review 1 lec

8/6/2019 Review 1 Lec

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Fig. 1-1a, p. 3

1) Only one person drives a hybrid electric vehicle...

The 16 cars above are producing 90-95 tons of atmosphericCO2/ year (average U.S. driving).

Editable Text


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Fig. 1-1b, p. 3

2) Only one person doesn't drive a hybrid electric vehicle...

The 16 cars above are producing 35-50 tons ofatmospheric CO2/ year (average U.S. driving).Editable Text


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Fig. 1-2a, p. 4

A. GLOBAL-SCALE ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE CAN IMPACT INDIVIDUAL

BEHAVIOR...

LargeHierarchy of Scales

SmallUnion

City

1. GLOBAL

CLIMATE

CHANGE

2. AT THE REGIONAL

LEVEL

Onset of persistent

drought dries outland and annual

snow pack dwindles.

3. AT THE LOCAL

LEVEL

Diminished water

supply meanshigher water bills,

and rationing.

4. IN YOUR HOME

You respond by

purchasing water-

conservingappliances, putting

drought-tolerant

plants in your

garden, and taking

shorter, fewer

showers.Editable Text


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Fig. 1-2b, p. 4

B. INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOR CAN CHANGE THE GLOBAL-SCALE

ENVIRONMENT

Small Hierarchy of

ScalesLarge

INTENDED

(Good)

2a. Farm yields boosted

worldwide.

2b. Cheap manufacture of

military ordnance enabled

(World War I, II).

UNINTENDEDCONSEQUENCES

(Not so good)

2c. Waterways and shallow

seas worldwide suffer oxygen

depletion, causing dead zones

1. Fritz Haber fixes nitrogen,

enabling development of

artificial fertilizers and other

commercial nitrates.

2d. Nitrous oxide global

air pollution worsens.

Editable Text


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Table 1-1, p. 5


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Fig. 1-7, p. 7

Agricultural pests and diseases reduce human carryingcapacity. Pesticides, herbicides, fungicides, and other chemical

applications help boost yields from farmlands, hence expanding

carrying capacity for people, but often causing serious

environmental problems.


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Fig. 1-8, p. 7

The fastest-growing segment of human population in

recent decades has been poor and urban. Vulnerability to

natural disasters and environmental problems is high for

this part of humanity.


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Fig. 2b, p. 12

Figure 2: Deforestation near the city of Manaus in Amazonia,

Brazils largest state.

(b) Adjacent rain forests have been removed as the population of the

area has grown. Manauss population is now more than a million

people, and the city is rapidly expanding into areas that were once

sparsely populated.


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The first 1 billion humans was reached in 1800, the second in 1930, the

third in 1960, the fourth in 1975, the fifth in 1987, the 6th in 2000, and

the 9th billion around 2050.


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` Can be good

Recycling

More efficient cars, appliances, etc.

` Can be bad

Planned obsolescence

Throw-away society


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Country Population, Energy consumption,

in millions in quadrillion BTUs

` China 1295 43

` India 1050 14` USA 288 97

` Energy use is a decent way to measure impact

www.eia.doe.gov


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` Impact helps determine the carrying capacity

` Carrying capacity is the largest population an

existing resource can support forever: FOOD

(Most important).

`

3 scenarios for approaching carrying capacity


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` Responsible for environmental damage, societal

problems and human suffering.

` In many countries it is out of control.

` China good control


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` Increase: Better farming methods

Less harmful energy alternatives

` Decrease: Soil erosion

Decrease in earth resources (oil, minerals, etc.)

In wealthy countries, environmental impacts tend tobe out of sight, out of mind, whereas impacts are

more direct and local in less-developed countries.


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` Homeostasis and feedback

` Atmosphere, Hydrosphere

`

-Makeup of Earths Atmosphere` - Atmospheric Circulation and Climate

` -Oceanic circulation and climate

` Natural Climate Change

`

Human Contribution to Earths Climate` Modern life, building new cities, production of wastes, gases

etc.

` Climate change, irrespective of its cause, holds the fate of

cities and states in balance.

` Today: we explore reasons, see how human race in its ownright has become a factor influencing world climate.


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A system: set of components (parts)-work together-

particular function.

Systems need energy to work ( human body, food;

Automobile, Fuel) Earth system also needs energy to work: Internal and

external

Decay of U, Th, K into lighter atomic

weight elements + energy (by-product).


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Manifestations:

-Volcanoes, hot springs are evidences for internal heat,-Heat converts to mechanical energy Earthquakes, mountain

building, slow shifting of massive tectonic plates.

Earths surface is a resolution of two sets of forces, modified by theactivity of life. Rock Cycle and Water Cycle are closed systems

Energy from sun and internal heat of Earth drive these systems


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` External Source of Energy:

` SUN: without daily sunshine Frozen planet despite

heat escape from inside.

-No liquid water,

-No rainfall,

-No biosynthesis

circle (green plants ,

produce glucose

and oxygen).. No

life.


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- Interface between external and internal sources is

the earth surface.

- Soil essential factor in human carrying capacity.

Results from conflicting processes internally

driven and externally driven,

Wind, rain, ice, snow and chemical corrosion break

down lands built up by earthquakes, sedimentation

and volcanoes.


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` Ability of system to maintain steady temperature.` When we are ill the human homeostasis system is

strained

` Natural processes on Earth has +ve and ve feedbacks!

` +ve feedback: self reinforcing set of reactions, increasing

the intensity of the condition that set into motion in first

place.

` ve feedbacks: operates in opposite sense, decreasing

over time the intensity of the condition that originally set

into motion.


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` In a perfectly balanced system, the effects of

+ve and ve feedbacks cancel out.

` Tipping point: when feedback is powerful,

exceeds opposite action=== runaway feedback=== change of condition to new and different

stable state.


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-Energy reach Earths surface from Sun,

-One third of this energy is reflected back into space (oceans-

15% reflections, fresh snow & ice reflects 90-100%).

` Greenhouse gases: Water CO2, Halocarbons, methane, ozone,

nitrogen oxides.

` Human contribution in greenhouse effect is significant:

- Fuel consumption (burning-CO2 production)


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` Clouds:

` Atmosphere warms-more clouds form (increased

evaporation);

` Clouds reflects much of solar radiation into space

(less heating of atmosphere), but moisture in clouds

also traps and reradiate some incident sunlight.

` Thick, low clouds (rainy) reradiate more energy than

they absorb cooling surface beneath.

` Thin, high clouds absorb more incident sunlight warm the atmosphere.

` Both types of clouds exist at any time


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B. Cirrostratus clouds, found in

high altitudes (as high as 6 miles),

tend to warm it.

A. Nimbostratus clouds,

responsible for steady rainfall,

tend to cool the Earths air below.


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Fig. 11-19, p. 323

The intensity of the suns heat depends upon the angle at which

the suns rays hit Earth. The intensity and heating is greatest

where the rays hit vertically.

Atmospheric circulation and climate

Earths surface at equatorial latitude receive much more sunlight than

polar regions.

Warm air rises and spreads (Molecules become more widely spaced)

Cold air sinks. (warm air is less dense than cold air).


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` Air masses move and try to equalize atmospheric

temp.

` Latitude difference in temp:

WIND: Two Directions:Hot air: from equator towards poles.

Freezing air: opposite direction

It doesnt quit happened that way?

Earth and its atmosphere rotate.

What are the paths taken by winds?

They curve in much the same way like the ball in the figure!


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` Another effect:` Atmospheric circulation is not so simple;

` Winds moving towards poles tend to converge (like

longitudinal lines).

` Air mass ascends, fresh air from north and southequator. Air is humid (evaporation). Air rises, Air

cools, vapor condenses (clouds) = rain fall and so

on!


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Fig. 11-24, p. 328

Atmospheric CO2 and

temperature changes since 1880.

(a) Changes in the concentration

ofCO2 obtained from ice cores

(smooth curve) and measuredannual oscillations at Mauna Loa,

Hawaii.

(b) Average annual global

surface-air temperature,

plotted as a deviation

from the average,

denoted as zero (0).

The sawtooth effect results

from the seasonal changes

in uptake and release offrom northern forests.


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Time period CO2 Concentration

in the atmosphere

(ppm)

Mean atmosphere

Temperature, C.

Ice age (18,000 y

ago)

170 6

Post ice age,

preindustrial

280 14

Industrial age 387 14.5

End of 21 century 500-750 17-20.5


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Paleoecology


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Fossils


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` Elements: substances not changed to

others by chemical reaction;

Composed of ATOMS.

` Hydrogen atom; Simplest

` 1proton (p) and one electron (e)

Atomic No. of elements = No. of P

(unique to element)

Most atom mass in the nucleus

(P (+ charge) & Neutrons 0 Charge);

The e (- charge) orbit in shells

around nucleus.

# p = # e for electrical balance.


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` Ions = atom which lose or gain electrons.

` +ve ion = Atom e (sodium Na Na+) Cation

` -ve ion = Atom + e (Chlorine Cl Cl-) Anion

` Anion combines with cations in orderly fashion halite

common table salt, necessary for human existence.


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` Isotopes are forms of element with different atomic mass

(a.m.). Uranium isotopes all has 92 atomic # but differ by

# neutrons.

` U 238 = 92 p + 146 n, U 235 = 92 p + 143 n

Carbon

isotopes:

12, 13 and 14


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` Naturally occurringinorganic crystalline

substances with a

definite set of physical

properties and a narrow

range of chemicalcompositions.

` Solids with random or non-crystalline

atomic structures, glass, amorphous.


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Mineral Group Negatively

Charged Ion or

Ion Group

Examples Composition

Carbonate (CO3)-2 Calcite

Dolomite

CaCO3

CaMg(CO3)2

Halide Cl-1, F-1 Halite NaCl

Hydroxide (OH)-1 Limonite FeO(OH) . H2O

Native Element - Gold

Diamond

Au

C

Oxide O-2 Hematite Fe2O3

Silicate (SiO4)-4 Quartz

Olivine

SiO2

(Mg,Fe)2SiO4

Sulfate (SO4)-2 Gypsum CaSO4

. 2H2O

Sulfide S-2

Galena PbS


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` Hardness:` Talc1; Gypsum 2; Calcite 3; Fluorite 4; Apatite 5; orthoclase 6

Quartz 7; Topaz 8; Corundum 9 and Diamond 10.

Cleavage:

Characteristic Way Mineral split along Definite planes. Mica: perfect cleavage in one direction. Halite NaCl split in 3D.

Crystal Structure: Cube, Halite; 8-sided octahedron, Diamond.

Fracture Pattern:

Luster: Light Reflection


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` Rockcrystallized

from molten or

partially molten

material:

Inside Earth (Plutonic)

On Surface (Volcanic)

Composed of silicate mineral SiO2Granite

Basalt


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`

Layered rockresulting from

consolidation

(Cementation)

andlithification

(Turn into solid

by pressure

from DeepBurial of

sediment.

` Chemical

Sedimentation

` May be transported

and redeposited by

streams.

` Sandstone` Limestone


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` Rocks changed frompreexisting rocks byheat, pressure orchemical processes:

`

` New Structures,Textures and Minerals

` Marble` Slate


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` Flattening andlayering of

minerals caused

by non-uniform

stress


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` Closed System,

` Interaction of Energy and Earth Materials;

` Processes destroy or form or alter rocks.

` Igneous Rocks ERODED Sediments (Sedimentary)

` Sedimentary: HEAT & PRESSURE Metamorphic

`

Metamorphic MELT Igneous


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Rock Cycle and Water Cycle are closed systems

Energy from sun and internal heat of Earth drive these

systems.


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Light elements are concentrated in the outer planets while the

inner planets lack them. The earth is differentiated in its

interior in much the same manner as the solar system, with a

heavier denser core and less dense exterior.


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` Radioactive decayof elements in rocksand minerals allowsthe absolute datingof geologic events,such as volcaniceruptions and

species extinctions


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` sudden release of elastic strain energy

commonly at a fault. why sudden release is

necessary.


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` Movement on this plate boundary is dominantly left lateral,

accommodates a movement of (20 mm/y).` EQ results from tectonic process acting along this plate


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Right-lateral

strike-slip fault

geometry


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At the instant of

rupture, (c), energy is

released in the form of

earthquake waves that

radiate out in alldirections.


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Earthquakes are

generated by

movements on faultswithin the crust. There

is a point where Fault

rupture starts, FOCUS,

Epicenter, point on

Earths surface above

focus.

Damaging EQ foci are

generally within a few

Km of Earths surface.

Vibrations (seismic waves) propagate out from the focus of the

earthquake


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` Three seismographs

are necessary to

locate an earthquake

epicenter.

Body waves: P-waves(primary) and S-waves (secondary)travel through theinterior of the earth

Surface waves travelalong the surface ofthe earth


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Fig. 4-10b, p. 77

Community Internet

Intensity Map (CIIM)

for the sameearthquake.


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` Best known measure of

EQ strength., 1935:

` Scale of the energy

released by an EQ.

` Can be used to compareEQs at different areas.

` It is important to relate

how energy release

increases by 30 times for

each numerical incrementof the Richter scale and

how there is a common

misconception about the

difference being a 10 times

multiple.


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` Distinguish between EQ and Nuclear Explosions:

` Nuclear produce short-period Seismic waves.


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Spontaneo s liq efaction affecting soft s bstrate and


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` Spontaneous liquefaction affecting soft substrate and

characterized by the sudden loss of strength of sandy soils and

quick clays. (Niigata, Japan 1971, Anchorage, Alaska 1964, and

San Francisco marina district 1989.


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` Changes in ground level

this is due to fault

displacement. Alaska

1964 is a good casehistory for this as is the

Kalapana, Hawaii

earthquake of 1975.

Picture of Landers EQ 1992, Colorado

desert of Southern California was felt

from Phoenix, Arizona to Reno, Nevada

Right lateral offset, 4.27 m, created 2 m

vertical scrap due to lateral offset of

ridge.


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` Landslides triggered by ground shaking A recent


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` Landslides triggered by ground shaking. A recent

case history is the Santa Tecla, El Salvador 2001.


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` 1. seismic zoning

` 2. geological mapping of faults

` 3. proper implementation of building codes

` 4. subsurface investigations to identify liquefiable soils or

layers

` 5. automatic gas shutoff valves

` 6. regional tsunami early warning systems

` 7. public education about what to do before and after a

quake


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` Earthquake forecasting is the approach that is now used.

This is a probabilistic statement of the percent chance ofan earthquake of a given size occurring on a given fault

with in a certain span of years. This is similar to a weather

forecast.

` Seismic gaps are quiet areas where large earthquakes may be


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` Seismic gaps are quiet areas where large earthquakes may be

expected because elastic strain energy is building up.

Geological methods involving trenching provide valuable

Geological methods involving trenching provide valuable

information about the seismic history of a fault. Thisinformation about the seismic history of a fault. This

information helps to determine characteristic earthquakeinformation helps to determine characteristic earthquake

magnitudes and recurrence intervals.magnitudes and recurrence intervals.

The Mexico earthquake of

1985 occurred in such a gap

and the Pacific northwest

south of Seattle is also

considered to be a seismic

gap.


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` Fire

` Ruptured gas mains or fallen

electric lines.` uncontrolled street fires

ravaged San Francisco in 1906

to the extent that this disaster

was initially reported as the

San Francisco fire.


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Fig. 4-23, p. 88

Porites coral heads on the west coast of Simeulue that were uplifted about 90

centimeters (35 in) by the December 26, 2004, earthquake.


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Fig. 4-40, p. 99

Salt Lake City and County Building, Utah.Salt Lake City and County Building, Utah.Constructed in 1890, largely of brick, it isConstructed in 1890, largely of brick, it is

now seismically retrofitted to meet thenow seismically retrofitted to meet the

modern building code.modern building code.

Basement of the Salt Lake City and County Building. The building has


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Fig. 4-41, p. 99

been seismically retrofitted


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How to minimize earthquake damage in

the home in advance.


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Fig. 4-42a, p. 100

The difference in flexibility of long and


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Fig. 1, p. 103

In a quake, long columns survive

because they sway.

Short columns, unable to bend,

absorb horizontal energy producedby longer columns and blow out.

Editable Text

The difference in flexibility of long and

short columns results in failure of the

short ones.


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Most earthquakes

occur along plate

boundaries

Intraplate

earthquakes often

follow ancientplate boundaries


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Fig. 3b, p. 110

(b) The ash cloud from Mount Spurrs 1992 eruption traveled across(b) The ash cloud from Mount Spurrs 1992 eruption traveled across

Canada and the United States on prevailing westerly winds.

Canada and the United States on prevailing westerly winds.

` A vent or series of vents that


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issue lava or pyroclastic

material.

` Produced by subduction, hotspot, rifting.

ot all volcanoes are bad.

ujiyama in apan is eautiful,

a aii olcanoes are productive


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Fig. 5-1, p. 112

Distribution of Earths active volcanoes at plate boundaries and hot spots.

Ring of Fire around (Pacific Ocean 900 66% of worlds active volcanoes.

Remaining 450 Mediterranean belt and at mid-ocean-ridge spreading centers

(divergent boundaries). A few volcanic centers are related to hot spots (Hawaiian and

Galpagos Islands).


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The Island of Hawaii. (a) Satellite

photograph with north at the top.


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Fig. 5-8, p. 116

p otog ap t o t at t e top

Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa are

clearly visible. (b) The volcanoes that

form the island have grown over

700,000 years in this order: Kohala

(indicated by K), Mauna Kea (MK),

Hualalai (H), Mauna Loa (ML),

Kilauea (KI), and Loihi (L;

submarine). Solid stars denote

vigorous growth; open stars, waninggrowth; open circles, little activity.

The island to the northwest is Maui.


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` Magma form at depths of 10-250 km (6-150 mile),

sufficient temperature to melt rocks completely or

partially.

` Mafic Magma: Mid Ocean Ridges volcanoes

contain Mg and Fe (low density, Mafic with little

gas in it) do not erupt violently.

` Felsic magma: (feldspar and silica 70%) viscous

The type of volcanic


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Fig. 5-6, p. 115

The type of volcanic

eruption determines

the shape of the

structure, or cone,that is built.

By appearance

alone, we can get

idea of a volcanichazard potential.


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` Concave-upward

slopes thousands of

meters high

` High silica

` High viscosity

` Mt. Vesuvius

` Mt. Shasta` Mt. St. Helens

The relative sizes of four large

eruptions of the past 2 000 years


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Fig. 1a, p. 136

eruptions of the past 2,000 years

based on estimated volumes of

ejected tephra.


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` Small volcanic cones

composed almost

entirely of tephra

(loose cinders)

` Mojave Desert cinder

cone

` Lassen CinderCone


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` Groundwater heated

by subsurface magma

provides geothermal

energy for generating

electricity

Crater Lake is a caldera, resulting from the explosionCrater Lake is a caldera, resulting from the explosioncollapse of a hugecollapse of a huge

stratovolcano known as Mount Mazama, about 6,900 years ago.stratovolcano known as Mount Mazama, about 6,900 years ago.


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Fig. 5-15, p. 120

stratovolcano known as Mount Mazama, about 6,900 years ago.stratovolcano known as Mount Mazama, about 6,900 years ago.

Eruption cloud

Prevailing windVolcanicVolcanic

hazardshazards inin

W t USAW t USA


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p

Pyroclastic flow

Pyroclastic flow

Lava flow

Lahar (mud or

debris flow)

Fig. 5-20, p. 123

Ground

waterSilica (SiO2)

content

100%

Magma

type

rhyolite

dacite

andesite

basalt

Magma

0

53

Acid rain

Ash fall

63

68

Eruption column

Stepped Art

Landslide (debris

avalanche)

Fumaroles

Crack

Bombs

Lava dome collapse Lava

dome

Western USAWestern USA

lahars and landslides, can occur evenlahars and landslides, can occur even

when a volcano is not erupting.when a volcano is not erupting.


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` Water from heavy precipitation,

melting snow may mobilze

debris on the flanks of a

volcano and cause it to move a

great distance downslope as athick mush of rock, ash and

cinders.

` Catastrophic mudflows down

the flanks of a volcano

` Lahars cause the largest

number of volcano-related

fatalities

` No eruption required

` Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia,

1985

Peles hair, thin filaments of glassy lava


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Fig. 5-12b, p. 118

Pele s hair, thin filaments of glassy lava

that have been carried by wind.


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A pyroclastic flow (nue

ardente) hurling down the


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Fig. 5-23, p. 125

ardente) hurling down the

slope of Augustine

Volcano in Alaska, April

1986.


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Mount St. Helens.

(b) The force of the pyroclastic flow was evidenced by the


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Fig. 5-24b, p. 125

(b) The force of the pyroclastic flow was evidenced by the

downed trees stripped of their bark in the blow-down area.

This is the area where most of the fatalities occurred.

LaharLahar--filled north fork of the Toutle River at Mount St. Helens, formerly afilled north fork of the Toutle River at Mount St. Helens, formerly a

pristine Vpristine V--shaped stream valleyshaped stream valley


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Fig. 5-26, p. 127

pristine Vpristine V shaped stream valley.shaped stream valley.

This photograph was taken in July 1980, well after the main eruption on May 18,

and the lahar was still steaming.

1. Inflation begins


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Fig. 5-34a, p. 133

A B

Magma reservoir

begins to fill

Editable Text

Three stages are apparent in Hawaiian volcanoes typical

eruption sequence. (ac) Inflation and deflation of the coneare accompanied by

2. Peak inflation


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Fig. 5-34b, p. 133

A' B'

A B

Stressed rocks;

zone of earthquakes

Editable Text

Three stages are apparent in Hawaiian volcanoes typical eruption

sequence. (ac) Inflation and deflation of the cone are accompanied by

3. Volcano deflates


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Fig. 5-34c, p. 133

A' B'Flank eruption

A B Lava

Editable Text

Three stages are apparent in Hawaiian volcanoes typical eruption

sequence. (ac) Inflation and deflation of the cone are accompanied by


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` Lava flows during an

eruption can burn

everything they

encounter

` Slow but can be

extensive: travel 100

km


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` Ash falls from large,

explosive eruptions

can deposit volcanic

ash over large areas

` Pompeii: 79 AD, Mt.

Vesuvius, Italy

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Pompeii_Garden_of_the_Fugitives_02.jpg

ADC-10 pointed skyward due to Mount Pinatubo ash on its tail; Cubi Point

Naval Air Station, Philippines.


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Fig. 4, p. 144

pp


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` Hot mixtures ofsteam and volcanicdebris

` High speeds` Extremely high

temperatures


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Fig. 2b, p. 137

On September 25, 1995 a combination of hot magma and cold water produced a

violent steam eruption that hurled boulders over the upper slopes of the Whakapapa

Skifield. The eruption did little damage, but projectiles as big as cars were thrown

over the rim. The Maori name forRuapehu means exploding pit.


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Fig. 1, p. 138

Pyroclastic flow moving down the slope of Soufrire HillsVolcano on the island of Montserrat, British West Indies.

Seen here is one of many life-endangering flows that

occurred during July 1997 and that threatened the city of

Plymouth.


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` Destructive Tsunamis

associated with volcanic

activity are rare, mainly in

western Pacific Ocean.

Of the 405 tsunamis (since 1900) only 12

due to Submarine volcanic eruptions, only

2 resulted in significant damage.

Weather and Climate


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` Volcanoes put large quantities of fine ash particlesinto atmosphere == cold weather.

` Indonesia: large amounts of ash particles and

acidic mist into upper atmosphere, creating

spectacular lurid sunsets with rings around thesun and temperature to go down.

` Particle will reduce incoming solar radiation.

` Particles (0.0001-0.005 mm) may stay for 1-2 y.

SO2 produced by volcanoes produces white

coating on particles ==become superreflectors of

solar radiation.

Weather and Climate


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Fig. 4, p. 141

A small geyser of scalding water erupts in a formerly popular bathing pool atA small geyser of scalding water erupts in a formerly popular bathing pool at

Hot Creek, not far from Mammoth Mountain. Activity picked up here in theHot Creek, not far from Mammoth Mountain. Activity picked up here in the

spring of 2006.spring of 2006.


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