regents prep sg

Mr. Joel’s Global Regents Study Guide

Study Guide Strategies for Success: -study one page a day-take your own notes and review them-work with a friend and quiz each other-make flash cards of key words with translations-take practice exams from past Regents

http://www.nysedregents.org/testing/socstre/regentglob.html-take practice exams in your own language

http://www.nysedregents.org/testing/socstre/regentgloblang.html

***MOST IMPORTANTLY***A LITTLE PRACTICE EVERY DAY IS BETTER THAN A LOT OF

PRACTICE IN ONE DAY!

PART I – UNDERSTANDING MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

There are 50 multiple-choice questions on the exam. The key is not to memorize everything that will be on the exam. The key is to understand what kind of question it is and what you need to look for. There are 13 types of questions.

Question What you need to look for: Example

General

-the key concept in the question

-the example in the answer that matches the concept in the question

concept example

The development of early civilizations usually depended on

1) the formation of democratic governments2) a location near large deposits of gold and silver3) the existence of large armies4) a plentiful water supply and

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http://www.nysedregents.org/testing/socstre/regentgloblang.html

http://www.nysedregents.org/testing/socstre/regentglob.html

fertile land

The answer is 4 because the examples of water supplies and fertile land match the concept of early civilizations.

Regional

-which region is the question is asking about

-what time period the question is talking about

region time period

In ancient China, one effect on government of the teachings of Confucius was the high status of

1) soldiers2) merchants3) farmers4) scholars

The answer is 4 because Confucius was very important to ancient Chinese culture. He was a writer who said that scholars should be in positions of power.

Cross-Regional

-the connection between the three examples in the question

-the key word(s) in the answer that match the connection in the question

connection key word(s)

The Suez Canal, the Panama Canal, and the Straits of the Dardanelles are similar because they

1) are strategic waterways that have been the center of conflicts2) were part of the French colonial empire3) are located in regions that are rich in natural resources4) were built during the time of the Roman Empire

The answer is 1 because the canals (human-made) and the straits (natural) are all waterways.

Generalization

-identify the key concept or region in the question or the given statements

-recall what you know about the key concept or region

key concept / region recall

Which generalization is supported by the study of the Middle East?

1) Illiteracy has become almost nonexistent.2) Religious differences have led to serious conflicts.3) Oil wealth has led to economic inequality.4) Industrial development has urbanized the area.

The answer is 2. The key region in the question is the Middle East. The Middle East has had many examples of religious conflicts throughout history: the Crusades in the Middle Ages, the ongoing conflict between Jews and Muslims in Israel and

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Palestine, etc.

Cause and Effect

-identify if the question is looking for a cause or effect

-identify if the question is asking for a short-term or long-term time frame

cause / effect short-term / long-term

SYNONYMScause – reason, factor, impetus, stimulus, root, source, determinant

effect – conclusion, consequence, result, outcome, product, repercussion, by-product

In western Europe, a major immediate effect of the Reformation was a

1) renewed domination of the Catholic Church over the German states2) greater tolerance of religions other than Christianity3) decrease in educational opportunities for the middle class4) decline in the religious unity and in the power of the Catholic Church

The answer is 4. The question is looking for a short-term effect of the Reformation, which was that people left the Catholic Church and created new churches.

Comparison

-identify the two examples being compared

-identify if the question is asking for a similarity or difference

two examples similar / different

The Holocaust in Europe and the treatment of Amenians in the Ottoman Empire have both been cited as examples of

1) genocide2) socialism3) imperialism4) divine right

The answer is 1. The question is asking for a similarity (“both”) between the two examples. Both examples are similar in that they are examples of genocide.

Fact and Opinion

-determine if the question is looking for a fact or opinion

-find the example of the fact or opinion in the answers

fact / opinion example

WHAT IS A….?fact – a piece of data that can be proven to be absolutely true

opinion – a feeling or personal judgment that cannot be proven

Which statement about the spread of nuclear weapons is a fact rather than an opinion?

1) Nations possessing nuclear weapons should not have to limit the production of weapons.2) The spread of nuclear weapons was a smaller problem in the 1990s than it was in the 1970s.3) The United States and Russia signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties during the 1970s.4) Only developing nations are concerned about the spread of nuclear weapons.

The answer is 3 because the

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question is looking for a fact. Answer 3 can be proven using research. Answers 1, 2 and 4 are based on someone’s feelings on the issue of nuclear weapons.

Conclusion and Theory

-determine if the question is looking for a fact or theory

-find the example of the fact or theory in the answers

WHAT IS A….?conclusion / theory – a judgment based on facts; it is not an opinion because it is based on reason and not emotion or feeling

Which statement about ancient American civilizations expresses a historical theory rather than a historical fact?

1) The Incas lacked a written language.2) The spread of disease cause the downfall of the Mayan Empire.3) Human sacrifice was an element of the Aztec religion.4) The pyramid of the Sun was located in Teotihuacan.

The answer is 2 because exactly what caused the downfall of the Mayan Empire can be debated. One theory—idea supported by facts—is that it was caused by disease. The other answers are facts that can be proven through research.

Written Sources

-find the key words in the writing to determine the main idea

-identify the author or source if it is given

-connect the question to the writing

main idea author / source question & writing

“It was a town of red brick, or of brick that would have been red if the smoke and ashes had allowed it; but as matters stood it was a town of unnatural red and black like the painted face of a savage. It was a town of machinery and tall chimneys, out of which interminable serpents of smoke trailed themselves forever and ever, and never got uncoiled. It had a black canal in it, and a river that ran purple with ill smelling dye…” -Charles Dickens, Hard Times

The author of this passage is describing conditions caused by the

1) Commercial Revolution 2) French Revolution3) Industrial Revolution4) Scientific Revolution

The answer is 3. The main idea is that the city is very polluted because of industry. Charles Dickens is a well-known author who wrote about everyday life during the Industrial Revolution. The question connects to the writing by asking what caused the conditions in the writing.

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Maps

-identify the topic of the map (title)

-identify the facts of the map (key and labels)

-determine what the question is asking you to look for

-interpret the map to answer the question

topic facts question interpret

Which is the most valid conclusion that can be drawn from the study of this map?

1) Only European countries fought in World War I.2) The Central Powers had the stronger militaries.3) Some European countries did not agree with the war.4) The United States entered the war in 1917.

The answer is 3 because it is the only answer that can be proven by the map. The other three might be true, but they cannot be proven with the information from the map.

Political Cartoons

-describe the picture

-find the key words in the caption or text

-connect the picture and words to the question

describe find connect

What is the main idea of the cartoon?

1) Africa was ravaged by disease once the European colonists came.2) European colonists took African natural resources like gold.3) The Berlin Conference of 1844 created opportunities for Africans.4) The Europeans and Africans worked together to extract natural resources like gold.

The answer is 2 because the picture shows a European colonist grabbing a map of Africa. The text of “Golf Fields” connects to the idea that European colonists took the natural resources from Africa.

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Graphs

-identify the topic of the graph (title)

-identify the facts of the graph (text, labels and figures)


-interpret the graph to answer the question


Which statement is best supported by the information from the graph?

1) Japan has an older population that is passed child-bearing age.2) Families in developed countries have more children than families in developing countries.3) There is a lack of birth control options in Africa.4) In the last twenty years, more children are born to African mothers than Asian mothers on average.

The answer is 4 because it is the only answer that can be proven by the graph. The other responses may be true, but you cannot prove them by using the information from the graph.

Tables

-identify the topic of the table (title)

-identify the facts of the table (categories and values)


-interpret the table to answer the question


Defense Estimates of the Great Powers, 1870-1914

(in millions of pounds)1870 1880 1900

Germany 10.8 20.4 41.0Austria-Hungary

8.2 13.2 13.6

France 22.0 31.4 37.4Great Britain

23.4 25.2 31.4

Italy 7.8 10.0 10.0Russia 22.0 29.6 29.6

Which statement is best supported by the data contained in the table?

1) Austria-Hungary could not afford a large military expenditure in 1870.2) France spent the greatest amount of money on defense in 1900.3) Germany rapidly increased its military spending after 1890.4) Great Britain attempted to

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prepare for a long ground war.

The answer is 3 because the question is asking you to identify which statement is best supported by the information. Based on the data, it can be shown that Germany increased its’ military spending somewhere between 1880 and 1900.

PART II – UNDERSTANDING THE THEMATIC ESSAY

The thematic essay can be a challenging task. However, if you break the big job down into little jobs, then you will have a much easier task. In addition, it will make your thematic essay even better!

A thematic essay looks like this:

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In developing your answer to Part II, be sure to keep these general definitions in mind:

a) discuss means “to make observations about something using facts, reasoning, and argument; to present in some detail”

b) analyze means “to determine the nature and relationship of the component elements”

PART II

THEMATIC ESSAY QUESTION

Directions: Write a well-organized essay that includes an introduction, several paragraphs addressing the task below, and a conclusion.

Theme: Conflict

Task: Identify two ethnic, religious, political, and/or cultural conflicts and for each:

You may use any examples from your study of global history and geography. Some suggestions you might wish to consider include the persecution of Christians during the Roman Empire, the Reign of Terror, the Amernian massacres, the forced famine in Ukraine, the Holocaust, apartheid in South Africa, the killing fields of Cambodia, the conflict in Northern Ireland, the Sandinistas in Nicaragua, and the Tiananmen Square rebellion.

CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE

Differences among groups have often led to conflict. Conflicts between groups of people have threatened peace in many nations and regions.

- Discuss the historical circumstances that led to the conflict- Analyze the effect of this conflict on two groups

There are a lot of words on the page, but don’t worry! If you follow the steps it will be easier than you think!

Step #1 – Identify the theme. (Conflict) Read the thematic description.

Step #2 – Read the task. Identify the number of examples needed. (2)

Step #3 – Look at the paragraph listing possible examples for the task. (Hint: If you see an example you remember, choose it!)

Step #4 – Think of examples that are not listed. (Hint: If you can’t think of an example, use the history of your own country!)

Step #5 – Make a table like the one below, and then list details that you want to include in the paragraphs of the essay.

Example #1 (Holocaust) Example #2 (Rwanda)

Task #1(Historical

circumstances)

-Germans lost WWI-The Great Depression created a hard life for the German people-Anti-Semitism was encouraged by the rise of the Nazi party (P2)

-The Belgian colonists divided the Rwandans into two ethnic groups, the Hutu and the Tutsi-The Tutsi controlled the Hutu-The Hutu came to power after the Belgians left in 1962 (P4)

Task #2(Effects of the

-6 million Jews died in the Holocaust-It led to millions of German deaths during the global conflict of WWII-It led to an established definition of “genocide.” (P3)

-There were mass killings when the Hutu came to power in 1962-Tutsi rebels fought against the Hutu government, creating more tension-The 1994 genocide of the Tutsis (P5)

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CONTINUED FROM THE LAST PAGE

You are not limited to these suggestions.

Do not use any conflict that occurred in the United States.

Guidelines:In your essay, be sure to:

- Address all aspects of the Task- Support the theme with relevant facts, examples, and details- Use a logical and clear plan of organization- Introduce the theme by establishing a framework that is beyond a simple

restatement of the Task and conclude with a summation of the theme

conflict)Step #6 – Now you are ready to write your essay.

The essay needs to have an introduction, body and conclusion. This essay should have 6 total paragraphs:

P1 – Introduction (Thematic description with examples)P2 – Example #1, Task #1P3 – Example #1, Task #2P4 – Example #2, Task #1P5 – Example #2, Task #2P6 – Conclusion (Restatement of thematic description)

PART III – UNDERSTANDING DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTIONS

The Document-Based Questions ask you to analyze historical documents in context. In Part A there are usually about 10 documents that you must analyze, and then in Part B use to write an essay.

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Differences among groups have often led to conflict. Conflicts between groups of people have threatened peace in many nations and regions. Two examples of this type of conflict are the Holocaust and the genocide in Rwanda.

There are several historical circumstances that led to the Holocaust. First, the Germans lost World War I, which hurt their political and economic development in the years following the war. In addition, the worldwide Great Depression further damaged the German economy, leading to widespread poverty and hunger. Adolf Hitler and the Nazi party used those circumstances to spread their message of anti-semitism, or hatred of the Jews.

When the Nazis came to power in Germany, they developed a plan to eliminate all Jews from Europe. They called it the “Final Solution.” Today it is known as the Holocaust, a genocide that killed about 6 million Jewish men, women and children. One effect of the Holocaust was that it gathered the attention of the world, leading to World War II. This war affected Germans as well as Jews, as millions of German soldiers and citizens died during the war. One long-term positive effect of the Holocaust was that it established a universal definition of “genocide,” and a law was passed by the United Nations that created necessary intervention actions for future genocides.

Another example of historical conflict is in the African country of Rwanda. The main conflict in Rwanda was between two ethnic groups, the Hutus and the Tutsis. The Belgians created the two groups when they colonized Rwanda in the early 1900s. They gave the smaller group, the Tutsis, power to control the larger group, the Hutus. For years the Tutsis remained in power, until Belgium left in 1959 and the Hutus officially controlled the government in 1962.

This conflict had several effects. First, after the Hutus came to power, there were mass killings of Tutsis. These killings led to the creation of many Tutsi rebels who fought against the Hutu government, and the conflict between the two groups intensified over many years, leading to the genocide in 1994. Around one million

The first step is to look at the historical context and the task:

All of the documents will relate to the historical context, so it may be important to take a minute to recall what you know about that before you begin Part A.

A DBQ may include a map, a graph or table, but it usually asks you to analyze text or quotations, such as the following:

Document 3

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In developing your answers to Part III, be sure to keep this general definition in mind:

discuss means “to make observations about something using facts, reasoning, and arguments; to present in some detail”

PART III

DOCUMENT-BASED QUESTION

This question is based on the accompanying documents. The question is designed to test your ability to work with historical documents. Some of these documents have been edited for the purposes of this question. As you analyze the documents, take into account the source of each document and any point of view that may be presented in the document.

Historical Context:

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, imperialism affected many societies throughout the world. Perspectives on imperialism differed depending on a person’s point of view.

Task: Using the information from the documents and your knowledge of global history, answer the questions that follow each document in Part A. Your answers to the questions will help you write the Part B essay in which you will be asked to

- Discuss imperialism from the point of view of the imperialist power- Discuss imperialism from the point of view of the colonized people

…Let it be admitted at the outset [beginning] that European brains, capital, and energy have not been, and never will be, expended [spent] in developing the resources of Africa from motives of pure philanthropy [goodwill]; that Europe is in Africa for the mutual benefit of her own industrial classes, and of the native races in their progress to a higher plane; that the benefit can be made reciprocal [equivalent], and that it is the aim and desire of civilized administration to fulfil this dual mandate. CONTINUED ON PAGE 11

Source: Lord [Frederick D.] Lugard, The Dual Mandate in British Tropical Africa, Archon Books, 1922

3 According to this document, what were two ways the British improved the lives of Africans?

It is important to note that there are many possible answers to the question. While you can summarize an answer, such as “The British made railways and railroads in Africa,” you can also copy directly from the text. (Hint: If you don’t understand the text or the question, just copy the entire text! This will at least get you one point!)

In Part B, you must use the documents to create an essay:

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By railways and roads, by reclamation [recovery] of swamps and irrigation of deserts, and by a system of fair trade and competition, we have added to the prosperity and wealth of these lands, and [have] checked famine and disease. We have put an end to the awful misery of the slave-trade and inter-tribal war, to human sacrifice and the ordeals of the witch-doctor. Where those things survive they are severely suppressed. We are endeavouring [trying] to teach the native races to conduct their own affairs with justice and humanity, and to educate them alike in letters and in industry…

Part B

Essay

Directions: Write a well-organized essay that includes an introduction, several paragraphs, and a conclusion. Use evidence from at least five documents in your essay. Support your response with relevant facts, examples, and details. Include additional outside information.

Historical Context:

In the late 1800s and early 1900s, imperialism affected many societies throughout the world. Perspectives on imperialism differed depending on a person’s point of view.

Task: Using the information from the documents and your knowledge of global history, answer the questions that follow each document in Part A. Your answers to the questions will help you write the Part B essay in which you will be asked to

Do not use an example of imperialism from United States history in your answer.

CONTINUED ON NEXT PAGE

- Discuss imperialism from the point of view of the imperialist power- Discuss imperialism from the point of view of the colonized people

Just like the thematic essay, if you follow these steps it will make your job much easier, and your essay much better.

Step #1 – Identify the historical context. (Imperialism in the 1800-1900s)

Step #2 – Determine what you need to write about based on the task. (Discuss imperialism from both perspectives)

Step #3 – Review the documents and decide which ones support each part of the task. Identify how many you need in the essay. (5)

Step #4 – Make a table like the one below, and then identify the documents that you want to use in each part.

Positive Effects Negative EffectsTask #1

(imperialists point-of-view)

-Document 3 would be used in this section because it is written from an imperialist point-of-view and claims that imperialism is good

-List supporting documents here

Task #2(colonies

point-of-view)

-List supporting documents here -List supporting documents here

Step #5 – Now you are ready to write your essay.

P1 – Introduction (use the historical context)P2 – Imperialism from the imperialists point-of-viewP3 – Imperialism from the colonies point-of-viewP4 – Conclusion (describe your opinion based on evidence)

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CONTINUED FROM LAST PAGE

Guidelines:In your essay, be sure to- Develop all aspects of the task- Incorporate information from at least five documents- Support the theme with relevant facts, examples, and details- Use a logical and clear plan of organization, including and introduction and a conclusion that are beyond a restatement of the theme

(Hint: The DBQ essay is just like a research paper. Use the documents!)

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PART IV – UNDERSTANDING THE CONTENT

The global history Regents exam is perhaps the hardest Regents exam—it covers over 8000 years of history! The best thing that you can do is learn the big concepts, themes and ideas.

Topic Main Ideas Key Words What you need to know:

The First Humans(10,000-

4000 BCE)

- Due to climate, the first humans settled around the world in about 10,000 BCE

- Early people made tools, used fire and created art

- The first civilizations developed around organized agriculture

- The Neolithic Revolution led to the growth of complex societies

civilizationculturedomestication Neolithic RevolutionnomadicPaleolithicprehistoryagriculture river valleyfertile crops

The first humans developed civilizations and societies by settling around river valleys.

River valleys had rich, fertile soil that allowed people to grow crops for food.

This surplus of food led to more free time! More free time led to art, culture and legal (law) systems—the marks of civilization.


Western Asia and Egypt

(4000-600 BCE)

- The Mesopotamia and Eyptian civilizations grew around river valleys

- The Sumerians created city-states and writing

- As old civilizations declined, new kingdoms arose

- The Persians created a large empire—perhaps the first multicultural society

city-stateempireFertile CrescentHammurabi’s CodemonotheisticNile RiverPersianspharaohPhoeniciansSumerians10 Commandments

Hammurabi was a famous ruler who created a code of laws. The laws were very fair and gave rights to most people.

The Israelites (the first Jews) were monotheistic—had one god. They also developed the 10 Commandments.

The Sumerians developed several markers of civilization, including writing and the organization of governments in city-states.

The Egyptians lived in the Nile River valley. They were skilled in math, science

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and art.


India and China(2500 BCE-

200)

- Early civilizations in India and China developed around river valleys

- Dynasties—ruling families—changed over time in India and China

- Hinduism in India and Confucianism in China helped create social order by creating a class hierarchy, or system

- Emperors in China claimed to rule by the Mandate of Heaven

- The Qin Dynasty in China was created out of civil war, flourished briefly, and was rapidly followed by instability

Buddhismcaste systemConfucianismDaoismfilial pietyHinduismMandate of HeavenmonsoonSilk Roadsubsistence farming

The Indus river valley civilizations were conquered and Hinduism started in India. The caste system created social classes that determined jobs and social status.

Buddhism developed at this time.

King Asoka united northern and southern India in 270 BCE. He improved roads, hospitals and trade.

China had several dynasties that ruled by the “Mandate of Heaven.” Most importantly, the Chinese developed civil service exams, writing, bronze and gunpowder.

Confucianism—a social system based on filial piety (“Listen to your parents!”)—arose in China and spread through Asia.


Ancient Greece(2800-

300 BCE)

- Greek city-states were the polis, or center, of Greek life

- During Greece’s classical age—also called the golden age and the Age of Pericles—Athens was the center of Greek culture

- Greek philosophy was based on reason—which was later reborn in the Renaissance.

- Alexander the Great conquered a huge

Age of PericlesAlexander the GreataristocracyAristotleAthensdemocracydirect democracyHellenistic oligarchyPlatoSocrates

Greece’s geographical location on the seas led to a seafaring culture.

Greek life was centered around city-states, which were ruled by wealthy families and landowners.

Sparta and Greece fought for 25 years in the Peloponnesian War.

Athens had a direct democracy, and Greece

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empire, spreading Hellenistic culture led by Greek influences.

Sparta was a center of great learning, led by philosophers like Plato and Aristotle.


Rome and the Rise of

Christianity(600 BCE-

574)

- The Romans were great conquerors who influenced the Mediterranean world

- Rome had many civil wars and changes in government that led to instability

- Roman culture was built on Greek culture, which spread through the Roman world

- Christianity later became the state religion of the Roman Empire

- Despite reforms and the division of the empire into two parts, Rome declined and eventually fell to invaders in 574

assemblyAugustusConstantinedictatoremperorJesusJulius CaesarpatriciansPax Romana (Roman Peace)plebiansrepublicsenateTwelve Tablesrepresentative democracy

The Twelve Tables was a system of law that governed the early Roman state.

Rome conquered a large part of the Mediterranean and Europe, but changed from a republic to an Empire.

Roman culture spread throughout the empire on its roads and trade routes.

Christianity was at first discouraged by the Roman government, then later made the official religion.

The empire was split into two parts, with Constantinople as the capital of the eastern empire.

The Roman empire fell in 476, starting the Middle Ages, or “Dark Ages.”


The Rise of Islam

(570-1291)

- The Muslims ruled many different peoples and lands

- Trade was extremely important to the growth of the Muslim empire

- Muslim society contributed to the advancement of math, science and culture

AllahcaliphFive PillarshajjMeccainterdependencemosqueMuhammedQuran

Muslim culture preserved Greek and Roman texts, as well as led to many advancements in math, science and architecture.

The Crusades (1096-1291) were a series of conflicts between European Christians and Muslims in the Mediterranean.

Muslims in the Middle East connected

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- Through the Crusades, Muslim learning spread to the European world

Sunni / ShiiteSultan

Asian culture and trade with European culture and trade.


The Asian World

(400-1500)

- China experienced great change in their government—internal and external

- There is incredible diversity in Asia in terms of language and culture

- India became a trade center between Southwest and East Asia

- Mongolia created the largest empire in history led by Genghis Khan

agricultural societyarchipelagodowryethnocentricGenghis KhankhanateMahayana / Theravadaneo-Confucianismporcelainscholar-gentrysubsistence farmingtrading society

The Mongolians created the largest land empire in history. They were led by Ghengis Khan. Their empire stretched from East Asia to central Europe.

Kublai Khan took over Ghengis Khan and the Mongols ruled China from 1279-1368.

Because of increased trade and interaction, Buddhism declines in India and Asia and the spread of Islam continues eastward into India and western China.


Emerging Europe and the

Byzantine Empire

(500-1500)

- After the fall of Rome, Europe was influenced by the Germanic people, the old Roman Empire and the Catholic Church

- Feudalism, a political system based on the land-ownership, grew in Europe

- European monarchs (kings and queens) began to extend their power and form strong states

- The Crusades, a series of wars over the Holy Land, had a great impact on both eastern and western Europe

- The Byzantine Empire was incredibly important to the preservation of Greek and Roman culture, as well as the Crusades

chivalrycommon lawCrusadesfeudal contractfeudalismfiefinfidelknightMagna CartamonkpatriarchpopeschismtournamentvassalCommercial Revolution

The Catholic Church in Rome became the major source of power in Europe after the Roman Empire fell.

Charlemagne united the Franks (really old western Europe) around 800. He was the first Holy Roman Emperor, a religious and political union.

The Byzantine Empire (former Eastern Roman Empire) was very important. Justinian created an excellent law code that was later used in modern Europe. They also preserved Greek and Roman culture. This is important because western Europe did not do this at this time.

Constantinope—the capital of the Byzantine

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because of its geographical location Empire—was very important to the Crusades because of its geography and location close to the Holy Land.


Europe in the Middle Ages(1000-1550)

- New farming practices and the growth of trade allowed cities to grow in Europe

- The feudal system continued to dominate Europe at this time. It was a decentralized system in which power was divided.

- The Catholic Church was the most important institution in people’s lives

- New ideas brought back from the Crusades led to the creation of universities.

- European rulers reestablished central power at the end of the Middle Ages

anti-SemitismBlack DeathGreat SchismguildheresyInquisitionmanormoney economyscholasticismserf

Manors were the basic economic unit in feudal Europe. They were self-sufficient because they made all their own food, housing and supplies.

The Black Death was a terrible plague (disease) that spread through Europe. It allowed peasants the chance to move up.

The power of the Catholic Church was challenged at this time by scientists, religious reformers and monarchs. The Church responded by carrying out the Inquisition, which killed and tortured people who challenged the Church.


Early African Civilizations(1000 BCE-

1600)

- Africa’s geography and climate have affected its cultural development

- Islam and Christianity changed African society

- African trade led to the development and fall of a series of kingdoms

- Kingdoms were based on the trans-Saharan gold and salt trade

animismBantuclandesertificationGreat Rift Valleylineage groupplateausavannastateless societysubsistence farming

Arab invaders took control of northern Africa in the seventh century, introducing Islam to Africa.

Mali and Ghana were two great kingdoms in Africa that became very rich through the gold and salt trade.

Mansa Musa was a powerful ruler in Mali who tried to convert his people to Islam.

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Renaissance and Reformation(1350-1550)

- The Renaissance changed Europe from religious-focused to secular-focused.

- The Reformation challenged authority in the Catholic Church and ended religious unity

- The printing press and other inventions quickly spread new ideas and increased literacy throughout Europe

- Powerful city-states became the center of political, economic and social life—creating a new middle class

John CalvinChristian humanismCouncil of TrentLeonardo da VincihumanismindulgencejustificationMartin LutherNiccolo MachiavelliMichelangelopredestinationRenaissancevernacularProtestant

The Renaissance was a rebirth of culture and learning. It started in Italy. Wealthy patrons supported artists and writers.

Humanism—the idea that people (not gods) are important—starts during this time.

Greek and Roman culture—preserved by the Byzantines and Muslims—are revived in western Europe.

The printing press allows books—especially the Bible—to be printed in many languages. This increases the power of peasants and challenges the Church’s authority.

The Reformation is started in 1517 against the abuses of the Catholic Church. The Church fought back, but it ultimately loses power to other groups.


Crisis and Absolutism in

Europe(1500-1700)

- The monarchies of Europe wanted to centralize (get more) power

- Monarchs used the idea of “divine right” to justify their absolute power, the idea that God chooses kings and that their commands reflect the ideas of God

- The Glorious Revolution of 1689 in England passed the first Bill of Rights,

absolutismBill of RightscommonwealthConstitutional monarchyOliver Cromwellczardivine right of kingsGlorious RevolutionJohn LockeLouis XIV

Following the religious revolts, people began to challenge the power of kings and queens in Europe. The people wanted more rights and economic opportunities.

To keep their power, monarchies claimed that they were appointed by God, who gave them the divine right to do what they wanted. They wanted absolute power.

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which guaranteed basic human rights mercantilismnatural rights

Peter the Great—a czar who claimed absolute power—transformed Russia into a modern military and cultural power.


Early Japan(600-1600)

- Japan is an island!!! This has led to a strong sense of identity and culture in Japan

- Two geographic factors in Japan are a lack of land for growing food and a lack of industrial resources

- Japan has a unique geographical environment which has prevented other cultures from interacting with Japan throughout history—therefore they have often chosen isolation as a foreign policy

archipelagoBushidodaimyoetafeudal systemhanhostage systemRing of FiresamuraiShintoshogunZen

From about 800-1300, Japan’s shogun (general) created a feudal system similar to European feudalism based on the exchange of protection for land. (emperorwarriors merchantsartisanspeasants)

Samurai were hired warriors who lived by their own code of chivalry, “Bushido.”

Civil war and fighting between clans was common during this time. It was hard to control all of Japan due to its mountainous geography.


The Americas(1200 BCE-

1500)

- Exploration and European colonization created an interdependent world among the Americas, Europe and Africa—the “Colombian Exchange.”

- The ancient civilizations of the Americas had many technological achievements in math, science, architecture and astronomy

adobeAndesBering StraitclanconquistadorsColumbian ExchangeHernan CorteshieroglyphmaizeFrancisco Pizarropueblotepeesmallpox

The Maya had a highly developed society that used math and science to develop a sophisticated calendar and history

The Aztec had an organized society with a famous capital city in Tenochtitlan (modern day Mexico City).

The Inca held a vast, rich empire in the South American Andes mountains.

All three groups—and thousands more—were destroyed by European disease and exploitation around 1500 and on.

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The Age of Exploration(1400-1800)

- New technologies and developments from the Scientific Revolution allowed Europeans to explore the world

- The Age of Exploration marked the end of European isolation and the beginning of colonialism and the slave trade

- In the 1500s and 1600s, the monarchies of Europe wanted more power (divine right) and thought it was their right to explore the world and get colonies, slaves and riches

balance of tradebureaucracycolonyColombian ExchangeconquistadormercantilismMiddle Passageplantationtriangular trade encomienda

The inventions and findings from the Scientific Revolution and the Crusades allowed Europeans to sail around the world.

The reasons for exploration can be summed up as “God, glory and gold,” or religion, adventure and economy.

Countries wanted colonies in order to gain gold and silver—the main idea of mercantilism, an economic theory.

Slaves from Africa were taken to work on colonial plantations and encomiendas.


The Muslim Empires

(1300-1800)

- The Middle East has a lot of oil but does not have much water for growing food

- Muslim empires combined religion and government

- India experienced change during this time as Hindu and Islamic forces fought to control the country

Akbaranarchycaliphchartered companiesgunpowder empireharemIstanbuljanissaryorthodoxypashashahSikhssultansutteezaminder

The Ottomans defeated the Byzantine Empire, making Constantinople (Istanbul) their capital. The good geographical location allowed the empire to spread to Africa and the greater Middle East.

The Mogul Dynasty united the Indian subcontinent in the 1500 and 1600s.

Around 1650, the British and French arrived in India and set up trading ports—the beginning of imperialism in the region and the end of the Mogul Dynasty.

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The East Asian World(1300-1800)

- Chinese rulers followed a dynastic cycle and claimed power by the Mandate of Heaven, similar to the divine right of kings in Europe

- Chinese values and culture have been largely shaped by the teachings of Confucius

- China protected its culture and society and did not interact much with Europe until imperialism opened China to the West

Beijing clancommercial capitalismethnocentrismImperial CityMing dynastyporcelainqueueZheng He

China kicked out the Mongols and then started the Ming dynasty, which lasted until 1644. It was replaced by the Qing dynasty, which lasted until 1911.

Because the government controlled trade and business, commercial capitalism never developed in China.

China was self-sufficient and did not view European goods as very good; therefore it did not trade with Europe until the 1800s.


Revolution and Enlightenment

(1500-1800)

- The Scientific Revolution changed European’s ideas about the world and what was possible

- The Enlightenment thinkers formed ideas about natural rights and that through reason (thinking) society could be changed

- The ideas of the Enlightenment changed the way people thought about social structures and government, and led to later political revolutions

capitalismCatherine the Greatchecks and balancesRene Descartesenlightened absolutismGalileolaissez-faireline of demarcationJohn LockemestizosMontesquieunatural rightsIsaac NewtonphilosopheRousseauscientific methodseparation of powersAdam Smith

Copernicus was an astronomer who developed a heliocentric (sun-centered) universe. This was very controversial and the Church did not like it.

John Locke was a thinker who helped spark the Enlightenment with his ideas of natural rights—that all people were equal and had the right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.

Adam Smith develops the idea of capitalist economics at this time. He believed that free markets (laissez-faire) worked best.

The Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment did not change things overnight, but they did at least give the idea

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social contractMaria Theresa

of equality to more people.


The French Revolution and

Napoleon(1789-1815)

- Both social inequality and economic problems helped cause the French Revolution

- Radical groups took control of the French government and an unstable Reign of Terror followed for several years

- After the Revolution, there was an increased sense of nationalism, which allowed the general Napoleon to take over and start an empire

Napoleonbourgeoisiecoup d’etatDeclaration of the Rights of Man and CitizenLouis XVINapoleonic CodenationalismReign of TerrorRobespierre

France was divided into Three Estates (classes). The Third Estate—the working poor—had to pay the most taxes. Robespierre didn’t like this and helped start a revolution against King Louis XIV.

After a period of instability, a general named Napoleon took over France. He created an empire in Europe, but he did not conquer Great Britain or Russia. The empire did not last long and Napoleon was sent away from France.


Industrialization and Nationalism

(1780-1880)

- Cities grew as people moved from the country to work in factories

- The idea of nationalism grew in Europe, which challenged old forms of government like monarchies and led to revolutions

- Nationalism led to the unification of Italy and a new, militaristic Germany

- New developments in science and social conditions led to the realist movement

agrarian revolutioncapitalismconservativeCrimean WarkaiserliberalmilitarismnationalismrealismRomanticismsecularizationsocialismOtto von Bismark

The Industrial Revolution began in England. England had many natural resources so they built factories and made things that they could trade and sell.

The Industrial Revolution had many problems like child labor, unsafe jobs and environmental pollution.

Nationalism—the desire to have a nation and government that unites a people—led to the formation of countries like Germany and Italy. Monarchies didn’t like this.

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Mass Society and Democracy

(1870-1914)

- The Industrial Revolution led to changes for the lower classes: more money, more contact with society and the opportunity to organize and form political parties

- The middle class starts to emerge, especially in England at this time

- New political and social ideas forced a rethinking of Enlightenment ideas and created new social structures

command economiesKarl Marxsocialismcommunismproletariat

The Industrial Revolution and Imperialism led to an interdependent global economy.

Karl Marx hated factories because they took advantage of workers (the “have-nots”). He blamed the system on industrial capitalists (the “haves”). He thought that a command economy, like communism, would be better for all people.

New technologies like steel, the engine and electricity led to a rapid build-up of military power in Europe—which led to WWI.


The Height of Imperialism(1850-1950)

- The “new imperialism” took the form of total control over vast territories

- The Berlin Conference of 1884 led to almost all of Africa being colonized

- Britain came to control almost all of India

- Mother countries took advantage of colonies by taking natural resources and raw materials, and then selling manufactured goods back to the colonies

annexcreoledirect ruleGandhiimperialism indirect rulemestizopeninsularepogromsprotectorate Sepoysocial DarwinismSuez CanalZionism

European nations like France, Great Britain and Germany wanted natural resources to build their military and economy, so they made colonies, primarily in Africa and Southeast Asia.

Nationalism, racism and social Darwinism all caused the desire for colonies (the “White Man’s Burden”). However, nationalism also spread to the colonies and eventually led to revolutions and independence.

Gandhi led a non-violent revolution in India against the British. He used civil disobedience to achieve this. For example, he told Indians to stop buying British goods. India got its independence in 1947.

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East Asia Under Challenges(1850-1920)

- Outside influences led to the decline of the Qing dynasty and increased Western economic involvement in China

- The new nationalist party in China helped bring political and social change to China

- Japan opened to the outside world at this time, bringing in a period of modernization under the Meiji Restoration

extraterritorialityHong KongOpen Door policyMatthew Perryspheres of influenceSun Yat-senTreaty of Nanjing

China was never colonized, however, many nations wanted to trade with them, so they created spheres of influence—a form of economic imperialism.

The nationalist party, led by Sun Yat-sen, started a revolution against the Qing dynasty in 1911. This began a long period of cultural change in China.

Once Japan opened to the West, they wanted to reform their political and economic system. This was called the Meiji Restoration. They also wanted their own colonies, so they annexed Korea.


World War I and Revolution

(1900-1920)

- Militarism, nationalism, and old alliances were all underlying causes of World War I

- New technologies and kinds of warfare like trenches were very deadly and made the war very long

- Unrest in Russia took down the czar and let Lenin and the Bolsheviks come to power through a revolution and a civil war

- After World War I, the map of Europe was completely redrawn—and Germany did not like this at all

armisticeBolsheviksLeninmobilizationplanned economiespropagandareparationstotal warTreaty of Brest-Litovsktrench warfareTriple AllianceTriple EntenteWilson

Militarism and nationalism led to the forming of the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy) and the Triple Entente (Great Britain, France and Russia).

European militaries doubled in size from 1890 to 1914, especially Germany’s. World War I was incredibly bloody and gory. They used new inventions like poison gas and tanks to destroy millions of people.

Peasants in Russia had a hard life, and after World War I, they were sick of the czar. Lenin, a strong communist leader, led two revolutions in 1917 (“Peace, Land and Bread!”). After a civil war, Lenin and the

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communists came to power in Russia, creating the Soviet Union.


The West Between the

Wars(1920-1939)

- A global economic depression (a long period of a bad economy) created political instability and change in the West

- Hiter in Germany and Mussolini in Italy took over their governments and implemented fascist regimes based on national superiority, anti-Semitism and militarism

- Stalin came to power in Russia, organizing farms and industry, but also eliminating political opponents

- The spread of propaganda through radio and the television became important

collectivizationconcentration campDawes PlandepressionfascismHitlerMussoliniNew Economic PolicyRooseveltStalintotalitarian state

The Great Depression was a global economic disaster. It caused lots of people to lose their jobs.

Germany had a terrible time in the 1920s, and this led to Hitler and the Nazi party taking over in 1933.

Mussolini created a fascist (a strong, military dictatorship) government in Italy.

Stalin took over for Lenin in the Soviet Union. He started the Five Year plans, which tried to control and increase production in agriculture and heavy industry.


Nationalism Around the

World(1870-1940)

- Nationalism led to the creation of the modern states of Turkey, Iran and Saudi Arabia at this time

- Through imperialism, colonies were influenced to start their own nationalist movements

- In China, nationalist and communist forces fought to control the government

- Because of imperialism and the Depression, Latin America experienced a growth in military dictatorships and

Amritsar MassacreAtaturkBalfour DeclarationGandhigenocideChiang Kai-shekReza KhanmandatesPalestineSalt MarchIbn SaudMao Zedong

The Ottoman Empire broke up after WWI and created new countries in the Middle East. Some of the countries were mandates, governments controlled by the governments of France and Great Britain.

Nationalism spread throughout the world, as many leaders of colonies wanted their own countries (Jomo KenyattaKenya, GandhiIndia, Ibn SaudSaudi Arabia)

For many years Jews wanted to return to the Holy Land. They returned to Palestine at this time, which was 80% Muslim. There

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government-owned industries has been conflict ever since.


World War II(1939-1946)

- Germany and Japan aggressively expanded their military and territories, leading to the war

- World War II was fought between the Axis powers (Germany, Italy and Japan) and the Allies (Great Britain, U.S., China, Soviet Union)

- Hitler and the Nazis held racial ideas that they were superior to other groups of people, leading to the genocide

- Millions of civilians died or lost their homes in the war because of new kinds of bombs

- The U.S. dropped two atomic bombs on Japan, ending the war in the Pacific

appeasementblitzkriegChurchillFinal SolutionHiroshimaHitlerHolocaustiron curtainChiang Kai-shekMussoliniNuremburg TrialsRooseveltStalin

Hitler and Nazi Germany wanted more land in Europe, and other Europeans nations let gave in to Hitler’s demands.

Italy, under the fascist dictator Mussolini, took over Ethiopia in Africa.

Japan took a part of northern China. The Communists and Nationalists in China stopped fighting each other and joined together to fight the Japanese.

6 million Jews were killed by the Nazis in the Holocaust, a genocide.

Stalin and the Soviet Union first made an alliance with Germany, but when Germany attacked them in 1942, they joined the Allies and helped win the war.


The Cold War(1945-1980)

- After WWII, the U.S. (capitalist) and the Soviet Union (communist) fought a “cold war,” which is a war of words, not guns

- Although neither side used them, both sides built up their militaries in an “arms race”

- Postwar societies tried to rebuild their economies and countries

arms raceblocKhrushchevMao ZedongMarshall PlanNATOcontainmentsatellite stateWarsaw Pactwelfare state

The Cold War started almost immediately as WWII ended and lasted until the “fall” of Communism in the 1980 and 1990s.

The U.S. made alliances (NATO) and the Soviet Union made alliances (Warsaw Pact)

The U.S. followed a policy containment, meaning that they would do whatever it took to stop the spread of communism.

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- The middle class grew, leading to social change in many countries

The Cuban Missile Crisis is an example of a Cold War conflict—no missiles were fired but both sides “flexed their muscles.”


The Contemporary Western World

(1970-2005)

- The Soviet Union broke up in 1991, ending communist control of Russia

- Because the Soviet Union stopped supporting its Eastern European allies, many communist countries experienced revolutions in the 70s and 80s

- European nations moved to unite their economies, creating the European Union

- New technologies and scientific advances have created an interdependent global society

BosniaBrezhnevChechnyadétentedissidentethnic cleansingglasnostGorbachevHavelKosovoperestroikaPutinWalesaYeltsin

The Cold War “ends” in 1991, after Gorbachev made reforms towards a free market economy and democracy.

Bosnia experienced ethnic cleansing in the early 90s towards the Muslim population.

The feminist movement gains momentum as birth rates decline in Europe and America.

The technological revolution creates a global economy and society that is more interdependent than at any point in history.


Latin America(1950-2005)

- Economies built on the export of raw materials and the import of manufactured goods faced economic and political change

- Because of the Cold War, the U.S. became involved in the Latin American world because it wanted to prevent communism from spreading to those countries

- Democracy has spread in South America since the late 1980s

- The Green Revolution allowed Latin America to produce more types of food, which helped their economies

Castrocontrasencomiendamultinational organizationsoligarchyPeronPRIprivatizationSandinistasGreen Revolution

Castro and communist revolutionaries took over Cuba in 1959.

There were many socialist and communist movements in the Americas during this time

Due to the discovery of oil and the Green Revolution, Mexico’s economy improved.

Political instability, the effects still felt from imperialism and corporate influence has hurt the lower classes in the Americas.

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Africa and the Middle East(1950-2005)

- Many African nations achieved their independence in the 1950s, but the new nations struggled with military regimes and one-party governments

- Disease and poverty have caused tension in modern Africa

- In many areas of Africa and the Middle East, people continue to struggle for basic human rights

- An Islamic revival has influenced political and social life in the Middle East

ANCapartheidArafatCamp David AccordsAyatollah KhomeiniF.W. de KlerkMandelaOPECPan-AfricanismPan-ArabismPLOHusseinSinai PeninsulaDesmond TutuWest Bank

South Africa experienced apartheid for many years, but Nelson Mandela—a nationalist who fought for freedom—became the first black president in 1994.

Population growth, droughts and diseases like AIDS have hurt African economies.

Arabs and Israelis have fought over Palestine and the West Bank (the Holy Land again!) ever since the creation of Israel.

A revolution in Iran created a theocracy (a socio-religious government) when the Ayatollah led a revolt against the Shah.

Ethnic and religious divisions have caused several wars and conflicts in Iraq.


Contemporary Asia and the

Pacific (1950-2005)

- Mao Zedong tried to change China into a perfect communist state, but reforms sometimes hurt people instead of helped

- Deng Xiaoping replaced Zedong as leader of China and introduced capitalist policies to create economic growth

- Economic problems and political conflicts hurt the growth of democracy in new countries in Asia

BangladeshCultural RevolutionDeng Xiaopingdomino theoryHong KongMao ZedongHo Chi MinhoccupiedPakistanper capitaSingaporeTaiwan

The Cultural Revolution (social) and the Great Leap Forward (economic) were led by Mao Zedong to help communist China.

After Mao died, Deng Xiaoping introduced the Four Modernizations, which moved China towards capitalist economic policies.

When India got its independence from Great Britain in 1947, it was divided into two countries—India (Hindu) and Pakistan (Muslim). There have been conflicts between the two countries ever since.

Communist countries and capitalist countries fought to control Vietnam. The communists won, spreading fear

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- Japan and other nations of the Pacific have rapidly improved their economies

Tiananmen Square that many countries in Asia would turn communist as well.


The World Today

(2005-Present)

- Nations with developing economies continue to struggle

- Although there have been many technological and scientific advances, disease, hunger and poverty continue to challenge the world

- Nations are struggling to work with new forms of migration between countries

- Women and children still face economic, political and social barriers

- Organizations like the United Nations have been created respond to global issues

AIDSbirthrateethnic cleansingethnic groupfree tradehuman rightsmigrationoutsourcingpopulation growth standard of livingUnited Nationsurbanization

Population growth has led to a scarcity of resources, which creates conflict. For example, a lack of food in Somalia has allowed military gangs to come to power.

Through urbanization, cities have become much larger, forcing a strain on government to provide services for everyone.

Many areas of the world are struggling with issues of tradition and modernization, particularly in Muslim countries like Iran.

Technology has improved the standard of living for many people, creating an interdependent global economy.


Global Challenges(Present)

- The world faces environmental challenges that cut across national borders

- The technological revolution has brought both costs and benefits

- Nuclear power and its issues have caused tension in the international community

- The information age has created a global society and culture that requires highly educated citizens

acid raindeforestationdesertificationdisarmamentecologygreenhouse effectnuclear proliferationozone layer

Environmental issues—such as the greenhouse effect—have led to an international crisis, causing tensions between developed and developing nations.

The spread (proliferation) of nuclear weapons has become a hot topic in an age of global terrorist threats.

The technological revolution has impacted almost every part of our lives: medicine, travel, communication, agriculture, etc.

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Odds & EndsAfrica

-Mali & Ghanagreat empireswealth through gold and salt-Mansa Musaleader of Maliwent to Mecca and spread Islam-Imperialism”White Man’s Burden”Europe needs to civilize Africa-South Africaapartheid (segregation)Nelson Mandela fought for freedom-EgyptNile river valleyhieroglyphics and the invention of paper

India-Hinduism Dharma/Karma/Reincarnation-Caste systemclass system-Gupta empireidea of “0”-Gandhicivil disobedience-Sepoy Mutinyrebellion against British imperialism

Russia-Cold climatehard to invadeNapoleon (1812) & Hitler (1942) found this out-Bolshevik Revolution”Peace, Land, Bread!”LenincommunismSoviet Union-Stalin’s Five-Year Planmodernize Soviet Union through agriculture and industry-communismtotal control of societycommand economy-glasnostGorbachev’s policy of an “open” and “clear communist party-perestroikaGorbachev’s economic reforms-détenteperiod in the Cold War where the Soviet Union and the U.S. eased nuclear weapons production

Europe-feudal systemdecentralized powerloyalty for landlots of land, lots of power / no land, no power-Black Deaththe Bubonic Plaguea disease that killed millions of people in Europe in the 1300s-CrusadesEuropean Christians vs. Middle Eastern Muslimsled to cultural diffusion and spread of Islamic knowledge-Magna Cartalimited power of monarchy in England in 1215gave power to nobles (people who owned land)-Bill of Rightssigned after the Glorious Revolution in England in 1689started idea of “rights” of ordinary people-Renaissance”rebirth”humanismDa Vinci, Michelangelo, Shakespeare, the Medici family-Protestant ReformationMartin Luther wrote the 95 Theses against the Catholic Churchprinting press helped spread this-Scientific Revolutionapplied reason to the laws of natureheliocentric modelled to explorationGalileo, Descartes, Bacon-Enlightenmentall people are equalapplied reason to society”started” in Franceled to revolutions against monarchies-John Lockenatural rights of humans (life, liberty, happiness)consent of the people to govern-absolutismdivine right of kingsGod gives kings power to rule over countries-IrelandPotato Famineran out of food around 1850 and lots of Irish left the country-FranceThree EstatesKing Louis XIV abused his power and the poor people revolted and killed the king

Japan-Shintospirits live in the wild of nature, animism-Bushidocode of the Samurai warriors-Meiji Restorationindustrialization and modernization in the 1900stook over Korea so they could take the natural resources

China-Confuciusfilial pietyfamily, eldersFive Noble Truths-Mandate of Heavenemperors ruled by this as dynasties-started the idea of a civil service system-invented gunpowder around 1000-Boxer Rebelliontried to kick out foreigners-Mao Zedongled Communist revolutionGreat Leap Forward-Deng XiaopingFour ModernizationsChina moves to capitalism

Political Systems-absolutismdivine right!-feudalismland!-democracyancient Greece!-communismtotal control!-fascismHitler! Nazis!

Economic Systems-mercantilismcolonies!-capitalismAdam Smith!free tradelaissez-faire!-communismgovernment controls all aspects of economy!

Belief Systems/Religions-IslamMohammedQuran-ChristianityJesusBible-JudaismMoses10 CommandmentsIsrael-Shintonatural spirits-BuddhismEightfold Path-Confucianismfilial pietyFive Noble Truths-HinduismkarmadharmareincarnationIndia

Ancient Civilizations-Neolithic Revolutionwe tamed plants and animals and turned them into food-BantuAfrican people that migrated for food-river valleysgood for farming and were the first civilizationsEgypt, China, Mesopotamia, India were the most famous-writing systemsearly forms were developed in China and Egypt-Greecedirect democracyphilosophy-RomeTwelve Tables (rules!)-Indiaconcept of “0”

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regents prep sg

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