichKiggundu (1989) recounts Through the general underdevelopment of the economy andthe tenuous status of many jobs unions are likely to be weak and often subjugated towider political interests (Fashoyin and Matanmi 1996) Diversity including of ethnicityand gender does seem to be an issue (Merrill-Sands and Holvino 2000 although thisis inadequately treated in the literature except that pertaining to South Africa) Thismay also be a re ection of discriminatory policies based on context dependency andpromotion by ascription (who you are rather than what you have achieved (see forexample Trompenaars 1993))

As a result of an inputs focus (Blunt and Jones 1992 Dia 1996) external policiesregarding customers and clients are likely not to be overt and to be lacking in resultsorientation Kiggundu (1989) having suggested that top managers are likely to be


overworked with a reluctance to delegate work asserts that they are typically learnedarticulate and well travelled However at middle management levels there are weaksystems and controls inadequate managerial skills and a lack of industrial knowledgeThis is re ected in the general low levels of managerial expertise depicted in Table 1

Management attributes Attributes of managers operating within this system wouldbe expected to derive from the overall management system operating in an organizationWith the control orientation of post-colonial systems and a self-perpetuating inputsorientation managers who t in well could be expected to be motivated by controlfeatures of their jobs and economic security (Table 2) While little research has beenundertaken on management motivation in Africa those few studies do seem to supportthis supposition (Blunt and Jones (1992) reporting one study in Kenya by Blunt in 1976and one in Malawi by Jones in 1986)

The direction of management commitment can also be derived from the abovediscussion An indication of a commitment to lsquobusinessrsquo objectives involves the pursuitof end results at the expense of means although not re ecting an achievementorientation (Montgomery (1987) noted a regard for internal aspects of the organizationrather than policy issues development goals or public welfare remarking on analoofness of managers in the public sector) This may re ect an ethical disregard forwider stakeholders and a pursuit of corporate objectives as they dovetail with themanagerrsquos own objectives (Kiggundu (1989) underlines the political nature of thisagenda) For example de Sardan (1999) argues that corruption is embedded in thelogics of such practices as negotiation and gift giving and is both conspicuous andgeneralized within the administration of organizations in Africa There is also evidencefrom the discussion above of family in uence in organizations and the commitment ofmanagers may well be directed to these family connections (Table 2)

Management principles may be related to an external locus of control in lsquodevelopingrsquocountries where events are considered as not within the individualrsquos control wherecreative potential is regarded as being limited and people are generally xed in theirways and not malleable or changeable (Kanungo and Jaeger 1990) This may well re ectalso a mistrust of human nature and a belief in the undisciplined nature of Africanworkers in industrial life (Abudu 1986) Decisions are focused in the past and presentrather than the future (Kanungo and Jaeger 1990 Montgomery 1987) and therefore maybe deontological in nature rather than teleological Action is focused on the short termand success orientation may be moralistic rather than pragmatic as a result This mayre ect a lack of achievement orientation and a status orientation as a managementprinciple A passive-reactive orientation (Kanungo and Jaeger 1990) is assumed Againthis may give rise to a theory X conception of management (Table 2)

The way these principles are manifested in management practices is widely acceptedin the existing literature as evident in authoritarian management styles with reliance onthe hierarchy use of rank low egalitarianism and a lack of openness in communicationand information giving (Montgomery 1987 Blunt and Jones 1992 1997) This maylead to conclusions that the main management orientations within post-colonialmanagement systems are towards managing internal processes and managing powerrelations (Table 2)

An historical legacy The perceptions created by this conceptualization of lsquoAfricanmanagementrsquo within a developeddeveloping world paradigm (fatalistic resistant tochange reactive short-termist authoritarian risk reducing context dependent associa-tive and basing decisions on relationship criteria rather than universalistic criteria) may


not be useful when directly contrasted with management in the lsquodevelopedrsquo worldhowever much this may re ect the realities of many organizations operating in Africa(although bearing in mind differences derived from different colonial legacies anddifferences among public and private sectors) Implied within this conceptualization isthe idea that the developing world should be lsquodevelopedrsquo to become more like thedeveloped world However its positioning in Figure 1 is as an historical legacy fromthe colonial involvement of the lsquodevelopedrsquo world in Africa

The developingdeveloped conceptualization often fails to recognize other (some-times embryonic) management systems operating in Africa It is also not suf cientlyunderpinned by cultural theory The developingdeveloped world paradigm re ects apaucity of cultural analysis and in management theory re ects the traditions of theconvergence thesis (from Kerr et al 1960) Where this view of management inlsquodevelopingrsquo countries is explained by cross-cultural theory reference is often made toHofstedersquos (1980) value dimensions Hence Kanungo and Jaeger (1990) depict theorganizational situation in developing countries as relatively high in uncertaintyavoidance (low tolerance for risk and ambiguity) low in individualism high in powerdistance (re ected in a lack of consultative or participatory management) and low inmasculinity (a lack of competitiveness and achievement orientation and low centralityof work) Hofstedersquos (1980) own data are not very helpful on African culture as he hadsmall sample sizes from West and East African countries that he combined into tworegional samples and a whites-only sample from South Africa The popular SouthAfrican management literature supports a view that African cultures have a collectivistpropensity (Koopman 1991) The academic work of Blunt and Jones (1992) indicatesfrom the available literature that African societies are low on individualism Morerecent studies that include African countries suggest lower levels of values associatedwith individualism (Munene et al 2000) and higher levels for those associated withcollectivism (Smith et al 1996 Noorderhaven and Tidjani 2001) Yet these say littleabout the nature of African collectivism and provide little explanation of thelsquodisconnectrsquo thesis

Locus of human value At this level of inter-continental cross-cultural interaction inhistorical perspective the concept of locus of human value in distinguishing anantithesis between an instrumental view of people in organizations that perceive peopleas a means to an end and a humanistic view of people which sees people as having avalue in their own right and being an end in themselves may be more usefully explored(Jackson 1999) The Western concept of lsquohuman resourcesrsquo typi es the formerapproach in its view of people as another resource to meet the ends of the organizationIt is likely that this concept would predominate in post-colonial African organizationsto a certain extent (Table 1) Blunt and Jonesrsquos (1992) assertion that post-colonialorganization is input rather than output dependent may lead to the conclusion that suchorganization is not functionally oriented in the sense of objective seeking Yet it isdif cult to conceptualize such an organization as humanistic Organizations in Japanand other East Asian countries (and depicted in comparison in Tables 1 and 2) mayhave been more successful in harnessing the latter approach in order to obtain employeecommitment to the organization (Allinson 1993) but organizations in Africa havelargely not done this Hence African workers themselves see work organizationsprimarily as instrumental towards providing a contribution to their own livelihood(Blunt and Jones 1992) and that of their communal group

The instrumentalhumanistic construct may avoid some of the pitfalls of applying adevelopingdeveloped dichotomy (as in Jaeger and Kanungo 1990) or of applying a


simplistic lsquoindividualismcollectivismrsquo model (Hofstede 1991) to cultural analysis inexplaining differences between indigenous and imported views of human relations Itmay also explain the levels of inappropriateness of what is termed post-instrumentalmanagement systems

Post-instrumental management systems

A belief within the developingdeveloped world paradigm re ecting the convergencetheory of Kerr et al (1960) and the contingency theory of Hickson and Pugh (1995)(and see also Cray and Mallory (1998) for an overview) is that the developing worldthrough industrialization should become more like the developed world This isre ected in the trend for lsquoWesternrsquo approaches to management to be imported intoAfrican countries through multinational companies and lsquoWesternrsquo approaches to besought out by managers who are increasingly being educated within Western orWestern-style management courses and being trained in Western traditions This mayaffect not only organizations in the private sector but also those in the public andparastatal sectors and those recently privatized enterprises that are in the process ofrefocusing as a result of downsizing and other major organizational change This mayre ect also a disparaging of lsquoAfricanrsquo (ie post-colonial) ways of organizing andmanaging This disparagement is re ected in much of the literature reviewed above

It is perhaps unnecessary to go into the detail that is summarized in Tables 1 and 2where lsquopost-instrumentalrsquo systems are contrasted with post-colonial systems other thanto outline the principles involved It is unlikely that such a system based on lsquomodernrsquomanagement theory is blatantly instrumental but it will likely lack the humanism ofwhat is here described as the African Renaissance

A distinction has been made in the Anglo-American strategic human resourcemanagement literature between a lsquohardrsquo organizational perspective re ecting utilitarianinstrumentalism which sees people in the organization as a mere resource to achieve theends of the organization and a lsquosoftrsquo developmental human relations approach whichsees people more as valued assets capable of development worthy of trust andproviding inputs through participation and informed choice (Beer and Spector 1985Tyson and Fell 1986 Hendry and Pettigrew 1990 Storey 1992 Vaughan 1994)Tayeb (2000) quite rightly states that the concept of human resource management isitself a product of a particular Anglo-American culture It is likely that the lsquohardrsquo andlsquosoftrsquo approaches taken within Western organizations are both a re ection of aninherent cultural concept that perceives human beings in organizations as a means to anend (Blunt and Jones (1997) use the term lsquofunctionalismrsquo) If this is the case then it islikely that when Western companies or managers educated in the Western tradition tryto implement lsquoWesternrsquo human resource practices in cultures which have a differentconcept of people and a different regard for people in organizations then incompatibil-ities will be manifested through lack of motivation and alienation leading to lowproductivity and labour strife

The extent to which such manifestations are the case in foreign-owned and Westernmanagement-oriented companies in Africa has been little researched This remains atthe moment a hypothesis ripe for testing

African Renaissance management systems

It may be somewhat idealistic to try to identify a particular African style or evenphilosophy of management (eg Human 1996) but it is worth pointing to aspects thatit may include so that in empirical studies those aspects may be discerned where they


do exist (Tables 1 and 2) Most of the impetus for a return to African values andindigenous knowledge systems has been from South Africa through the suggestion fora movement towards an African Renaissance (eg Makgoba 1999) In 1991 Koopmanpublished his book about Cashbuild a company built up on the basis of lsquotransculturalrsquoprinciples which attempted to lsquomatch the values of a community with an appropriateform of management and organizationrsquo (1991 89) This involved reconciling what hecalled lsquoindividualismrsquo and lsquocommunalismrsquo Mbigi (1997 Mbigi and Maree 1995) hasmore speci cally set about de ning and elaborating the management philosophy ofubuntu which is based on this sense of community Again this approach is hereregarded as an lsquoideal typersquo which may be discerned as a conscious approach tomanagement in some African organizations and probably one that is a not as developed(historically) as post-colonial or post-instrumental systems

A useful framework for discussing what an African Renaissance management systemmight look like is provided by the work of Binet (1970) on African economicpsychology Dia (1996) provides an account of this work This can be supplementedand supported by popular African management texts (Boon 1996 Mbigi and Maree1995 Mbigi 1997) as well as speci c anthropological work such as that of Gelfand(1973) which is used here to illustrate speci c aspects by reference to Shona values inZimbabwe Key values can be summarized as follows

Sharing A need for security in the face of hardship has provided a commitment tohelping one another However it is likely that this value is not based on simpleexchange but is a result of a network of social obligations based predominantly onkinship More recently the concept of ubuntu has been prominent in the South Africanpopular management literature a value that is built on the assumption that people areonly people through other people Mbigi (1997) for example suggests that collectivetrust is a large part of this value and should be developed in organizations beforeparticipation and empowerment initiatives can succeed Certainly Gelfand (1973)suggests that trust (ruvimbo) is seen as an important virtue in Shona culture Opennesssharing and welcome together form important components of ubuntu (Boon 1996)These aspects are re ected in Table 1 in a wider community stakeholder orientationwhich also includes elements of family and other outside involvement and a characterthat involves the development and well-being of its people with a general peopleorientation (Table 1) and a sense of belongingness trust and openness (Table 2)

Deference to rank Diarsquos (1996) assertion that this refers to power distanceparticularly within the organizational context between employer and employee isprobably rather simplistic Although traditional rulers were such by their title to thesenior lineage they had to earn the respect of their followers and rule by consensusPolitical decision making was through obtaining consensus and through a system ofchecks and balances against autocratic rule People were free to express opinions anddissension (Mbigi 1997) At the same time taking onersquos proper place in the social scale(kuzvipeta in Shona) is an important aspect of the virtue of humility (kuzvidukupisa)and refers not only to deference to rank and seniority but also to the senior personshowing humility towards the younger person and to the educated person not lookingdown on those less educated (Gelfand 1997) This is re ected in Table 1 in a controlthat involves benign rules of action and promotion based on the legitimization of status(re ecting management principles based on both a status and achievement orientation inTable 2)


Sanctity of commitment Commitment and mutual obligations stem from grouppressures to meet onersquos promises and to conform to social expectations This isre ected in Table 1 in the obligations to stakeholders for example in the externalpolicies as well as the commitment to the group in Table 2

Regard for compromise and consensus This certainly involves the maintenance ofharmony within the social context but also quali es deference to rank discussed aboveBoon (1996) for example summarizes the main characteristics of traditional Africanleadership by saying that the chief personi es the unity of the tribe and must live thevalues of his community in an exemplary way not being an autocrat the chief mustrely on representatives of the people counsellors to assist him (chiefs were and aremale) to be guided by consensus Failure to do so would result in his people ignoringhis decisions and law The people are strongly represented with a duty to attend courthearings and all have a responsibility to each other collectively to ensure the laws areupheld As a result of this collective responsibility everyone has a right to question inopen court The concept of openness is an important value and implies that no oneshould receive retribution for anything said correctly in an open forum If this is a latter-day idealization of consensual authority it was certainly a perception of earlyanthropologists working in Southern Africa (see for example Gluckman 1956) InTable 1 this is re ected in structures that have atter and more accessible hierarchiesconsensus-seeking decision making an internal climate of participation and opennessand protection of rights Management practice also re ects a participative egalitarianand open approach (Table 2)

Good social and personal relations This stems from many of the aspects discussedabove particularly the commitment to social solidarity Dia (1996) observes that thetensions of managementndashlabour relations that have been a feature in Africanorganizations can be attributed largely to a lack of a human dimension and theadversarial attitudes of colonial employment relations In Table 1 this is re ected in aninternal climate of inter-ethnic harmony (although group solidarity may also act againstthis as will be discussed below) and other aspects of people orientation generally anda humanistic orientation

This presents a different picture to that of Blunt and Jones although this is partiallyrecognized by them (1997) and other commentators on organizational management inAfrican countries Both this view and an idealized view of what African managementcould have been (without colonial interference) are probably too simplistic as has beenstated above With the increase in interest in African approaches to management asindicated in the South African popular management press mentioned above and thegeneral call for a renaissance of African thinking values education and politicaltransformation (Makgoba 1999) any description of management systems within Africashould include a consideration of an lsquoindigenousrsquo African management Alongside thisa looking towards alternative management paradigms for inspiration and adaptation inAfrica seems logical Japanese management (although beyond the scope of this articleto review) has provided systems of management in East Asia that appear to besuccessful in collectivistic societies (eg Chen 1995) that may have some parallels withAfrican societies Aspects of this as a fourth system have been included in Tables 1 and2 for comparison purposes

Research is necessary at the inter-continental level because of the extensiveinteraction not only between sub-Saharan Africa as a lsquocultural entityrsquo and European andother former colonial powers and present-day multinational companies but also


because of the unique interaction of each African country with organizations andinstitutions that are foreign to the African continent This may give rise to differencesbetween countries like Senegal and Gambia (formerly French and British respectively)that share the same language and tribal groups (Sow and Abdulaziz 1999) on the basisof their interaction with colonial and former colonial countries as well as anydifferences in indigenous cultures This aspect as well as others such as ethnicity mayexplain some of the cultural differences among African countries and should form thebasis of future research

Implications for future research

Changing management systems

The discussion above and the typologies of Tables 1 and 2 and Figure 1 have presentedthree systems of management as lsquoideal typesrsquo that are purported to be operating inAfrican countries It is unlikely that these are operating in a pure form Thelsquohybridizationrsquo of management systems is an important consideration in AfricaConcepts of cross-vergence have been operationalized and researched in other regionssuch as Hong Kong (Priem et al 2000) These studies indicate that rather than atendency to convergence (the coming together of value systems) in regions andcountries that have had high levels of in uence from other cultures there is rather atendency to cross-vergence (developing of hybrid value systems as a result of culturalinteractions) The nature of change and continued in uences from different culturalsources in African countries may indicate the development of hybrid systems of variousforms Some of these may be highly adaptive and effective in managing cross-culturaldynamics and not least the different requirement of instrumental and humanisticperspectives Some may be maladaptive There is evidence from India (Rao 1996) thathybrid lsquohuman resource developmentrsquo systems are being designed to manage thedifferent Western (instrumental) and Indian (humanistic) orientations in organizationsTheir applicability in other regions such as sub-Saharan Africa needs to be investigatedas well as good practice being developed in Africa (Cashbuild in South Africa may bean example see Koopman (1991))

A further aspect should also be considered with regard to locus of human value Astudy by Jackson (in press) over seven countries around the world suggests that ahumanistic orientation is associated with collectivism Hofstede (1991) makes the casethat poorer societies (and perhaps disadvantaged sections of societies) are morecollectivistic because of the need for mutual self help If this is the case then people inAfrican countries who are socially disadvantaged may be more prone to have ahumanistic view of human worth and those in a socially advantaged position may havea less humanistic locus (Figure 1) This may also be re ected in organizations bymanagers having a less humanistic locus than employees This has importantimplications for employeendashmanager relations in practice This can be investigated onlythrough empirical research that compares the perceptions of employees andmanagers

Other levels of cultural analysis

Inter-ethnic and cross-national levels of cross-cultural analysis have been onlysuper cially dealt with in this article and this is a re ection of the literature in generalYet an understanding of inter-ethnic interaction is crucial to effective management in


organizations in Africa particular in managing con ict and developing synergistic workteams

In a country such as Nigeria whose main three languages or tribal groupings (HausaYoruba and Igbo) are fairly well documented even in the management literature (egAdigun 1995) it may be appropriate and feasible to undertake studies that considercross-cultural differences within the country In other countries with large lsquosettlerrsquopopulations differences between white and black groups may be an appropriate avenuefor research (con ict resolution in for example South Africa is not only a legitimateapplication for research ndings historical inter-ethnic con ict may also affect the waydata are collected for example see Hofmeyer et al (1994)) This may be particularlythe case as white managers may be closer to the instrumental approach of Westerncompanies and black African managers closer to a humanistic approach

The (mainly Western) approaches to studying cultural differences (Hofstede 1980Schwartz 1994 Smith et al 1996) provide only lsquothinrsquo description which has severelimits in describing differences between African countries let alone within Africancountries (see Thomas and Bendixen (2000) who have used Hofstedersquos approach tostudy South African cultural differences)

lsquoThickrsquo description is more usefully employed to develop hypotheses For examplethis level of description of different ethnic groups in Nigeria enabled Adigun (1995) todevelop speci c hypotheses regarding differences among these three groups within theworkplace

If managers in Africa are going to be successful in forging regional co-operation anunderstanding of cross-border differences (and similarities) must be developed It isunlikely that studies based on Hofstedersquos methodology will generate discernibledifferences A number of more general global studies have incorporated Africancountries (Chinese Cultural Connection (1987) included Zimbabwe and Nigeria Smithet alrsquos (1996) re-analysis of Trompenaarsrsquo (1993) data includes Ethiopia Nigeria andBurkina Faso) Even more recent studies which focus on Africa such as that of Muneneet al (2000) tend to emphasize differences between African countries on the one handand Western countries on the other Instruments that are more sensitive to Africancultural differences should be employed Noorderhaven and Tidjanirsquos (2001) study thatused a Delphic method to derive questionnaire items more representative of Africanvalues from African scholars and managers represents a breakthrough

Although quantitative methods may be a rst approach to developing an under-standing of cross-country differences these should also be complemented by qual-itative thick description

As another level of analysis gender differences should not be overlooked Thisagain is an aspect that has not been represented in research on management in Africa(but see Woodford-Berger 1998 Merrill-Sands and Holvino 2000)

Cross-cultural dynamics

Any investigation of management and organization in Africa must consider the differentand overlapping management systems described above and tentatively labelled post-colonial post-instrumental African Renaissance and others such as Japanese alter-natives It must consider how these systems vary for example through the differingin uences of various post-colonial systems (eg Portuguese French Belgian Britishand their different operating varieties) and multinationals (eg American AustralianSwedish and other Anglo-Saxon and European variants) It must also consider howthese systems differ and combine in cross-cultural interaction at the various levels


discussed above inter-continental (predominantly African-Western implying a needalso to investigate outside Africa in Western companies) cross-national (egZimbabwean-Zambian within region or South African-Nigerian across regions whensuch comparisons are appropriate and useful) and inter-ethnic (eg Hausa Igbo Yorubain Nigeria)

However research on management in Africa that includes only these variables wouldremain at the descriptive and comparative levels Investigation that is concerned withthe effectiveness of organizations and management in Africa should include at least twoother aspects the dynamics of cross-cultural interaction (ie how can multi-culturalworking which is implicit in management in Africa be effective or ineffective) andchange (ie how do organizational stakeholdersrsquo perceptions values decisions andactions affect change at micro- and macro-levels) Jackson and Kotzersquos (in press) studyof a major multi-cultural South African organization the South African NationalDefence Force employed integrationndashdisintegration theory adapted from the literatureon multi-cultural teams Multi-culturality may be a disintegrative in uence wheremembers of cultural groups are tending to make in-group out-group decisions (Tsui etal 1992) but also strengths may be drawn from cultural diversity in increasingcreativity and better decision making (Jackson 1992 Lau and Murnighan 1998) It islikely that multi-culturality in African organizations is leading in the main to the formerposition particularly as collectivist societies are more prone to make in-group out-group decisions (Hui 1990) leading to con icts within the workplace or in inter-organizational relations Elron et al (1999) in their study of cultural diversity inmultinational peacekeeping forces note that recent work on multi-cultural teamssuggests that highly heterogeneous teams develop a strong hybrid culture comparedwith those which are less heterogeneous (Early and Mosakowski 1998 Hambrick etal 1998) An inability to revert to previous identities and norms explains this Thisnecessitates the need to develop a new common culture when co-ordination andcommunication are required among a number of different participants A common senseof identity within the emerging culture which enhances internal communication co-ordination and cohesiveness (Elron et al 1999) may be discernible throughinvestigating such inferred variables as agreement on the perceptions of organizationaland management attributes in terms of what the current situation in the organization isthe ideal situation (what is desirable in terms of management styles and organizationalfactors such as level of hierarchy decision-making process and control) and how thiscontrasts with the way these aspects are likely to change Logically organizations arelikely to change in a positive way if the perceptions of the various stakeholders concurabout the present nature of the organization and its management and the desirablecharacter of change

Figure 1 attempts to draw together these elements and identi es the nature of therelationships between variables about which hypotheses may be formulated andoperationalized in future research design

Developing effective management in Africa

This article has attempted to point towards more fruitful lines of research by reframinghuman resource management in Africa This last section refers to the nal aspect of themodel of cross-cultural dynamics in Figure 1 and is somewhat tentative It representsperhaps the ultimate goal of management research to inform the effective practice anddevelopment of management First however the basic research has got to beundertaken It is hoped that this paper may help in pointing the way


For managers in Africa trying to make sense of the complexities inherent as a resultof historical circumstance and different levels of cultural interaction the developingdeveloped world paradigm has not been useful The attempt by international agencies toin uence effective governance in Africa by structural and economic measures thatre ect a largely instrumental view at the macro-level (see Jackson 1999) has failed toaddress the real issues of developing people hitherto referred to as a lsquoresourcersquo Byrecognizing the interplay of the dynamics of locus of human value at the inter-continental level of cross-cultural analysis it may be possible to develop hybridapproaches as seems to be happening in India (Rao 1996) to the effectivemanagement of people at the micro-level It may be important to focus on thedevelopment of hybrid systems of people management and through research to seewhat has been successful and what has not been successful in terms of the adaptationand synthesizing of the different lsquomanagement systemsrsquo discussed in this article

At the regional co-operation level involving cross-border working the lsquoEuropeanrsquomodel of managing cross-culturally by developing synergies in cross-border teamsrather than the lsquoAmericanrsquo model of managing diversity by homogenization (egJackson 1993 Thurley and Wirdenius 1989) may be more appropriately consideredAbove all the lsquoWesternrsquo view and practice of HRM (accepting that there aredifferences among Western countries) does not represent a cross-cultural perspectiveBlindly trying to implement an HRM system in organizations in Africa may not beappropriate Although this article does not profess to say what is appropriate it doessuggest that a cross-cultural approach to managing people based on creating multi-cultural synergies may be a way forward Many other considerations are involved indeveloping inter-ethnic cross-cultural synergies within organizations apart fromdecreasing disintegrating effects and increasing integrative effects as depicted in Figure1 These include addressing issues of patronage in some African countries andcontinuing issues of discrimination in other countries

Much can be achieved by employing a cross-cultural paradigm which focuses onunderstanding these issues and then addressing them by developing managers in Africaon a cross-cultural basis learning through good practice and building on the deeply felthumanistic perspectives of African people It should be remembered that organizationsand managers have been managing these dynamics in Africa for many years Lessonscan be drawn from good practice not only for management in Africa but also tocontribute to global managing throughout the world

References

Abudu F (1986) lsquoWork Attitudes of Africans with Special Reference to Nigeriarsquo InternationalStudies of Management and Organization 16(2) 17ndash36

Adedeji A (1999) lsquoComparative Strategies of Economic Decolonization in Africarsquo In MazruiAA (ed) UNESCO General History of Africa Vol 8 Africa since 1935 Berkeley CA JamesCurrey pp 393ndash431

Adigun IO (1995) lsquoEffects of Domestic Multiculturalism on Job Attitudes in Nigeria AResearch Notersquo International Journal of Human Resource Management 6(4) 910ndash29

Allinson R (1993) Global Disasters Inquiries into Management Ethics New York PrenticeHall

Anyanwu SO (1998) lsquoThe Human Factor and Economic Development in Africarsquo In ChivauraVG and Mararike CG (eds) The Human Factor Approach to Development in Africa HarareUniversity of Zimbabwe Publications pp 66ndash75

Balogun MJ (1989) lsquoThe African Culture and Social Structure Lesson from ContemporaryPublic Administrationrsquo In AAPAM The Ecology of Public Administration in Africa Vikas


Barratt Brown M (1995) Africarsquos Choices After Thirty Years of the World Bank LondonPenguin

Bazemore G and Thai KV (1995) lsquoInstitutional and Management Building in Sub-SaharanAfrica The Role of Trainingrsquo International Journal of Public Administration 18(9)1447ndash83

Beer M and Spector B (1985) lsquoCorporate Wide Transformations In Human ResourceManagementrsquo In Walton RE and Lawrence PR (eds) Human Resource ManagementTrends and Challenges Boston MA Harvard Business School Press pp 219ndash53

Binet J (1970) Psychologie Economique Africaine Paris PayotBlunt P and Jones ML (1992) Managing Organizations in Africa Berlin de GruyterBlunt P and Jones ML (1997) lsquoExploring the Limits of Western Leadership Theory in East

Asia and Africarsquo Personnel Review 26(1ndash2) 6ndash23Boon M (1996) The African Way The Power of Interactive Leadership Johannesburg Zebra

PressCarlsson J (1998) lsquoOrganization and Leadership in Africarsquo In Wohlgemuth L Carlsson J and

Ki e H (eds) Institution Building and Leadership in Africa Uppsala Sweden NordiskaAfrikainstitutet pp 13ndash32

Chen M (1995) Asian Management Systems New York RoutledgeChinese Cultural Connection (1987) lsquoChinese Values and the Search for Culture-Free Dimensions

of Culturersquo Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology 18 143ndash64Cray D and Mallory GR (1998) Making Sense of Managing Culture London Thomsonde Sardan JPO (1999) lsquoA Moral Economy of Corruption in Africarsquo The Journal of Modern

African Studies 37(1) 25ndash52Dia M (1996) Africarsquos Management in the 1990s and Beyond Washington DC World BankEarley PC and Mosakowski PM (1998) lsquoCreating Hybrid Team Cultures An Empirical Test

of Transnational Team Functioningrsquo working paper Indiana UniversityElron E Shamir B and Ben-Ari E (1999) lsquoWhy Donrsquot They Fight Each Other Cultural

Diversity and Operational Unity in Multinational Peacekeeping Forcesrsquo Armed Forces andSociety 26 73ndash98

Fashoyin T and Matanmi S (1996) lsquoDemocracy Labour and Development TransformingIndustrial Relations in Africarsquo Industrial Relations Journal 27(1) 38ndash49

Gelfand M (1973) The Genuine Shona Harare Mambo PressGluckman M (1956) Custom and Con ict in Africa Oxford BlackwellHambrick DC Davison SC Snell SA and Snow CC (1998) lsquoWhen Groups Consist of

Multiple Nationalities Towards a New Understanding of the Implicationsrsquo OrganizationStudies 19 181ndash205

Hendry C and Pettigrew A (1990) lsquoHuman Resource Management An Agenda for the 1990srsquoInternational Journal of Human Resource Management 1(1) 17ndash44

Hickson DJ and Pugh DS (1995) Management Worldwide London PenguinHofmeyer K Templar A and Beaty (1994) lsquoSouth Africa Researching Contrasts and

Contradictions in a Context of Changersquo International Studies of Management and Organiza-tion 24(1ndash2) 190ndash208

Hofstede G (1980) Culturersquos Consequences International Differences in Work Related ValuesBeverly Hills CA Sage

Hofstede G (1991) Cultures and Organizations Software of the Mind London McGraw-HillHui CH (1990) lsquoWork Attitudes Leadership Styles and Managerial Behaviors in Different

Culturesrsquo In Brislin RW (ed) Applied Cross-cultural Psychology Newbury Park CA Sagepp 186ndash208

Human L (1996) Contemporary Conversations Dakar Senegal The Goree InstituteIbru OM (1997) lsquoThe Development of International Business in Africa (1947ndash1997)rsquo The

International Executive 39(2) 117ndash33Iguisi O (1997) lsquoThe Role of Culture in Appropriate Management and Indigenous Developmentrsquo

Proceedings of the First African Seminar on Culture Dimensions to Appropriate Managementin Africa Makerere University Kampala Uganda December 1995 Paris UNESCO pp18ndash46


Jackson SE (1992) Diversity in the Workplace New York Guilford PressJackson T (1993) Organizational Behaviour in International Management Oxford Butterworth-

HeinemannJackson T (1999) lsquoManaging Change in South Africa Developing People and Organizationsrsquo

International Journal of Human Resource Management 10(2) 306ndash26Jackson T (2002 in press) lsquoThe Management of People Across Cultures Valuing People

Differentlyrsquo Human Resource Management NovemberJackson T and Kotze E (in press) lsquoManagement and Change in the South Africa National

Defence ForcersquoJaeger AM and Kanungo RN (eds) (1990) Management in Developing Countries London

RoutledgeJoergensen JJ (1990) lsquoOrganizational Life-Cycle and Effectiveness Criteria in State-Owned

Enterprises The Case of East Africarsquo In Jaeger AM and Kanungo RN (eds) Managementin Developing Countries London Routledge pp 62ndash82

Kamoche K (1997) lsquoCompetence Creation in the African Public Sectorrsquo International Journal ofPublic Sector Management 10(4) 268ndash78

Kanungo RN and Jaeger AM (1990) lsquoIntroduction The Need for Indigenous Management inDeveloping Countriesrsquo In Jaeger AM and Kanungo RN (eds) Management in DevelopingCountries London Routledge pp 1ndash23

Kerr C Dunlop JT Harbison FH and Myers CA (1960) Industrialism and Industrial ManCambridge MA Harvard University Press

Ki e H (1998) lsquoCapacity Building in Africa The Role of Multilateral Financial Institutionsrsquo InWohlgemuth L Carlsson J and Ki e H (eds) Institution Building and Leadership in AfricaUppsala Sweden Nordiska Afrikainstitutet pp 79ndash90

Kiggundu M (1988) lsquoAfricarsquo In Nath R (ed) Comparative Management A Regional ViewCambridge MA Ballinger

Kiggundu M (1989) Managing Organizations in Developing Countries West Hartford CTKumarian Press

Koopman A (1991) Transcultural Management Oxford BlackwellLau DC and Murnighan KJK (1998) lsquoDemographic Diversity and Faultlines The Composi-

tional Dynamics of Organizational Groupsrsquo Academy of Management Review 23 325ndash40Makgoba MW (ed) (1999) African Renaissance Sandton Mafube Cape Town TafelbergMbaku JM (1998) lsquoImproving African Participation in the Global Economy The Role of

Economic Freedomrsquo Business and the Contemporary World 10(2) 297ndash338Mbigi L (1997) Ubuntu The African Dream in Management Randburg S Africa Knowledge

ResourcesMbigi L and Maree J (1995) Ubuntu The Spirit of African Transformational Management

Randburg S Africa Knowledge ResourcesMerrill-Sands D and Holvino E (2000) Working with Diversity A Framework for Action

Working Paper 24 CGIAR (Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research)Gender and Diversity Program Nairobi

Montgomery JD (1987) lsquoProbing Managerial Behaviour Image and Reality in Southern AfricarsquoWorld Development 15(7) 911ndash29

Mulat T (1998) lsquoMultilateralism and Africarsquos Regional Economic Communitiesrsquo Journal ofWorld Trade 32(4) 115ndash38

Munene JC Schwartz SH and Smith PB (2000) lsquoDevelopment in Sub-Saharan AfricaCultural In uences and Managersrsquo Decision Behaviourrsquo Public Administration and Develop-ment 20(in press)

Noorderhaven NG and Tidjani B (2001) lsquoCulture Governance and Economic PerformanceAn Exploratory Study with a Special Focus on Africarsquo International Journal of Cross CulturalManagement 1(1) 31ndash52

Picard LA and Garrity M (1995) lsquoDevelopment Management in Africarsquo In Fitzgerald PMcLennan A and Munslow B (eds) Managing Sustainable Development in South AfricaCape Town Oxford University Press pp 63ndash85


Priem RL Love LG and Shaffer M (2000) lsquoIndustrialization and Values Evolution The Caseof Hong Kong and Guangzhou Chinarsquo Asia Paci c Journal of Management 17(3) 473ndash92

Rao TV (1996) Human Resource Development Experiences Intervention Strategies NewDelhi Sage

Schwartz S (1994) lsquoBeyond Individualism Collectivism New Cultural Dimensions of ValuesrsquoIn Kim et al Individualism and Collectivism Theory Method and Application Beverly HillsCA Sage pp 85ndash119

Smith PB Dugan S and Trompenaars F (1996) lsquoNational Cultures and Values ofOrganizational Employees A Dimensional Analysis across 43 Nationsrsquo Journal of Cross-cultural Psychology 27(2) 231ndash64

Sow AI and Abdulaziz MH (1999) lsquoLanguage and Social Changersquo In Mazrui AA (ed)UNESCO General History of Africa Vol 8 Africa since 1935 Berkeley CA James Curreypp 522ndash52

Storey J (1992) Developments in Management of Human Resources Oxford BlackwellTayeb MH (2000) lsquoThe Internationalisation of HRM Policies and Practices The Case of

Japanese and French Companies in Scotlandrsquo 11th Congress of the AGRH 16ndash17 NovemberESCP-EAP Paris

Thomas A and Bendixen M (2000) lsquoThe Management Implications of Ethnicity in SouthAfricarsquo Journal of International Business Studies 31(3) 507ndash19

Thurley K and Wirdenius H (1989) Towards European Management London PitmanTrompenaars F (1993) Riding the Waves of Culture London BrealeyTsui AS Egan TD and OrsquoReilly CA (1992) lsquoBeing Different Relational Demography and

Organizational Attachmentrsquo Administrative Science Quarterly 39 412ndash38Tyson S and Fell A (1986) Evaluating the Personnel Function London HutchinsonVaughan E (1994) lsquoThe Trial between Sense and Sentiment A Re ection on the Language of

HRMrsquo Journal of General Management 19 20ndash32Wohlgemuth L Carlsson J and Ki e H (1998) lsquoIntroductionrsquo In Wohlgemuth L Carlsson

J and Ki e H (eds) Institution Building and Leadership in Africa Uppsala Sweden NordiskaAfrikainstitutet pp 5ndash11

Woodford-Berger P (1998) lsquoGender Organizational Cultures and Institutional Developmentrsquo InWohlgemuth L Carlsson J and Ki e H (eds) Institution Building and Leadership in AfricaUppsala Sweden Nordiska Afrikainstitutet pp 33ndash42


African countries) as well as through exposure to foreign management education Inaddition managers in Africa increasingly have to manage cross-border dynamics asregional co-operation increases (Mulat 1998) and have had to manage the internaldynamics of inter-ethnic cross-cultural difference and diversity since the lsquoscramble forAfricarsquo ensured national boundaries that conformed to the claims of European powersrather than existing African ethnic divisions

If anything lsquoAfrican managementrsquo is cross-cultural management The objective ofresearch should be in understanding the complex cross-cultural dynamics in Africancountries and their variation in each African country in each region and amongFrancophone Anglophone and Lusophone countries The aim of management devel-opers and human resource specialists (the term lsquohuman resourcersquo is challenged later inthis article as re ecting a view which although not necessarily alien to Africa may becontrary to the way people see themselves there) should be to ensure the more effectivemanagement of these dynamics by rst understanding them and then addressing theneed to develop effective cross-cultural managers and management teams

This article therefore attempts to reframe our understanding of the management ofpeople organizations and change in sub-Saharan African countries by employing aparadigm which re ects the different perceptions of the value of human beings inorganizations (Jackson 1999) and by exploring a model of cross-cultural dynamics inAfrica which incorporates at least some of the complex elements which may beimportant to our understanding (see Figure 1)

The African context

The context of Africa (despite considerable historical economic political and socialvariation across countries which should not be down-played) can best be understood asan historical dynamic that has created a number of paradoxes in Africa The paradoxescan only be really understood by rst considering the inter-continent level of culturalanalysis (AfricandashWestern) The main paradox is between the nature of organizationsand the need to develop human capacity Many African economies are going through astage of transition from large and often overly staffed public corporations to enterpriseswhich are more publicly accountable and private enterprises which have to competeglobally and be pro table (Ibru 1997 Barratt Brown 1995) (this aspect is shown aslsquoEconomic Reformrsquo in Figure 1) At the same time there is an overriding need todevelop people (Ki e 1998 Bazemore and Thai 1995 Kamoche 1997) and to do thispredominantly within work organizations (cf Anyanwu 1998) Yet organizations thatcan take this development role are divesting of people

A legacy of under-skilling largely through a concentration on export-led primaryproduction and low development of consumer economies (Barratt Brown 1995Adedeji 1999) now hampers human capacity building particularly in the service sectorAlso the current need to develop relevance exibility responsiveness and account-ability in the public sector is hampered by a legacy of administration that was tackedonto African societies with a standardization of functions and low transferability ofskills (Carlsson 1998 Picard and Garrity 1995) (lsquoLegacyrsquo in Figure 1) More recentlyan imposition of economic structural adjustment programmes which have reducedgovernment spending removed subsidies deregulated goods money and labourmarkets and decontrolled prices to respond to market forces and liberalization of trade(Mbaku 1998 Wohlgemuth et al 1998) has militated against protecting anddeveloping indigenous organizations through long-term government and private





















Tabl

e 1

Com

pari

son

of d

iffer

ent

orga

niza

tion

al m

anag

emen

t sy

stem

s in

Afr

ica

Post

-col

onia

lPo

st-i

nstr

umen

tal

Afr

ican

Ren

aiss

ance

Eas

t A

sian

Jap

anes

e

Mai

n pr

inci

ples

cT

heor

y X

cW

este

rnp

ost-

inde

pend

ence

Afr

ican

cIn

stru

men

tal

cT

heor

y Y

cW

este

rnlsquo

mod

ernrsquo

cF

unct

iona

list

cH

uman

isti

cc

Ubu

ntu

cC

omm

unit

y co

llec

tivis

m

cH

uman

isti

cc

Cor

pora

te c

olle

ctiv

ism

Impo

rtan

cec

Con

tinui

ng l

egac

y th

roug

hpo

liti

cal

and

econ

omic

inte

rest

s

cL

ooke

d to

as

alte

rnat

ive

cIn

ue

nce

from

mul

tina

tion

als

man

agem

ent

educ

atio

n an

d co

nsul

tant

s

cS

ome

elem

ents

may

pre

vail

in i

ndig

enou

s or

gani

zati

ons

cO

f gr

owin

g in

tere

stin

tern

atio

nall

y

cD

evel

opin

g im

port

ance

thro

ugh

Eas

t A

sian

inve

stm

ent

cM

ay b

e se

en a

sal

tern

ativ

eSt

rate

gyc

Inpu

ts a

nd p

roce

ssor

ient

atio

nc

Lac

k of

res

ults

and

obje

ctiv

esc

Ris

k av

ersi

ve

cR

esul

ts a

nd m

arke

t or

ient

edc

Cle

ar o

bjec

tive

sc

Cal

cula

ted

risk

tak

ing

cS

take

hold

er o

rien

tati

onc

Mar

ket

and

resu

lts

orie

ntat

ion

cC

lear

obj

ecti

ves

cL

ow r

isk

taki

ng

Stru

ctur

ec

Hie

rarc

hica

lc

Cen

tral

ized

cF

latt

er h

iera

rchy

cO

ften

dec

entr

aliz

edc

Fla

tter

hie

rarc

hyc

Dec

entr

aliz

ed a

nd c

lose

r to

stak

ehol

ders

cH

iera

rchi

cal

and

conf

orm

ity

Gov

erna

nce

and

deci

sion

mak

ing

cA

utho

rita

rian

cN

on-c

onsu

ltat

ive

cO

ften

con

sult

ativ

ec

Incr

easi

ng e

mph

asis

on

lsquoem

pow

erm

entrsquo

cP

arti

cipa

tive

co

nsen

sus

seek

ing

(ind

aba )

cC

onsu

ltati

ve b

utau

thor

ity

from

top

Con

trol

cR

ule

boun

dc

Lac

k of

ex

ibil

ityc

Out

side

in

uenc

e or

con

trol

(fam

ily

gov

ernm

ent)

oft

ense

en a

s ne

gativ

e

cC

lear

rul

es o

f ac

tion

cF

lexi

ble

cO

utsi

de g

over

nmen

tin

ue

nce

decr

easi

ng

cB

enig

n ru

les

of a

ctio

nc

Out

side

in

uenc

e(g

over

nmen

t fa

mil

y) m

ay b

ese

en a

s m

ore

beni

gn

cC

onse

nsus

and

har

mon

yab

ove

form

al r

ules

cM

ay h

ave

a la

ck o

f

exib

ility

Cha

ract

erc

May

not

act

eth

ical

lyto

war

ds s

take

hold

ers

cN

ot v

ery

efc

ient

cS

tati

cc

Pro

babl

y no

t fo

reig

n ow

ned

cM

ore

ethi

call

y re

spon

sibl

ec

Aim

s to

be

succ

essf

ulc

Cha

nge

is a

fea

ture

cP

roba

bly

fore

ign

owne

d

cS

take

hold

er i

nter

est

may

be

mor

e im

port

ant

than

lsquoet

hics

rsquoc

Suc

cess

rel

ated

to

deve

lopm

ent

and

wel

l be

ing

of i

ts p

eopl

ec

Indi

geno

us

cH

arm

ony

and

face

may

be m

ore

impo

rtan

t th

anet

hics

cE

fci

ency

cM

ay b

e sl

ow t

o ch

ange


Tabl

e 1

Con

tinu

ed

Post

-col

onia

lPo

st-i

nstr

umen

tal

Afr

ican

Ren

aiss

ance

Eas

t A

sian

Jap

anes

e

Inte

rnal

pol

icie

sc

Dis

crim

inat

ory

cE

mpl

oyee

pol

icie

s ai

med

at

duti

es r

athe

r th

an r

ight

s

cN

on-d

iscr

imin

ator

yc

Acc

ess

to e

qual

opp

ortu

niti

esan

d cl

ear

empl

oyee

pol

icie

son

res

pons

ibil

itie

s an

d ri

ghts

cS

take

hold

er i

nter

ests

cA

cces

s to

equ

al o

ppor

tuni

ties

cC

an b

e di

scri

min

ator

y(t

owar

ds w

omen

)c

Em

ploy

ee r

elat

ions

may

be m

ore

impl

icit

Inte

rnal

clim

ate

cE

mpl

oyee

ali

enat

ion

com

mon

cW

eak

trad

e un

ions

cIn

ter-

ethn

ic f

rict

ion

cD

isco

urag

es d

iver

sity

of

opin

ions

cP

rom

otio

n by

asc

ript

ion

cE

mph

asis

on

empl

oyee

mot

ivat

ion

cW

eak

or c

o-op

erat

ive

unio

nsc

Mov

e to

war

ds i

nter

-eth

nic

harm

ony

cD

iver

se o

pini

ons

ofte

nen

cour

aged

cP

rom

otio

n ba

sed

onac

hiev

emen

t

cM

otiv

atio

n th

roug

hpa

rtic

ipat

ion

impo

rtan

tc

Uni

ons

prot

ect

righ

tsc

Inte

r-et

hnic

har

mon

y ta

ken

into

con

side

rati

onc

Eve

ryon

e sh

ould

be

able

to

stat

e th

eir

opin

ions

cP

rom

otio

n ba

sed

onle

giti

miz

atio

n of

sta

tus

cA

ims

at e

mpl

oyee

com

mit

men

t (j

obsa

tisf

acti

on m

ay b

e lo

w)

cC

ompa

ny t

rade

uni

ons

cIn

ter-

ethn

ic r

elat

ions

may

not

be

an i

ssue

cC

onse

nsus

rat

her

than

dive

rsit

y of

opi

nion

sst

ress

edc

Pro

mot

ion

by s

enio

rity

Ext

erna

l po

licie

sc

Lac

k of

cus

tom

erc

lient

poli

cies

cL

ack

or r

esul

ts o

rien

tati

on

cC

lear

pol

icie

s on

cus

tom

ers

clie

nts

cR

esul

ts o

rien

tati

on

cA

cle

ar a

war

enes

s of

and

arti

cula

tion

of

stak

ehol

der

inte

rest

s

cA

foc

us o

n bu

sine

ss a

ndcu

stom

er n

etw

orks

rath

er t

han

expl

icit

poli

cies

Man

agem

ent

expe

rtis

ec

Edu

cate

d m

anag

emen

t el

itew

ith

low

man

geri

al e

xper

tise

cH

igh

res

ults

-ori

ente

dm

anag

eria

l ex

pert

ise

isai

med

for

cM

anag

emen

t ex

pert

ise

base

don

peo

ple

orie

ntat

ion

cM

anag

emen

tef

fect

iven

ess

base

d on

coll

ecti

ve s

kills

Peop

leor

ient

atio

nc

Con

trol

ori

enta

tion

cP

eopl

e an

d re

sult

s or

ient

atio

nc

Peo

ple

and

stak

ehol

der

orie

ntat

ion

cP

eopl

e (i

n-gr

oup)

orie

ntat

ion


Tabl

e 2

Com

pari

son

of d

iffer

ent

man

agem

ent

attr

ibut

es i

n A

fric

a

Post

-col

onia

lPo

st-i

nstr

umen

tal

Afr

ican

Ren

aiss

ance

Eas

t A

sian

Jap

anes

e

Man

agem

ent

mot

ivat

ors

cE

cono

mic

sec

urit

yc

Con

trol

cM

anag

ing

unce

rtai

nty

cS

elf-

enha

ncem

ent

cA

uton

omy

cIn

depe

nden

cec

Ach

ieve

men

t

cB

elon

ging

cD

evel

opm

ent

of p

erso

nal

and

grou

p

cB

elon

ging

cD

evel

opm

ent

in c

orpo

rate

cont

ext

cE

lem

ents

of

econ

omic

secu

rity

Man

agem

ent

com

mit

men

tc

To

busi

ness

obj

ecti

ves

cT

o re

lativ

esc

To

orga

niza

tion

cT

o se

lfc

To

resu

lts

cT

o et

hica

l pr

inci

ples

cT

o w

ork

cT

o gr

oup

cT

o pe

ople

cT

o bu

sine

ss o

bjec

tive

s(t

he c

orpo

rate

)c

To

resu

lts

cT

o w

ork

cT

o re

lativ

esM

anag

emen

tpr

inci

ples

cE

xter

nal

locu

s of

con

trol

cD

eont

olog

yc

The

ory

Xc

Mis

trus

t of

hum

an n

atur

ec

Sta

tus

orie

ntat

ion

cIn

tern

al l

ocus

of

cont

rol

cT

eleo

logy

cT

heor

y Y

cC

ondi

tiona

l tr

ust

of h

uman

natu

rec

Ach

ieve

men

t or

ient

atio

n

cIn

tern

al a

nd e

xter

nal

locu

s of

cont

rol

cT

rust

of

hum

an n

atur

ec

Sta

tus

and

achi

evem

ent

orie

ntat

ion

cE

xter

nal

locu

s of

con

trol

cT

heor

y Y

(in

-gro

up)

theo

ry X

(ou

t-gr

oup)

cT

rust

of

in-g

roup

mem

bers

cR

elat

iona

l an

d re

lati

vity

aspe

cts

of d

ecis

ion

mak

ing

cS

tatu

s th

roug

h se

nior

ityM

anag

emen

tpr

acti

ces

cR

elia

nce

on h

iera

rchy

cU

se o

f ra

nkc

Low

ega

litar

iani

smc

Lac

k of

ope

nco

mm

unic

atio

nc

Lac

k of

ope

n in

form

atio

n

cS

ome

part

icip

atio

nc

Mos

tly c

omm

unic

atin

gop

enly

cP

rovi

ding

ope

n in

form

atio

nw

hen

nece

ssar

yc

Con

fron

tatio

nal

cP

arti

cipa

tion

cE

gali

tari

anis

mc

Com

mun

icat

ing

open

lyc

Pro

vidi

ng o

pen

com

mun

icat

ion

cC

onsu

ltati

ve (

ring

i )c

Com

mun

icat

ing

and

info

rmat

ion

givi

ng t

o ga

inco

nsen

sus

cM

aint

aini

ng h

arm

ony

Mai

n or

ient

atio

nsc

Man

agin

g pr

oces

sc

Man

agin

g po

wer

rel

atio

nsc

Man

agin

g re

sults

(ex

tern

alfo

cus)

cM

anag

ing

peop

le

cM

anag

ing

peop

le (

inte

rnal

stak

ehol

der

focu

s)c

Man

agin

g re

sults

(de

ned

by

stak

ehol

der

inte

rest

s)

cM

anag

ing

peop

le (

in-

grou

pou

t-gr

oup

rela

tion

s)c

Man

agin

g re

sults

(de

ned

by s

take

hold

er i

nter

ests

)



































































References



























































































Tabl

e 1

Com

pari

son

of d

iffer

ent

orga

niza

tion

al m

anag

emen

t sy

stem

s in

Afr

ica

Post

-col

onia

lPo

st-i

nstr

umen

tal

Afr

ican

Ren

aiss

ance

Eas

t A

sian

Jap

anes

e

Mai

n pr

inci

ples

cT

heor

y X

cW

este

rnp

ost-

inde

pend

ence

Afr

ican

cIn

stru

men

tal

cT

heor

y Y

cW

este

rnlsquo

mod

ernrsquo

cF

unct

iona

list

cH

uman

isti

cc

Ubu

ntu

cC

omm

unit

y co

llec

tivis

m

cH

uman

isti

cc

Cor

pora

te c

olle

ctiv

ism

Impo

rtan

cec

Con

tinui

ng l

egac

y th

roug

hpo

liti

cal

and

econ

omic

inte

rest

s

cL

ooke

d to

as

alte

rnat

ive

cIn

ue

nce

from

mul

tina

tion

als

man

agem

ent

educ

atio

n an

d co

nsul

tant

s

cS

ome

elem

ents

may

pre

vail

in i

ndig

enou

s or

gani

zati

ons

cO

f gr

owin

g in

tere

stin

tern

atio

nall

y

cD

evel

opin

g im

port

ance

thro

ugh

Eas

t A

sian

inve

stm

ent

cM

ay b

e se

en a

sal

tern

ativ

eSt

rate

gyc

Inpu

ts a

nd p

roce

ssor

ient

atio

nc

Lac

k of

res

ults

and

obje

ctiv

esc

Ris

k av

ersi

ve

cR

esul

ts a

nd m

arke

t or

ient

edc

Cle

ar o

bjec

tive

sc

Cal

cula

ted

risk

tak

ing

cS

take

hold

er o

rien

tati

onc

Mar

ket

and

resu

lts

orie

ntat

ion

cC

lear

obj

ecti

ves

cL

ow r

isk

taki

ng

Stru

ctur

ec

Hie

rarc

hica

lc

Cen

tral

ized

cF

latt

er h

iera

rchy

cO

ften

dec

entr

aliz

edc

Fla

tter

hie

rarc

hyc

Dec

entr

aliz

ed a

nd c

lose

r to

stak

ehol

ders

cH

iera

rchi

cal

and

conf

orm

ity

Gov

erna

nce

and

deci

sion

mak

ing

cA

utho

rita

rian

cN

on-c

onsu

ltat

ive

cO

ften

con

sult

ativ

ec

Incr

easi

ng e

mph

asis

on

lsquoem

pow

erm

entrsquo

cP

arti

cipa

tive

co

nsen

sus

seek

ing

(ind

aba )

cC

onsu

ltati

ve b

utau

thor

ity

from

top

Con

trol

cR

ule

boun

dc

Lac

k of

ex

ibil

ityc

Out

side

in

uenc

e or

con

trol

(fam

ily

gov

ernm

ent)

oft

ense

en a

s ne

gativ

e

cC

lear

rul

es o

f ac

tion

cF

lexi

ble

cO

utsi

de g

over

nmen

tin

ue

nce

decr

easi

ng

cB

enig

n ru

les

of a

ctio

nc

Out

side

in

uenc

e(g

over

nmen

t fa

mil

y) m

ay b

ese

en a

s m

ore

beni

gn

cC

onse

nsus

and

har

mon

yab

ove

form

al r

ules

cM

ay h

ave

a la

ck o

f

exib

ility

Cha

ract

erc

May

not

act

eth

ical

lyto

war

ds s

take

hold

ers

cN

ot v

ery

efc

ient

cS

tati

cc

Pro

babl

y no

t fo

reig

n ow

ned

cM

ore

ethi

call

y re

spon

sibl

ec

Aim

s to

be

succ

essf

ulc

Cha

nge

is a

fea

ture

cP

roba

bly

fore

ign

owne

d

cS

take

hold

er i

nter

est

may

be

mor

e im

port

ant

than

lsquoet

hics

rsquoc

Suc

cess

rel

ated

to

deve

lopm

ent

and

wel

l be

ing

of i

ts p

eopl

ec

Indi

geno

us

cH

arm

ony

and

face

may

be m

ore

impo

rtan

t th

anet

hics

cE

fci

ency

cM

ay b

e sl

ow t

o ch

ange


Tabl

e 1

Con

tinu

ed

Post

-col

onia

lPo

st-i

nstr

umen

tal

Afr

ican

Ren

aiss

ance

Eas

t A

sian

Jap

anes

e

Inte

rnal

pol

icie

sc

Dis

crim

inat

ory

cE

mpl

oyee

pol

icie

s ai

med

at

duti

es r

athe

r th

an r

ight

s

cN

on-d

iscr

imin

ator

yc

Acc

ess

to e

qual

opp

ortu

niti

esan

d cl

ear

empl

oyee

pol

icie

son

res

pons

ibil

itie

s an

d ri

ghts

cS

take

hold

er i

nter

ests

cA

cces

s to

equ

al o

ppor

tuni

ties

cC

an b

e di

scri

min

ator

y(t

owar

ds w

omen

)c

Em

ploy

ee r

elat

ions

may

be m

ore

impl

icit

Inte

rnal

clim

ate

cE

mpl

oyee

ali

enat

ion

com

mon

cW

eak

trad

e un

ions

cIn

ter-

ethn

ic f

rict

ion

cD

isco

urag

es d

iver

sity

of

opin

ions

cP

rom

otio

n by

asc

ript

ion

cE

mph

asis

on

empl

oyee

mot

ivat

ion

cW

eak

or c

o-op

erat

ive

unio

nsc

Mov

e to

war

ds i

nter

-eth

nic

harm

ony

cD

iver

se o

pini

ons

ofte

nen

cour

aged

cP

rom

otio

n ba

sed

onac

hiev

emen

t

cM

otiv

atio

n th

roug

hpa

rtic

ipat

ion

impo

rtan

tc

Uni

ons

prot

ect

righ

tsc

Inte

r-et

hnic

har

mon

y ta

ken

into

con

side

rati

onc

Eve

ryon

e sh

ould

be

able

to

stat

e th

eir

opin

ions

cP

rom

otio

n ba

sed

onle

giti

miz

atio

n of

sta

tus

cA

ims

at e

mpl

oyee

com

mit

men

t (j

obsa

tisf

acti

on m

ay b

e lo

w)

cC

ompa

ny t

rade

uni

ons

cIn

ter-

ethn

ic r

elat

ions

may

not

be

an i

ssue

cC

onse

nsus

rat

her

than

dive

rsit

y of

opi

nion

sst

ress

edc

Pro

mot

ion

by s

enio

rity

Ext

erna

l po

licie

sc

Lac

k of

cus

tom

erc

lient

poli

cies

cL

ack

or r

esul

ts o

rien

tati

on

cC

lear

pol

icie

s on

cus

tom

ers

clie

nts

cR

esul

ts o

rien

tati

on

cA

cle

ar a

war

enes

s of

and

arti

cula

tion

of

stak

ehol

der

inte

rest

s

cA

foc

us o

n bu

sine

ss a

ndcu

stom

er n

etw

orks

rath

er t

han

expl

icit

poli

cies

Man

agem

ent

expe

rtis

ec

Edu

cate

d m

anag

emen

t el

itew

ith

low

man

geri

al e

xper

tise

cH

igh

res

ults

-ori

ente

dm

anag

eria

l ex

pert

ise

isai

med

for

cM

anag

emen

t ex

pert

ise

base

don

peo

ple

orie

ntat

ion

cM

anag

emen

tef

fect

iven

ess

base

d on

coll

ecti

ve s

kills

Peop

leor

ient

atio

nc

Con

trol

ori

enta

tion

cP

eopl

e an

d re

sult

s or

ient

atio

nc

Peo

ple

and

stak

ehol

der

orie

ntat

ion

cP

eopl

e (i

n-gr

oup)

orie

ntat

ion


Tabl

e 2

Com

pari

son

of d

iffer

ent

man

agem

ent

attr

ibut

es i

n A

fric

a

Post

-col

onia

lPo

st-i

nstr

umen

tal

Afr

ican

Ren

aiss

ance

Eas

t A

sian

Jap

anes

e

Man

agem

ent

mot

ivat

ors

cE

cono

mic

sec

urit

yc

Con

trol

cM

anag

ing

unce

rtai

nty

cS

elf-

enha

ncem

ent

cA

uton

omy

cIn

depe

nden

cec

Ach

ieve

men

t

cB

elon

ging

cD

evel

opm

ent

of p

erso

nal

and

grou

p

cB

elon

ging

cD

evel

opm

ent

in c

orpo

rate

cont

ext

cE

lem

ents

of

econ

omic

secu

rity

Man

agem

ent

com

mit

men

tc

To

busi

ness

obj

ecti

ves

cT

o re

lativ

esc

To

orga

niza

tion

cT

o se

lfc

To

resu

lts

cT

o et

hica

l pr

inci

ples

cT

o w

ork

cT

o gr

oup

cT

o pe

ople

cT

o bu

sine

ss o

bjec

tive

s(t

he c

orpo

rate

)c

To

resu

lts

cT

o w

ork

cT

o re

lativ

esM

anag

emen

tpr

inci

ples

cE

xter

nal

locu

s of

con

trol

cD

eont

olog

yc

The

ory

Xc

Mis

trus

t of

hum

an n

atur

ec

Sta

tus

orie

ntat

ion

cIn

tern

al l

ocus

of

cont

rol

cT

eleo

logy

cT

heor

y Y

cC

ondi

tiona

l tr

ust

of h

uman

natu

rec

Ach

ieve

men

t or

ient

atio

n

cIn

tern

al a

nd e

xter

nal

locu

s of

cont

rol

cT

rust

of

hum

an n

atur

ec

Sta

tus

and

achi

evem

ent

orie

ntat

ion

cE

xter

nal

locu

s of

con

trol

cT

heor

y Y

(in

-gro

up)

theo

ry X

(ou

t-gr

oup)

cT

rust

of

in-g

roup

mem

bers

cR

elat

iona

l an

d re

lati

vity

aspe

cts

of d

ecis

ion

mak

ing

cS

tatu

s th

roug

h se

nior

ityM

anag

emen

tpr

acti

ces

cR

elia

nce

on h

iera

rchy

cU

se o

f ra

nkc

Low

ega

litar

iani

smc

Lac

k of

ope

nco

mm

unic

atio

nc

Lac

k of

ope

n in

form

atio

n

cS

ome

part

icip

atio

nc

Mos

tly c

omm

unic

atin

gop

enly

cP

rovi

ding

ope

n in

form

atio

nw

hen

nece

ssar

yc

Con

fron

tatio

nal

cP

arti

cipa

tion

cE

gali

tari

anis

mc

Com

mun

icat

ing

open

lyc

Pro

vidi

ng o

pen

com

mun

icat

ion

cC

onsu

ltati

ve (

ring

i )c

Com

mun

icat

ing

and

info

rmat

ion

givi

ng t

o ga

inco

nsen

sus

cM

aint

aini

ng h

arm

ony

Mai

n or

ient

atio

nsc

Man

agin

g pr

oces

sc

Man

agin

g po

wer

rel

atio

nsc

Man

agin

g re

sults

(ex

tern

alfo

cus)

cM

anag

ing

peop

le

cM

anag

ing

peop

le (

inte

rnal

stak

ehol

der

focu

s)c

Man

agin

g re

sults

(de

ned

by

stak

ehol

der

inte

rest

s)

cM

anag

ing

peop

le (

in-

grou

pou

t-gr

oup

rela

tion

s)c

Man

agin

g re

sults

(de

ned

by s

take

hold

er i

nter

ests

)



































































References








































































Tabl

e 1

Con

tinu

ed

Post

-col

onia

lPo

st-i

nstr

umen

tal

Afr

ican

Ren

aiss

ance

Eas

t A

sian

Jap

anes

e

Inte

rnal

pol

icie

sc

Dis

crim

inat

ory

cE

mpl

oyee

pol

icie

s ai

med

at

duti

es r

athe

r th

an r

ight

s

cN

on-d

iscr

imin

ator

yc

Acc

ess

to e

qual

opp

ortu

niti

esan

d cl

ear

empl

oyee

pol

icie

son

res

pons

ibil

itie

s an

d ri

ghts

cS

take

hold

er i

nter

ests

cA

cces

s to

equ

al o

ppor

tuni

ties

cC

an b

e di

scri

min

ator

y(t

owar

ds w

omen

)c

Em

ploy

ee r

elat

ions

may

be m

ore

impl

icit

Inte

rnal

clim

ate

cE

mpl

oyee

ali

enat

ion

com

mon

cW

eak

trad

e un

ions

cIn

ter-

ethn

ic f

rict

ion

cD

isco

urag

es d

iver

sity

of

opin

ions

cP

rom

otio

n by

asc

ript

ion

cE

mph

asis

on

empl

oyee

mot

ivat

ion

cW

eak

or c

o-op

erat

ive

unio

nsc

Mov

e to

war

ds i

nter

-eth

nic

harm

ony

cD

iver

se o

pini

ons

ofte

nen

cour

aged

cP

rom

otio

n ba

sed

onac

hiev

emen

t

cM

otiv

atio

n th

roug

hpa

rtic

ipat

ion

impo

rtan

tc

Uni

ons

prot

ect

righ

tsc

Inte

r-et

hnic

har

mon

y ta

ken

into

con

side

rati

onc

Eve

ryon

e sh

ould

be

able

to

stat

e th

eir

opin

ions

cP

rom

otio

n ba

sed

onle

giti

miz

atio

n of

sta

tus

cA

ims

at e

mpl

oyee

com

mit

men

t (j

obsa

tisf

acti

on m

ay b

e lo

w)

cC

ompa

ny t

rade

uni

ons

cIn

ter-

ethn

ic r

elat

ions

may

not

be

an i

ssue

cC

onse

nsus

rat

her

than

dive

rsit

y of

opi

nion

sst

ress

edc

Pro

mot

ion

by s

enio

rity

Ext

erna

l po

licie

sc

Lac

k of

cus

tom

erc

lient

poli

cies

cL

ack

or r

esul

ts o

rien

tati

on

cC

lear

pol

icie

s on

cus

tom

ers

clie

nts

cR

esul

ts o

rien

tati

on

cA

cle

ar a

war

enes

s of

and

arti

cula

tion

of

stak

ehol

der

inte

rest

s

cA

foc

us o

n bu

sine

ss a

ndcu

stom

er n

etw

orks

rath

er t

han

expl

icit

poli

cies

Man

agem

ent

expe

rtis

ec

Edu

cate

d m

anag

emen

t el

itew

ith

low

man

geri

al e

xper

tise

cH

igh

res

ults

-ori

ente

dm

anag

eria

l ex

pert

ise

isai

med

for

cM

anag

emen

t ex

pert

ise

base

don

peo

ple

orie

ntat

ion

cM

anag

emen

tef

fect

iven

ess

base

d on

coll

ecti

ve s

kills

Peop

leor

ient

atio

nc

Con

trol

ori

enta

tion

cP

eopl

e an

d re

sult

s or

ient

atio

nc

Peo

ple

and

stak

ehol

der

orie

ntat

ion

cP

eopl

e (i

n-gr

oup)

orie

ntat

ion


Tabl

e 2

Com

pari

son

of d

iffer

ent

man

agem

ent

attr

ibut

es i

n A

fric

a

Post

-col

onia

lPo

st-i

nstr

umen

tal

Afr

ican

Ren

aiss

ance

Eas

t A

sian

Jap

anes

e

Man

agem

ent

mot

ivat

ors

cE

cono

mic

sec

urit

yc

Con

trol

cM

anag

ing

unce

rtai

nty

cS

elf-

enha

ncem

ent

cA

uton

omy

cIn

depe

nden

cec

Ach

ieve

men

t

cB

elon

ging

cD

evel

opm

ent

of p

erso

nal

and

grou

p

cB

elon

ging

cD

evel

opm

ent

in c

orpo

rate

cont

ext

cE

lem

ents

of

econ

omic

secu

rity

Man

agem

ent

com

mit

men

tc

To

busi

ness

obj

ecti

ves

cT

o re

lativ

esc

To

orga

niza

tion

cT

o se

lfc

To

resu

lts

cT

o et

hica

l pr

inci

ples

cT

o w

ork

cT

o gr

oup

cT

o pe

ople

cT

o bu

sine

ss o

bjec

tive

s(t

he c

orpo

rate

)c

To

resu

lts

cT

o w

ork

cT

o re

lativ

esM

anag

emen

tpr

inci

ples

cE

xter

nal

locu

s of

con

trol

cD

eont

olog

yc

The

ory

Xc

Mis

trus

t of

hum

an n

atur

ec

Sta

tus

orie

ntat

ion

cIn

tern

al l

ocus

of

cont

rol

cT

eleo

logy

cT

heor

y Y

cC

ondi

tiona

l tr

ust

of h

uman

natu

rec

Ach

ieve

men

t or

ient

atio

n

cIn

tern

al a

nd e

xter

nal

locu

s of

cont

rol

cT

rust

of

hum

an n

atur

ec

Sta

tus

and

achi

evem

ent

orie

ntat

ion

cE

xter

nal

locu

s of

con

trol

cT

heor

y Y

(in

-gro

up)

theo

ry X

(ou

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rust

of

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bers

cR

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l an

d re

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aspe

cts

of d

ecis

ion

mak

ing

cS

tatu

s th

roug

h se

nior

ityM

anag

emen

tpr

acti

ces

cR

elia

nce

on h

iera

rchy

cU

se o

f ra

nkc

Low

ega

litar

iani

smc

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k of

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nco

mm

unic

atio

nc

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form

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n

cS

ome

part

icip

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nc

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tly c

omm

unic

atin

gop

enly

cP

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form

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nw

hen

nece

ssar

yc

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fron

tatio

nal

cP

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cipa

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cE

gali

tari

anis

mc

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mun

icat

ing

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lyc

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vidi

ng o

pen

com

mun

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ion

cC

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ltati

ve (

ring

i )c

Com

mun

icat

ing

and

info

rmat

ion

givi

ng t

o ga

inco

nsen

sus

cM

aint

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ng h

arm

ony

Mai

n or

ient

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nsc

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agin

g pr

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agin

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wer

rel

atio

nsc

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agin

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sults

(ex

tern

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cM

anag

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le

cM

anag

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peop

le (

inte

rnal

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ehol

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focu

s)c

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ned

by

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rest

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tion

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agin

g re

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(de

ned

by s

take

hold

er i

nter

ests

)



































































References








































































Tabl

e 2

Com

pari

son

of d

iffer

ent

man

agem

ent

attr

ibut

es i

n A

fric

a

Post

-col

onia

lPo

st-i

nstr

umen

tal

Afr

ican

Ren

aiss

ance

Eas

t A

sian

Jap

anes

e

Man

agem

ent

mot

ivat

ors

cE

cono

mic

sec

urit

yc

Con

trol

cM

anag

ing

unce

rtai

nty

cS

elf-

enha

ncem

ent

cA

uton

omy

cIn

depe

nden

cec

Ach

ieve

men

t

cB

elon

ging

cD

evel

opm

ent

of p

erso

nal

and

grou

p

cB

elon

ging

cD

evel

opm

ent

in c

orpo

rate

cont

ext

cE

lem

ents

of

econ

omic

secu

rity

Man

agem

ent

com

mit

men

tc

To

busi

ness

obj

ecti

ves

cT

o re

lativ

esc

To

orga

niza

tion

cT

o se

lfc

To

resu

lts

cT

o et

hica

l pr

inci

ples

cT

o w

ork

cT

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oup

cT

o pe

ople

cT

o bu

sine

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he c

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rate

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To

resu

lts

cT

o w

ork

cT

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lativ

esM

anag

emen

tpr

inci

ples

cE

xter

nal

locu

s of

con

trol

cD

eont

olog

yc

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ory

Xc

Mis

trus

t of

hum

an n

atur

ec

Sta

tus

orie

ntat

ion

cIn

tern

al l

ocus

of

cont

rol

cT

eleo

logy

cT

heor

y Y

cC

ondi

tiona

l tr

ust

of h

uman

natu

rec

Ach

ieve

men

t or

ient

atio

n

cIn

tern

al a

nd e

xter

nal

locu

s of

cont

rol

cT

rust

of

hum

an n

atur

ec

Sta

tus

and

achi

evem

ent

orie

ntat

ion

cE

xter

nal

locu

s of

con

trol

cT

heor

y Y

(in

-gro

up)

theo

ry X

(ou

t-gr

oup)

cT

rust

of

in-g

roup

mem

bers

cR

elat

iona

l an

d re

lati

vity

aspe

cts

of d

ecis

ion

mak

ing

cS

tatu

s th

roug

h se

nior

ityM

anag

emen

tpr

acti

ces

cR

elia

nce

on h

iera

rchy

cU

se o

f ra

nkc

Low

ega

litar

iani

smc

Lac

k of

ope

nco

mm

unic

atio

nc

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k of

ope

n in

form

atio

n

cS

ome

part

icip

atio

nc

Mos

tly c

omm

unic

atin

gop

enly

cP

rovi

ding

ope

n in

form

atio

nw

hen

nece

ssar

yc

Con

fron

tatio

nal

cP

arti

cipa

tion

cE

gali

tari

anis

mc

Com

mun

icat

ing

open

lyc

Pro

vidi

ng o

pen

com

mun

icat

ion

cC

onsu

ltati

ve (

ring

i )c

Com

mun

icat

ing

and

info

rmat

ion

givi

ng t

o ga

inco

nsen

sus

cM

aint

aini

ng h

arm

ony

Mai

n or

ient

atio

nsc

Man

agin

g pr

oces

sc

Man

agin

g po

wer

rel

atio

nsc

Man

agin

g re

sults

(ex

tern

alfo

cus)

cM

anag

ing

peop

le

cM

anag

ing

peop

le (

inte

rnal

stak

ehol

der

focu

s)c

Man

agin

g re

sults

(de

ned

by

stak

ehol

der

inte

rest

s)

cM

anag

ing

peop

le (

in-

grou

pou

t-gr

oup

rela

tion

s)c

Man

agin

g re

sults

(de

ned

by s

take

hold

er i

nter

ests

)



































































References









































































































































References








































































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