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8/19/2019 Rhetoric Tradition and Democracy: Isocrates’ Role in Ancient Greek Political Idea. Start Point of Western Political P…

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LYYD 1179 (1?=5), pp. => „ 98

NJL7 =?.=5=5/sc-1?=5-??=6

Qcetjrli ̂ rmnltljd mdn Nekjirmiy7

Lsjirmtes“ Qjè ld Mdiledt Freeb _j`ltlim` Lnem.

Ytmrt _jldt jh Vesterd _j`ltlim` _cl`jsjpcy

Kecnl Ycjbrl

Nepmrtkedt jh _j`ltlis mdn Nepmrtkedt jh _cl`jsjpcy,

Hree Udlverslty jh Aer`ld, Ferkmdy

He``jw jh tce Bjdrmn-Mnedmuer-Hjudnmtljd

E-kml`7 Ycjbrl._clÒfkml`.ijk

Mastrmit 7

_j`ltlim` pmrtlilpmtljd mdn tce pua`li enuimtljd tcmt cmve m`wmys aeed nep`jyen tj suppjrttce ldilpledt prjfress jh tce ilvli `lhe mre revlven ld tce kjnerd pj`ltlim` nlsijurses. Lt cms aeed ae`leven tcmt tce mfe jh pre-Yjirmtes wms tce mfe jh tce Yjpclsts wcjse mirln hm``miywjrbs jiiuplen tce pj`ltlim` spcere, m km`mlse ld fjverdkedt. Cjwever, spembldf djd-trmnltljdm``y ld tce kjnerd penmfjflim` systek, tcere were sjke pre-Yjirmtli tcldbers mdn

pj`ltlim` pcl`jsjpcers/jrmtjrs wcj“s wjrbs mre tce amibajde jh kjnerd nlsijurse jd tclskmtter. Lt wl`` ae exmklden wcetcer mdy pmrt jh tce i`msslim` rcetjrli mppmrmtus imd aereijveren mdn put tj m fjjn prmitlie ld tce kjnerd enuimtljd mdn kjnerd pj`ltlim`

pmrtlilpmtljd. ^cls pjldt wl`` ae l`ùstrmten, hurtcerkjre, ld tcls pmper ay m`èfldf tcelkpjrtmdie jh rcetjrli, lts rjè ld Mdiledt Freeb Nekjirmiy, mdn lts ldhùedie jd tce kjnerd

ijdiepts jh pjwer mdn nekjirmiy, ms m ijdtldum` eèkedt ld m clstjrlim`-pj`ltlim` `lhe. ^cehurtcer ijdslnermtljd ls wcetcer tcere wms mdy nekjirmtli _j`ls exlsten ld Mdiledt Mtceds

mdn tced, lh tcere wms, wcmt icmrmiterlstlis lt ijdslsten jh. Kjrejver, wcetcer suic ijdieptimd jr scju`n ae ijdslneren ld kjnerd pj`ltlim` nlsijurses. Ld tcls sedse, tce `laerm`, djd-njfkmtli strmld jh tce sjpclstry jh Lsjirmtes trmnltljd urfes us tj ldnlimte tcmt tce hldnldfs jhtcls enuimtljdm` prldilpès mre, lh djt deiessmry, aut mngutmdt ijkpèkedtmry ketes tj jurkjnerd pj`ltlim` bdjwènfe jh tce stmtes. Ld tce edn, lt ls ldqulren tj see ijkpmrmtlve`y tcmtcjw tce trmnltljd jh rcetjrlim` mrt mdn tce ijdiept jh pjwer ld tce Mdiledt Freeb sjiletycmve pertmlden tj tce kjnerd nekjirmtli eèkedts mdn wcetcer we mre maè tj ekpjwer tclsldhùedtlm` eèkedt ld kjnerd stmtes.

Beywjrns7 Lsjirmtes, pj`ltlim` pjwer, pj`ltlim` rlfcts, vlrtue, nekjirmiy, rcetjrli, enuimtljd

Rt[ce ‐clfcest bldn jh rcetjrli Rls[ tcmt wclic nem`s wltc tce fremtest mhhmlrs mdn, wclè aest nlsp`myldftce mal`lty jh tcjse wcj spemb, arldfs kjst aedehlt tj tcjse wcj cemr.‛

_mdefyrlius, >

=. ̂ ce Yjpclsts7 Mkaltljus, Freeny, mdn Defèitldf tce ̂ rutc

Mhter tce Cjkerli perljn mdn aehjre tce we``-bdjwd mppemrmdie jh Mdiledt i`msslim` pcl`jsjpcers,

md lkpjrtmdt turdldf pjldt cmn tmbed p`mie ld tce Mtcedlmd sjilety. Lt wms tce pj`ltlim` pmrtlilpmtljd

jh tce kmgjrlty, jr mt èmst m aedevjèdt ldtedtljd tj nj sj. Ld suic icmdfldf iu`ture tcmt frmnum``y


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p`mildf tce rlfcts tj pmrtlilpmte ld tce pua`li neamte ld tce cmdn jh tce kmdy rmtcer tcmd tce hew,

sjpclstlim` rcetjrli presedten tcrjufc tce mppemrmdie jh tce sjpclsts wms m vmùmaè sbl`` mdn m

usehu` ldstrukedt tcmt ajtc pmrt jh tce pjwer, jde wms tce kytcli mrlstjirmts mdn preilpltjus

nekjirmts iju`n use prjhltma`y. Yjke cmve mrfuen tcmt Yjpclstlim` kjvekedt jh tce 5tc A.I.

iedtury wms turdldf pjldt, wclic jiiurren mfmldst tcjse dmturm` pcl`jsjpcers wcj were sjè`y

ijdierden wltc tce u`tlkmte suastmdie mdn mtjks, mdn aewl`neren ay tce dmture surrjudnldf tcek.

^cls ldterpretmtljd ls p`muslaè, yet tce pjldt ls tcmt tce mkusekedt ijdtlduen tl`` tce pre-Yjirmtli pcl`jsjpcers m`` aefmd tj jver`jjb tce dmture jh cukmd aeldfs. ^cmt ls wcy we see sjke strjdf

jppjsltljd mfmldst tcmt icmdfe hrjk tce tcldbers ld tcmt perljn mdn aehjre.

_rjtmfjrms“s fremt miclevekedt ls tj l`ùstrmte tcmt tce kemsure jh m`` tcldfs ls jd`y m cukmd

aeldf R95[, =51m, R93[, =>713-1


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@jfjs mdn tce p`mie jh trutc. Yuic ijdiept ls ekpjweren ay tce reijfdltljd jh @jfjs mdn lts rjè ld

sjilj-pj`ltlim` `lhe.

Ms neamtes jver dmture `jst stemk, Cukmd-mhhmlrs“ neamtes fmlden ld stredftc. Yjirmtes wms

tce hlrst jde, wcj ijdslneren vlrtues mdn jtcer Etclim`-rmtljdm` djtljds ld tcelr rem` sedses. ^crjufc

cls ednemvjrs ld mdiledt Mtcedlmd sjilety, tce perljn jh lfdjrmdie ’ wclic wms amsen jd tce lnem jh

neens hjr tce smbe jh hmke mdn re`lfljd ’ wms surpmssen. Yjirmtes wms djt ijkpète`y suiiesshu`

mfmldst tce jtcer jpldljds jh cls sjilety, ms kmdy jh tcjse jpldljds tjjb tcelr strjdf miijudt hrjktce trmnltljds mdn tce clstjry. Devertceèss, ce wms tce pljdeer jh m `jdf rjmn, wclic ls stl`` evlnedt

tjnmy ld jur kjnerd sjilety.

Yjirmtes wms tce hlrst tcldber tcmt i`mlks tcmt jde mit hjj`lsc`y mdn wliben`y sldie ce njes

djt –bdjw“ wcmt ls aest hjr clk. ^cereay, tce pj`ltlim` neamtes cmve aeed ijdslneren ever sldie, ay

kjst jh tce tcldbers mhter clk, kjre serljus`y mdn kjre ijdirete`y jd tce djrkmtlve mdm`ytlim` wmy.

Yldie Yjirmtes“ perljn jd, kjst jh tce etclim` vlrtues suic ms hrlednsclp, vm`jr, cjdesty, gust, mdn

nlsilp`lde cmve aeed reldterpreten, ijdstmdt`y respeiten ms lt scju`n ae udner tce prmitlim` wlsnjk

imtefjry. ^ce ijdiept jh suic vlrtues ld tce slxtc iedtury mdn emr`y hlhtc iedtury A.I. nlhheren

djtma`y hrjk tce emr`ler perljns, aut ld sjke mspeit, hjjtsteps jh tce emr`ler ijdiepts stl`` imd ae

seed ld tce icmdfen Yjirmtli perljn. Ld tcls vlew, we imd refmrn tcls trmdsltljd ms tce frmnum` ldder

revjùtljd jh etclim` djtljds.Yjke lkpjrtmdt ldterpretmtljds jh Mdiledt Mtcedlmd wjrbs, hjr ldstmdie, M`msnmlr Icm`kers

Kmi`dtyre, Gu`lm Mddms, Fedevlere `lyj mdn êredie Lrwld, mre djw fmrderldf mttedtljd. Lt seeks

tcmt tce ijdiept jh vlrtue, ld Mdiledt Freeie, wms djt ms scm``jw m djtljd ms cmn aeed prevljus`y

mrfuen.lll ^ce prjiess jh edrlicldf tce djtljd jh vlrtue imd ce`p us tj aetter udnerstmdn cjw tj

mdm`yze tce djtljd jh vlrtue ld respeit tj tce tlke. ^cere were > lkpjrtmdt eèkedts tj tcls

ijdieptum` mdn prmitlim` icmdfe7

(l) _jeks mdn trmfenles jh Cjker,

(ll)

Qcetjrlim` sbl``s jh sjpclsts

(lll) Ybeptlis tcldbers

(lv)

I`mssli _cl`jsjpcers, e.f. Yjirmtes, _`mtj mdn Mrlstjtè.

Mdiledt Freeb pcl`jsjpcers stressen vlrtue ms m fjjndess jh tce cukmd“s sju`. ^cey

ae`leven tcmt vlrtue kust ae rem`lzen mdn prmitlien tcrjufcjut jde“s `lhe. Xlrtue, ay lts very dmture,

scju`n djt rekmld kere`y m tcejretlim` njitrlde, aut m`sj kust ae ijdslneren ld m prmitlim` wmy,

sldie lts essedie ls ldtrldslim``y prmitlim`. Qem`lzldf tce fjjn mdn mitldf ld miijrnmdie wltc tce

vlrtue tcmt mlks mt fjjn ldnlimtes tcmt tce very usmfe jh vlrtue, djt jd`y `lklts tce huditljd jh

tcejretlim` wlsnjk, aut m`sj re`mtes tj huditljd jh prmitlim` wlsnjk, l.e. tce pjwer jh èfls`mtljd (hjr

ajtc kjrm` mfedt mdn pj`ltlim` ijkkudlty), mdn tce pjwer jh imrryldf lt jut ld md ldnlvlnum` wmy jh

`lhe ms we`` ms ld m sjilm` wmy jh `lhe ay ajtc ldnlvlnum`s“ wl`` mdn ay pj`ltlim` mutcjrlty.

Nesplte tcmt vlrtue ls tce ijrderstjde jh Xlrtues Etclis2 tce nehedners jh tcls armdic jh

etclim` pcl`jsjpcy cmve djt presedten tce exmit ldterpretmtljd jh vlrtue. Ve scm`` djt ijdierd

jurse`ves wltc tce nlhheredies, aut we wl`` ijdslner tcelr ijkkjd pjldts. Vcmt tcey m`` cmve ld

ijkkjd ls tce hmit tcmt vlrtue ls ijddeiten tj tce cmalt mdn rmtljd mdn imd ae h`jurlscldf ld tce

cukmd“s sju`. Lt ls djt nedlmaè tcmt tce h`jurlscldf jh tce cukmd“s sju`, miijrnldf tj tcls ijdiept

jh pj`ltlim`-etclim` pcl`jsjpcy, ls lkpjsslaè wltcjut tce sjilm` wmy jh `lhe, l.e. mitlve pj`ltlim` `lhe

ld _j`ls. ^cus, vlrtue ls jde jh tce kmld mdn deiessmry eèkedts jh cmvldf m fjjn ilty-stmte.

>. Jvervlew jh pre-_`mtj mkalmdie7 Lsjirmtes

Lt ls m ijkkjd`y ce`n ae`leh tcmt kjnerd pj`ltlim` pcl`jsjpcy scju`n ae trmien amib tj tce

sicjj`s jh Mdiledt Freeie. Kjst jh tce resemric, prjnuien ay kjnerd mimneklis ls

hjiusen jd tcjse mdiledt Freeb pcl`jsjpclim` sicjj`s jh Mrlstjtè mdn tce sicjj`s jh _`mtjmdn Yjirmtes. Aut ms L mrfue, tcere mre jtcer ldhùedtlm` tcldbers, pcl`jsjpcers, mdn


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stmtesked wcj p`myen lkpjrtmdt rjès ld hjrkldf mdn edrlicldf tce lnems jh etclis mdn

pj`ltlis ld mdiledt Freeie. L m`èfe tcmt _`mtj“s tcjufcts, espeilm``y ld pj`ltlis, trmie amib,

djt jd`y tj Yjirmtes aut m`sj tj pre-Yjirmtli pj`ltlim` tcldbers `lbe Lsjirmtes.

Ldneen, aeimuse jh tce pua`li hever hjr pj`ltlim` pmrtlilpmtljd, ay tce edn jh tce

hlhtc iedtury A.I., mdy sj-im`èn pj`ltlim` struiture amsen jd tce kerlt mdn e`ltes persjd

were udmkalfujus`y imrryldf djtljds jh udgust mdn l`èfltlkmte jde. ^j ae kjre speilhli

majut tce jppjdedts jh tcese struitures, we cmve tj smy tcmt tce wcjè kmss trlen tj hlfctmfmldst lt mdn tj estma`lsc m pmrtlilpmtjry mutcjrlty jh tce nekj ld wclic m`` jh tce pejpè

imd ae m pmrt, vlz . tce fjverdkedt, wclic ls jh tce pejpè, ay tce pejpè mdn hjr tce

pejpè. ^cls ls tce jd`y sjrt jh fjverdkedt tcmt fumrmdtees tce neslre jh tce nekj nue tj

lts bdjtten hjudnmtljd wltc lts suageits ms lts ajny. Aut tcmt wms djt cjw pcl`jsjpcers `lbe

_`mtj mdn Mrlstjtè lnej`jflim``y wmdten tj estma`lsc tcelr Utjplm mdn _j`ls.

Cjwever, tcere wms mdjtcer, djt ijkpète`y, jppjslte tredn imd ae trmien mt tce

edn jh tce hjurtc iedtury A.I. ay jde jh m yjudfer ijdtekpjrmry hlfure jh Yjirmtes im`èn

Lsjirmtes. _mrm`è` wltc Yjirmtes, Lsjirmtes wms tce hlrst persjd wcj tm`bs majut tce smke

erunltljd tcmt Yjirmtes njes, aut wltc kjre hjius jd tce mal`lty jh tce rcetjrli sbl``s, lts

rjè ld m speilhli pj`ltlim` sltumtljd mdn tce wjrtcwclè edns lt imd micleve. Cedie, tcere ls

m strjdf ijkkjd pjldt aetweed Lsjirmtes mdn Freeb pcl`jsjpcers ld tce hjudnmtljd jhcukmds“ mhhmlr tcmt imd ae trmien tcrjufc tce Yjirmtes jh _`mtj, mdn tced Mrlstjtè“s

tcjufcts.

5. Jrmtjr jr pcl`jsjpcer

Ms L cmve prevljus`y nepliten, ld jur clstjrlim` mpprjmic tj tce mdiledt Freeb revjùtljd

jh tcjufct mdn tce sjilj-pj`ltlim` `lhe7 tce mal`lty tj spemb, wms l) re`mten tj tce exie`èdie

jh tce ajny, tce ijdiept jh –pjwer jh“ ll) mt tce tjp mkjdf tce sbl``s mdn exie`èdies, tce

ijdiept jh –pjwer tj“ mdn lll) kmd iju`n fmld lt tj ae suiiesshu` ld m`` mspeits jh cls ilvli

`lhe, tce ijdiept jh –pjwer jver“.

Nue tj tce pj`ltlim` pmrtlilpmtljd hever ld dewhmdfèn nekjirmiy ld Mtceds, lt wmsup tj emic ldnlvlnum`“s pjwer jh speeic tj ae suiiesshu` ld sjilm`-pj`ltlim` pmrtlilpmtljd,

wclic tjjb p`mie ld tce ijdtext jh neamtes. Lt wms hjr tce hlrst tlke tcmt tce ku`tltune,

refmrnèss jh aeldf djaè, aùe a`jjn jr rlic, cmn m icmdie tj kmbe tcelr vjlie cemr

ehheitlve`y ld tce pua`li neamtes mdn kjre lkpjrtmdt`y, ld pj`ltlim` neilsljd-kmbldf.

^cerehjre, lt wms deiessmry hjr pejpè tj ae hmkl`lmr jr eved ae md expert ld tce mrt jh

spembldf. ^crjufc ‐teicdlim` rcetjrli‛, tcelr nekmdns lh we``-presedten iju`n fet m fjjn

respjdse hrjk tce sjilety m`tcjufc djt everyjde iju`n kmbe lt. Yedmtjrs wcj were

sbl``hu` ld rcetjrli mdn iju`n presedt tcelr pjldt ehheitlve`y jhted micleven suiiess mdn

ieèarlty stmtus R=?, p. =1[, R19[. ^cls sbl`` ijdtldues tj ae lkpjrtmdt ld clfc-ève`

pj`ltlim` neamtes, sjilm`-pj`ltlim` spceres, ms we`` ms ld kmdy gunlilmry mdn eijdjkli

ldstltutljds. Ld m sedse, mdyjde wcj wms sbl``hu` ms md jrmtjr wms essedtlm``y imrryldf m

seiret wempjd tcmt iju`n arldf clk hu`` suiiess ld m`` mspeits jh cls sjilm` ednemvjrs.

^cus, wcmt kmne Mtceds m rcetjrlim` sjilety, pmrm`è` tj m nekjirmtli sjilety, wms lts

sijpe mdn fjm`s jh persumsljd. Ld tcls wmy, rcetjrli serven ms tce kjst lkpjrtmdt

impmal`lty tj ehheit hjr ldnlvlnum`s ld tce Mdiledt Freeb _j`ls, md ldstrukedt tj fet ldtj

tce pjwer pjsltljd.

@mter jd, tce Mtcedlmds aeimke kjre ijdierden wltc twj mspeits jh `jfjs7

ldhùedildf cukmd tcjufcts mdn nlreit ldtednen ehheits jd cukmd mitljds. Hjr aeldf

hmkl`lmr wltc tcls trmnltljd, we cmve tj tmbe m qulib `jjb mt tce stmrtldf-pjldt jh lt.


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Cermi`ltus

Cermi`ltus ls m pljdeer ld tce trmnltljd jh surveyldf tce @jfjs mdn lts p`mie ld cukmd `lhe.

^ce @jfjs, sldie tced, aeimke m ijrderstjde jh tce Mdiledt mdn kenlevm` pcl`jsjpcy.

Vcmt kmne Cermi`ltus“ tcjufcts udlque mkjdf cls he``jw pcl`jsjpcers ld tce pre-Yjirmtli

perljn wms cls ketcjn hjr seebldf tce trutc mdn exmkldldf lt tcjrjufc`y. M`tcjufc ce

rekmlden ijdierden wltc tce prjaèkmtli pjldts jh cls preneiessjrs refmrnldf tce pcl`jsjpcy jh dmture, ce m`sj stressen tce lkpjrtmdie jh cukmd dmture mdn tce rjè jh

cukmd aeldfs. Upjd tce pua`limtljd jh tce Hrmfkedts R16=[.

Qekmrbma`y, tce njkldmdie jh dmture mdn lts icmrmiterlstli jh icmdfe wms tce iedter jh

mttedtljd hjr pre-Yjirmtes' pcl`jsjpcers, mdn javljus`y wltc dj exieptljd hjr Cermi`ltus.

Ldneen, tce kmtter jh icmdfe ls jde jh tce lkpjrtmdt eèkedts ld tce ketmpcyslim` lnem jh

Cermi`ltus mdn cls he``jw pcl`jsjpcers. Mhter tce mfe jh Cermi`ltus tce lnem jh returdldf tj

tce `jfli mdn nedyldf m`` tce perieptum` sedse jh cukmd aeldfs aefmd wltc tce

exmffermten ldterpretmtljd jh ‐tce kjvekedt mdn tce icmdfe‛ njitrlde tcmt pre-Yjirmtli

pcl`jsjpcers, suic ms _mrkedlnes mdn Wedj jh Eèm (i. >


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cls pcl`jsjpcy. Ve imd m`sj see hrjk tce hjrk mdn tce styè jh cls survlven hrmfkedts mdn

wrltldf tcmt tcjse hrequedt sbl``hu` sydtcetli mkalfultles ekae``lscen ay `ldfulstli nedslty

mdn resjdmdie, mre djt gust m kmtter jh icmdie, aut ms m ketcjn tj èmve tce lnems ld

jasiurlty ld jrner tj pmss tce bdjwènfe jh tce trutc tj tcjse wcjk neserve lt.

Cjwever, cjw njes tcls mhjrekedtljden hrmfkedt èmn tce pcl`jsjpcers tj tce

trutc jh udlty rmtcer tcmd ldstmal`lty mdn re`mtlvlsk:

Djwmnmys, Cermi`ltus ls kjst`y nlsiussen wced ijdslnerldf cls ‐njitrlde jh hùx‛wclic ekerfen hrjk tce hmkjus hrmfkedt kedtljden majve. Ld hmit, lt wms tce udlty ld

sjurie djt tce kmtter jh tce icmdfe, wclic wms lkpjrtmdt hjr Cermi`ltus. Ijdslnerldf tce

jtcer smyldf jh tce Cermi`ltus mdn cls wcjè systekmtli lnem ls udmvjlnma`y vltm` ld

udnerstmdnldf tce trutc majut cls esjterli wrltldf.

M`tcjufc tcls miijudt R@jfjs[ cj`ns hjrever, ked ever hml` tj ijkprecedn, ajtc

aehjre cemrldf lt mdn jdie tcey cmve cemrn. M`tcjufc m`` tcldfs ijke tj pmss ld

miijrnmdie wltc tcls miijudt R@jfjs[, ked mre `lbe tce udtrlen wced tcey try suic

wjrns mdn wjrbs ms L set hjrtc, nlstldfulscldf emic miijrnldf tj lts dmture mdn te``ldf

cjw lt ls. Aut jtcer ked mre ja`lvljus jh wcmt tcey nj mwmbe, gust ms tcey mre

hjrfethu` jh wcmt tcey nj msèep R1


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sedse perieptljds mdn ijdtldues tj tcls nmy. Cermi`ltus stressen tcls pjldt ld tce hj``jwldf

hrmfkedt7

^ce sem ls tce purest mdn hjuèst wmter7 hjr hlsc nrldbmaè mdn `lhe sustmldldf2

hjr ked udnrldbmaè mdn nemn`y R1


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8. @jfjs mdn _j`ltlis

Jrmtjrs mdn sjpclsts kjven tce fjm`s mdn ijdslnermtljds jh tce sjilety wltc tcelr mttedtlve

speeic-p`mys. Ld tcls wmy, tce lnem jh tcelr preneiessjrs fjt lts dew hjrk. ^cey imke tj

tce ijdiùsljd hlrst, tcmt `jfjs scju`n ae refmrnen ms jde jh tce kjst lkpjrtmdt mspeits ld

cukmd `lhe re`mten tj lts rjès mdn lts p`mie mdn wltc respeit tj lts nlreit ehheit jd cukmd

ldte`èit, e.f. tce hmiu`ty jh `mdfumfe. ^cls trmnltljdm` djtljd jh tce @jfjs wclic pjrtrmyenlt kjre ms tce ξυλνωώζρ (njkldmdt prldilpè ms m ruèr mdn kmster) imd ae seed ld

Lsjirmtes“ Dlijès, R13, Yei.8-


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lfdjrmdie jh tce rlfct enuimtljd neprmven tmste jh tce hreenjk jh speeic. _rjama`y, ld

ijdtrmry tj tce hreenjk jh speeic ms m ijkkjd pjldt aetweed tce kjnerd nekjirmtli

stmtes mdn tce mdiledt jde, tce rlfct enuimtljd ls tce kjst prlkmry nlstlditljd aetweed

tcek jd tce kmtter jh rcetjrli. ^ce nlstlditljd imd ae m`sj re`mten tj tce vmùe-amsen

`jflim` mrfukedt ld tce kjnerd stmte. Vcmt pjsltlve`y ekerfen hrjk tce rcetjrlim`

ketcjn jh tce Lsjirmtes ld hmvjr jh tce `jflim`-amsen mrfukedt ld tce kjnerd stmte mre tce

kemds jh tce irltli, mpprjprlmtljd, mdn ijrreitljd. Cjwever, ^ce pua`li prjkldedies,nurldf tce ekerfedie jh seijdn federmtljd jh sjpclsts, were nepednen rmtcer jd jde

kmd“s mal`lty jh jrmtjry- tcmt ls cere tce mal`lty tj spemb e`majrmte`y- cjw jde imd swmy

tce kmgjrlty jh iltlzeds ld pua`li neamtes presedten ld tce Msseka`y, ijurt, pua`li

fmtcerldf jr hemsts tj vjte jr tj flve mdy ijdsedt ld hmvjr jh jde jh tce `ltlfmdts R11[, R=6,

p. 9[2 jr ld m trlm`, vjte hjr prjpjsen ijurses jh mitljds jr m pua`li kjvekedt tjwmrn m

speilhli iu`turm` icmdfe. Cltcerwmrn, tce hjudnmtljd jh tce nekjirmiy jh tce mdiledt

Freeb stmte `mln njwd neep ldtj sjke nekmfjfuery.

Cjwever, m fremt nem` jh tce djtljd jh rcetjrli, wclic scmpen lt ms md vmùmaè

pj`ltlim` mitlvlty fjes amib tj tce Qjkmds mdn kjre lkpjrtmdt`y, tj tce Mdiledt Freeie.

Ay `jjbldf mt tce Cjkerli pjeks, jde imd see cjw tcls sbl`` wms vltm` mdn usehu`.

Mtcedlmd èmners ld tce hlhtc mdn hjurtc iedtury A.I., suic ms _erliès, ^ceklstjiès,Yj`jd mdn Ilierj, jr pj`ltlim` hlfures `lbe tce Qjkmdlmd ijdsu`s were mkjdf tcjse

suiiesshu` èmners wcj ce`n tce pjwer jh jrmtjry mdn usen tcls mal`lty tj preserve tcelr

p`mie mt tce tjp R99[. Qlse mdn hm`` jh tce rcetjrli sbl``s mre djt jd`y re`mten tj jde perljn,

aut lt ls tce prjnuit jh tce clstjrlim` prjiess R98, p. =1[. Ld m wjr`n wltcjut mdy kmss

ijkkudlimtljd systeks, wltcjut kenlm, dewspmper jr teèvlsljd, èt m`jde Ldterdet a`jfs

mdn jtcer ijkkudlimtljd hmil`ltles, spembldf ld pua`li wms md essedtlm` eèkedt, lh lt wms

djt tce jd`y jde, jh pj`ltlim` pmrtlilpmtljd mdn pj`ltlis. ^ce miclevekedt ld tcls hle`n ls djt

aeimuse jh tce ijkkudlimtljd hmil`ltles tcmt we cmve ld jur kjnerd nmys.

Ld mdiledt tlke, pejpè trmveèn tcjusmdn klès tj wmtic m pua`li spembldf

ijkpetltljd jr m speeic hrjk m hmkjus jrmtjr/pj`ltlilmd. ^ce ijkkudlimtljd wju`n p`my

m bey rjè, mdn wcmt ls lkpjrtmdt ls tcmt ijkkudlimtljd suiieens djt aeimuse jh tcenlhheredt teicdj`jfy“s hmil`ltles, aut aeimuse jh tce mrt jh spembers mdn tce ne`laermtlve

ijddeitljd tcmt lt kmbes aetweed tce speilhlen ilriukstmdies mdn tce munledie tcrjufc

tcelr `jfli mdn ekjtljds. Ijkkudlimtljd ldnlimtes tce ijkkjd sedse jh ne`laermtljd mdn

ldhùedie jh `jfjs ld sjilm` `lhe. Lt wms ld tcls sedse tcmt tce jrmtjrs/pj`ltlilmds were tce

rjib stmrs jh tcelr tlke, mdn stl`` tcey mre. ^ce mrt jh jrmtjry mdn tce ajdn tcmt lt kmbes

aetweed jrmtjr mdn tce pejpè, tcls prldilpè, stl`` ls m prlkmry jde ld jur kjnerd sjilety

wltc wclic jde imd estma`lsc md ldtlkmte re`mtljdsclp wltc tce munledie. ^cus, ms lt wms, lt

ls deiessmry tj cmve experts jh spembldf sbl``hu``y ld pua`li neamtes mdn ld pj`ltlis. Yldie,

tcls prjiess ls m dmturm` prjiess jh systekmtli prmitlie ld tce very iu`ture jh tce pj`ltlim`

mitlvlty mdn lts eèkedt ls amsen jd wcmt tce sjilety ijdslsts jh7 tce pejpè ms sjilj-

pj`ltlim` mdlkm`s. Amsen jd tcls lnem, tcere wju`n ae pjsslal`lty lh we mrfue mfmldst sjke

kjnerd sjiletles tcmt cmve aeed frjwldf experts ld ausldess jr ld kl`ltmry, aeimuse tcelr

kmld lnem refmrnldf suiiess wms restrliten prlkmrl`y tj tce clfc ève` jh kjdey kmbldf

sbl``s jr seiurlty mdn wmr. ^ce kjst ijdtrlautljd tj tce pj`ltlim` prjfress ls tce irltlim`

kldn jh iltlzeds, l.e. tce pj`ltlim` ajny jh tce stmte, mdn tcelr ehheitlvedess ay tcelr

pmrtlilpmtljd mdn slku`tmdejus`y, tcelr pcl`jsjpclim` enuimtljd. ^ce rmdfe jh defmtljds ld

refmrn tj tce kmtter jh edijurmfldf, prjnuildf mdn irltlilzldf tce pj`ltlim` mitlvltles ls tce

imuse jh kmgjr lfdjrmdie jd pcl`jsjpclim` mdn rcetjrlim` mspeits jh enuimtljd tcmt ls kjre

iruilm` hjr tce kjnerd nekjirmtli dmtljd-stmtes.


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3. ^ce @lkltmtljds mdn Vemb _jldts jh Mdiledt Freeb Mrt jh Qcetjrli

^cls ijkpmrmtlve mpprjmic urfes us tj exmklde ajtc slnes jh tce suageit. ^cus, tcls

mspeit ls m turdldf pjldt hjr us tj eùilnmte wcmt ijdsequedies lt cms lh tce kere rcetjrlim`

sbl`` refmrnen ms tce jd`y requlren sbl`` ld tce sjilm`-pj`ltlim` mitlvlty. Ay scjwldf tcls

pjldt, L wl`` ae maè tj `lfcted up tce lnems tcmt imusen tce nlhheredie aetweed tce hlrst mdn

tce seijdn pmrt jh Lsjirmtes `lhe. Kjrejver, lt wl`` ldnlreit`y ce`p us tj reijfdlze tcenlhheredies aetweed tce speeices tcmt cmve aeed ce`n tjnmy.

Lt seeks tcmt tce jrmtjry aefmd wltc tce nml`y mitlvlty jh sjke pejpè tj te`` stjrles

hjr tce pua`li. ^cls mitlvlty imd ae trmien amib tj tce emr`y Cjkerli perljn. ^ce mrt jh

te``ldf stjrles, ld tce `mte Cjkerli perljn mdn mhter lt, fjt lts dew wmy tjwmrn te``ldf tce

clstjrles ms we``. ^ce clstjrles klxen ld tce ijdtext jh stjrles. ^cjse wcj cmn tce gja ms

clstjrlmds mdn pjets usum``y spjbe ld tce pua`li p`mies hjr presedtldf tcelr wjrbs.

Devertceèss, tcelr wjrbs were ld tce dmrrmtlve hjrk mdn presedten ay m i`jse lkltmtljd jh

Mttli nlmèit R9, pp. ==-=1[. Ay tce jutset jh Mdiledt Mtcedlmd ‐nekjirmiy‛, tcese pua`li

spembers, ay tce kemd jh tce clstjrlmd, edfmfen ld tce ldterestldf pua`li pj`ltlim` neamtes

tcrjufc tcelr speeices. ^cese speeices fmld lts mnvjimtes mdn aeimke ms `jfjfrmpcjl.vl

Devertceèss, tce dext ève` jh jrmtjry wms ijdierden mt lts emr`y mfes ms m sbl`` jh speeic-wrltldf mdn ms md mitlvlty tj presedt tcese speeices ld tce pua`li p`mies. Cedie, tce `ldb

aetweed twj mspeits jh clstjrljfrmpcy mdn pjetry ce`ps jrmtjr tj emsl`y edfmfe cer speeic

wltc tce iurredt pj`ltlim` neamtes. ^cus, jrmtjry aul`t md ldterestldf mhhl`lmtljd aetweed tce

clstjrljfrmpcy, pjetry, mdn nekjirmiy. Cjwever, tcls ketcjn cms aeed m`wmys

miijkpmdlen wltc re`lmdie kjre jd tce ekjtljdm` mspeit jh tce speeic. ^ce re`mtljdsclp

aetweed clstjrljfrmpcy mdn pj`ltlim` neamtes imd ae seed ld tce trmdsltljd jh tce wjrn

ΰυγτξζρ (kytcŋnęs) hrjk ‐hmlry-tmè‛vll tj ‐h`mtterldf‛ ld tce pmtrljtli pj`ltlim` stjrles

R=8[, R9?, ==.=, pp. 95-9


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^ce seijdn irltli ls tcmt, usum``y tce dmrrmtlves tcmt amsen jd clstjrles, wclic

presedten ld pua`li neamtes, cmve tce `mib jh `jflis. Kjrejver, wced tcls ketcjn jh

jrmtjry edteren tce rem`k jh rcetjrli ld nekjirmtli neamtes, ldltlm``y usen tce ijkkudls

jpldlj ay presedtldf lt amib tj tce pejpè. Cere, tce prjaèk jh ξπδν (njxm jr tce

ijkkjd ae`leh jh tce nekj) ls jde jh tce kjst ijdtedtljus jdes tcmt m`kjst every

pj`ltlim` tcejrlst cms aeed ijdierden majut. Cjwever, lt seeks tcmt mt tce smke tlke tcls

prjaèk wms jde jh tce tjj`s hjr aeldf njkldmdt ld tce speeices jver tce nekj, tceijdiept jh –pjwer jver“ were hjrtlhlen ay tce mrt jh rcetjrli. ^ce questljd ls wcetcer lt ls

m wliben mal`lty jr djt, yet tce rcetjrli ms m kere ldstrukedt wl`` ae gustlhlen wltc lts

kjrm` slfdlhlimdie wclic imddjt ae hldn ldtrldslim``y wltcld lt aut ld tce mitljd mdn mlks

jh pj`ltlim` mitjrs. ^ce kjnerd exmkpè jh tcls wliben mal`lty ld speeices imd ae hjudn ld

every re`lfljus revjùtljd. Eved wltcjut tce jrmtjry sbl``, tce ldstrukedtm` usmfe jh tce

njxm, vlz. jver-usldf tce ijkkjd ae`leh jr pjpu`mr jpldljd jh tce pejpè tj micleve m

iertmld fjm`, ms tce pejpè persumnen ldnlreit`y, imd ae ehheitlve. Yuic mspeit imd ae seed

reiedt`y tcrjufcjut tce `mst hew neimnes, wclic imusen revjùtljds tcmt tjjb p`mie dmke`y

ld tce Klnnè Emst. ^cese mre tce kmgjr prmfkmtli pj`ltlim` ijdsequedies. ^ce resu`t

wju`n ae m strjdf edijudterldf kjvekedt mfmldst tce rlfct hjrk jh rcetjrli ld re`lfljus

jr kl`ltmry reflkes. Yuic mdtmfjdlsk jh rcetjrli enuimtljd ls nue tj tce `laerty prldilpèstcmt lt requlres mdn nue tj tce nekjirmtli lkprjvekedt icmdfes tcmt lt wl`` imuse. Ve

njd“t cmve tj wmlt hjr suic experledie ld reiedt yemrs, Ypmrtm hjr ldstmdie, expe`èn tce

jrmtjrs tcrjufc tce èfm` keicmdlsk jh m`led mits (δελζβνωΪν) R98, p. =8[.

^ce tclrn irltli jh rcetjrli ls wced lt refmrnen ms tce kere sbl`` jh m stmteskmd wltc

ijdslnerldf tce suageit jh tce jrmtjry. ^cls irltli ls re`mten tj tce clstjrlim` hmit mdn tj tce

essedie jh lts neve`jpkedt. Lt stress jd tce hmit tcmt tce rcetjrli ekerfen ld m iu`ture jh

ijkpetltljd, djrkm`lzen tcrjufc tce jrfmdlzmtljd jh tce Freeb J`ykpli Fmkes mdn

ldstltutljdm`lzen ld tce cemrt jh pua`li neamtes. Miijrnldf tj tcls lnem, jrmtjry cms aeed

m`wmys ijdslneren ay lts munledie. ^cere wju`n ae dj jrmtjry mdn rcetjrli ehhjrt lh tcere

wms djt mdy fmtcerldf jh pejpè, mdn ld hj``jw, lh tcere wms djt mdy ijkkudm` ijdsedt

majut m neamte, reijfdltljd jh jtcers mdn vmùe ld pua`li ne`laermtljd. Cedie, lh md jrmtjrijdslners cer huditljd ms m kere rcetjrli huditljd, sce sees lt ld tce ijdiept jh mfŋdls

(ijkpetltljd). ^cls ls nmdferjus hjr nekjirmtli _j`ls, dmtljd-stmtes, aeimuse lh tce pjwer

jh persumsljd ae hree hrjk tce kjrm` vmùes mdn lts kjrm` slfdlhlimdt, lt defmte tce kjnerd

`mw jh tce dmture, tce suageits (; eltcer tcey mre tce munledies jr jtcer iltlzeds) wju`n ae

tremten `lbe tcjse wcj ae tremten ms ijkpetltjrs ld m pcyslim` ijkpetltljd. Ijdsequedt`y,

tce sjverelfd jr jrmtjr wl`` see tcek ms tce suageits jh kmdlpu`mtljd mdn tcere wl`` ae m

skm`` p`mie èht hjr seeldf cls jwd fjjn ms equm`s tj jtcers. ^cls pjldt ne`limte`y scjwen

ay _`mtj. Ld tcls sedse, _`mtj kmbes m tmxjdjklim` ijkpmrlsjd aetweed tce mtcètlis mdn

rcetjrli ld Eutcynekus wced ce tm`bs majut twj Yjpclsts7

Hlrst jh m`` tcey mre hlrst-rmte ld hlfctldf wltc tcelr ajnles mdn amtt`ldf wltc m``

ijkers- tcey mre tcekse`ves kmster mt hlfctldf ld mrkjrs, mdn imd kmbe

mdyjde e`se expert wcj wju`n pmy tcelr hees. Dext, ld tce amttè jh tce `mw

ijurts tcey mre icmkpljds2 tcey imd ijkpete tcekse`ves mdn temic jtcers tj

spemb, mdn tcey imd ijkpjse speeices sultmaè tj ne`lver ld ijurt R==, 16=n-

61m[.

Yjirmtes, cere, ldvjbe tce vlj`mtljd tcmt `les aedemtc tce mtcètlis mdn mrkjr ijkpetltljds,

tced fulnes tce mrfukedt tj tce pjldt tcmt tcjse vlj`mtljd ld tce hlfctldf wclic p`mien ld

tce pua`li neamtes R==, 169n[. ^cus, rcetjrli ms lts huditljd m`jde mdn ms njkldmtldf lts

suageits ld nekjirmtli _j`ls, imd ae reijfdlzen wltc tce smke prldilpès mdn ldtedtljdtcmt imd ae seed ls ijkpetltljds mdn lts ijkpetltjrs.


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^ce hjurtc irltli jh kere rcetjrli ls m teèj`jflim` jageitljd. Qcetjrli ls mlken tj

md edn. ^cmt edn, refmrnen tj lts kere ketcjn, ls persumsljd. Vltc m presuppjsltljd tcmt lh

tce mlk jh persumsljd tcrjufc rcetjrli ls fjjn hjr tce sjilety, rcetjrlim` sbl``s stl``

ldsuhhliledt ay tcekse`ves tj cmdnè tce ‐fjjn‛ hjr tce _j`ls. Cjwever, tce edn jh

rcetjrli ld tce ijdtext jh pua`li neamtes kust ae refmrnen ld m kjre hmr-slfcten wmy. ^ce

edn jh rcetjrli kust ae ldtefrmten wltc tce edn jh tce pua`li neamtes. Ld tcls respeit, tce

edn jh tce pua`li neamtes, tcrjufc tce mrt jh cjw tj mnnress tce neamtes, ls ld m wmy tcmttce ijdsequedie wl`` ae ld m hmvjr jh tcjse wcj ijdierd majut tcmt neamte7 tce ruèr mdn

tce iltlzeds R==, Eutcynekus, 13


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Lsjirmtes wms ajrd ldtj m prjsperjus hmkl`y, aut tcmt wms gust tce tekpjrmry eijdjkli

sltumtljd. Mhter tce jutaremb jh tce _e`jpjddeslmd Vmr (>9=->?> AI), tcldfs cmn ijkp`ete`y

icmdfen hjr clk. Cls hmkl`y ednen up `jsldf m`` jh tcelr kjdey aeimuse jh tce wmr. Ce klfct cmve

aeed m teedmfer wced tce Mtcedlmds vjten ld m –very nekjirmtli wmy“ hjr bl``ldf m`` km`e iltlzeds jh

^crmilmd ilty jh Yiljde7 ^ce slefe jh Yiljde (>19->1= A.I.) R


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13

pcl`jsjpclim` mitlvltles, wclic kmbe clk slfdlhlimdt kuic `lbe jtcer lkpjrtmdt ijdtekpjrmry

hlfures, suic ms Yjirmtes. Lsjirmtes wrjte cjl pj`ltlbml `jfjl R19, 18?[, R11, 1=[ mdn ce exp`mlds ld

tce sukkmry jh cls imreer tcmt ce ls nem`ldf wltc ‐Freeb, mdn rjym` mdn pj`ltlim` mhhmlrs‛ R15, ==[

Cjw i`jse`y tce `lhe jh tce ldnlvlnum` wms ld hmit ajudnen up wltc tcmt jh tce stmte, ls udvelèn ld

tce ijkkjd usmfe jh tce wjrn ϏκβΪώελεωγυμ, l.e. ‐tj `lve ms m iltlzed‛, ldstemn jh tce amre terk ‐tj

`lve‛. Aut ld tce hjurtc iedtury A.I., tce Mtcedlmds kjven ay tce nekjirmtli ldtedtljds tj tce

tuku`t pmrtlilpmtljds mdn pj`ltlim` senltljd tcmt prjvjben tcek tj cmve kjre mdn kjre tcelr jwd`lves, se`hlsc`y pursuldf tcelr jwd ausldess, mdn irmvldf ldiremsldf`y hjr tce `laerty tj "nj ms tcey

`lben" hjr tcelr se`h-preservmtljd mdn se`h-prjkjtljd tcmt ednen kjst jh tce tlke ld se`h-ijdielt.

^cey `jst tce prlkmry essedie jh m nekjirmtli stmte. ^cus, tcey were `lvldf jhh tce stmte rmtcer tcmd

`lvldf hjr lt mdn lts u`tlkmte edn. Lt ls djt tcmt kere ‐`lvldf ld m ilty‛, vlz . ld m pj`ltlim` ijkkudlty,

prevedts ked hrjk aecmvldf `lbe aemsts tjwmrn jde mdjtcer, aut `lvldf ms m pmrt jh tce ilty mdn

persumnldf lts edns, wclic ldiùnen ajtc tce ijkkjd fjjn hjr tce ldnlvlnum` mdn tce pj`ltlim`

ijkkudlty, ls wcmt kmbes cukmd aeldfs respjdslaè iltlzeds. ^cls lnem arjufct prldilpès tj tce

`mter nekjirmtli Mtcedlmd sjilety, wclic wms requlren hudnmkedtm` icmdfes ld lts ijdstltutljd. ^cls

prldilpè nln djt exlst mhter jr prljr tj ilvl` sjilety, aut m`jdf wltc lt mdn ijkes ldtj mttedtljd wltc

ijdslnerldf tce neamtes majut pj`ltlilzmtljd. Lsjirmtes smw pj`ltlim` `lhe ms tce cukmdlzldf eèkedt

ld tce `lhe jh kmd, tcmt wclic sepmrmtes ked hrjk aemsts, ih. R>,=159m 1-=?[. Aeimuse jh tcls lnem, tce hlrst tmsb tcmt cls

sicjj` edfmfen wms tcjse mrfukedts Mfmldst tce Yjpclsts, wclic m`sj serven ms md mnvertlsekedt

hjr cls sicjj`.Ld tcls wmy, Mtcedlmd clstjry, pmrtliu`mr`y nurldf tce mfe aetweed Yjirmtes tl`` tce edn jh tce

Epliuremd, ls m very ldterestldf mfe hjr m dukaer jh remsjds. ^ce Ytmte hjufct tj ae m fjjn pj`ltlim`

stmte. Hrjk jde slne, lt wms tce welfctldess jh neilsljd tcmt wms aeldf urfen. ^ce neilsljds were

sjketlkes majut wmr mdn pemie, tce jtcer tlkes were majut impltm` pudlsckedt. _mrm`è` wltc tcmt

nlspjsltljd, jd tce jtcer slne, tce ldte`èitum` neamtes were cmdnen tj tcjse wcj were djt ldteresten

jd`y ld pua`li speeic-ijdtests, aut were kjre ijdierden wltc m`` jh tce tcldfs udner tce tltè jh

_cl`sjpclm.

^ce ldte`èitum` ijkkudlty mt tcmt mfe wms mnnressldf tce iurredt etclim` mdn pj`ltlim`

sltumtljds jh Mtceds mdn lts irlsls cefekjdy mdn ijcesljd. Ve imd see hrjk tce wjrbs, rmdfldf

hrjk Lsjirmtes“s Vmr mdn _emie mdn Mfmldst tce Yjpclsts, _`mtj“s @mws mdn Qepua`li tj Mrlstjtè“s

Etclis mdn _j`ltlis, tcmt tcey trlen tj icmdfe tce udnerfjldf h`jw, wclic wms cmppedldf ld Mdiledt

Mtceds. Hurtcerkjre, Jde jh tce prjaèkmtlim` pjldts wms mnnressldf tce irlsls jh ldte`èitum`

remsjdldf, l.e. aeldf wlse7 tce prjaèk jh Njxm mdn tce jtcer prjaèkmtli pjldts wms tce tjtm`

pmrtlilpmtljd jh tce kmsses ld tce pj`ltlim` neamtes. ^ce resu`t jh m ijkaldmtljd jh ajtc prjaèks

wms sj-im`èn mutjirmtli jh nekjirmtli pmrtlilpmtljd tcmt usum``y wedt jut jh cmdn wced tce kmsses

pmrtlilpmte ld tcjse sltumtljds tcmt tcey were djt edtltèn tj. Yldie, tce ldte`èitum` lfdjrmdie nue tj

tce rmpln pj`ltlim` upcemvm`s imuses tce nlsjrledtmtljd jh tce vmùes mdn prldilpès ld every

ijdstltutljd. Hmildf tcese prjaèks, wcmt Lsjirmtes trlen tj estma`lsc, ld refmrn tj tce ϏκβΪώελεωγυμ

wms miijkpmdlen wltc tce systekmtli nekjirmtli eèkedt jh tce enuimtljd. Enuimtljd trmdshers tce

nekj, tce pejpè jh m nekjirmtli stmte, wclic m`` tcey wju`n cmve njde wltcjut lt, ls tj ldterheredie

ekjtljdm``y, tce mkedmaè ldnlvlnum`s. Enuimtljd prjvlnes m frjudn hjr equm`lty jh iltlzeds ld mnekjirmtli pjwer re`mtljd mdn kmbes tcek mpt tj tce ne`laermtlve pj`ltlim` `lhe R1[. ^cls prjfresslve


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ketcjn wms mlken tj icmdfe tce sjilety hrjk md ldilpledt ldtednen wl`` jh ijrpjrmtljd tj m

cmrkjdlzen pj`ltlim` dmtljd-stmte. Ld tcls sedse, tce rjè jh speeic ld tce enuimtljdm` prjiess, jd tce

jde cmdn, ls nerlven hrjk tce dmturm` rlfcts jh ldnlvlnum`s, mdn jd tce jtcer cmdn, ls nerlven hrjk

tce essedie jh pj`ltlim` pmrtlilpmtljd. Ld tce kjnerd dmtljd-stmte, tce edtltèkedt jh tce pj`ltlim`

pmrtlilpmtljd, cjwever, ls djt nepedns jd`y jd tce hreenjk jh tce speeic, aut m`sj vmùmaè ld

respeit tj tce enuimtljd tcmt pjsslaè tcrjufc tce `ldb aetweed tce rcetjrlim` sbl`` mdn tce kjrm`

slfdlhlimdie jh mitljds. ^cls ls wcmt Lsjirmtes frmspen mdn trles tj use lt ld cls rehjrkmtlve sicjj`.M`tcjufc, tcere mre sjke nlhheredies ld tce prmitlim` rem`k, aetweed Lsjirmtes“ lnem majut

tce bdjwènfe mdn tcjse jh _`mtj mdn Mrlstjtè“s, Lt ls cmrn tj ae`leve tcmt Lsjirmtes“ lnem jh wlsnjk

amsen jd md jpldljd tcmt èmns tj tce ijdiùsljd tcmt tcere ls dj exmit bdjwènfe tcmt imd èmn m

kmd tj wcmt tj smy jr wcmt tj nj. Qmtcer, ld cls vlew, tce jpldljd (njxml) ijupèn wltc tce njitrlde

jh sltumtljdm` gunfkedt ms m icmrmiter jh m stmteskmd, wclic cms tj cmve lts rjjts ld tce prmitlim`

wlsnjk, mre respeiten ms tce jd`y wmy hjr aeldf wlse R19, 16=[, R15, 13-1tc iedtury A.I. ^ce lnem imd ae amslim``y ldterpreten ms7 Djt fjldf wltc tce

h`jw. Cjwever, Lsjirmtes“ mttekpts clfc`lfcten tce nlhheredie aetweed clkse`h mdn jtcer,

sj im`èn tcldbers, aut tcmt wms djt tce jd`y fjm` jh cls njitrlde. Ld tcls sedse, ce


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9?

presedten tce njitrlde jd ‐pemie‛ mdn ‐udlhlimtljd‛ jh Mtcedlmd sjilety, wclic kust ae

surveyen kjre neep`y.

_emie mdn Yeiurlty7 M @essjd hrjk Lsjirmtes

Lsjirmtes wms tryldf tj ijdiem` tce ldnlvlnum` `lhe wltc tce fjjn jh tce stmte ld tce wcjè

sedse, aut ce nln djt kemd tcmt md ldnlvlnum` wmy jh `lhe ls superljr tj tce ijkkjd `lvldfjh cls he``jw iltlzeds. Udhjrtudmte`y, ce nln djt neve`jp tcls lnem ld md e`majrmten hjrk,

ms suasequedt pcl`jsjpcers suic ms _`mtj mdn Mrlstjtè nln. Hjr clk, tce edn jh pj`ltlim`

`lhe mdn tce edn jh tce _j`ls, wju`n ae nlreit`y re`mten tj tce sju` jh tce _j`ls ay wclic

iltlzeds mre tce prlkmry eèkedts R19, 1=-19[. ^ce re`mtljdsclp jh tce ldnlvlnum` mdn tce

stmte- ajtc mspeits jh ketmpcyslis mdn prmitlies- ls vltm` tj tce prjiess jh remicldf m fjjn

`lhe mdn kmldtmldldf lt mdn imd ae seed kjre vlvln`y ld tce wjrbs jh _`mtj mdn Mrlstjtè.

Ms m temicer, Lsjirmtes wms kjre ijdierden wltc tce pj`ltlim` mspeit jh tce

ldnlvlnum`s ld tce stmte, rmtcer tcmd m tcejretlim` jde, èt m`jde hlfct hjr m pure eunmlkjdlm

ld m sedse tcmt jur pcl`jsjpcers -_`mtj mdn Mrlstjtè- kemdt. Ce sjufct hjr tce pemie

aetweed tce e`lte ld m ‐hew‛ sedse mdn jrnldmry pejpè ld m ‐wlne‛ sedse2 mbm tce wlse

mdn tce lfdjrmdt. ^cls styè jh enuimtljd m`kjst wjrben ld tce Mtcedlmd stmte, wcere,màelt jh tce nekjirmtli hever, tcere wms `lttè tjèrmdie hjr Kjdmricy. Ijupè wltc tcls

clfc`y ldtjèrmtljd mkalmdie, tcere wms md lkp`lilt lfdjrmdie mkjdf tce ku`tltune, wclic

tce lfdjrmdie cms mnjrden ay tce mkaltljus eèkedt. Yuppjsen tcmt, Lsjirmtes cmn tj

nlsiurslve`y ijdtedn tce lnej`jflim` cefekjdy jh nekjs R19, p. 9>[. ^cls icmrmiter imd

ae seed e`sewcere mkjdf tcjse wcj ae`leven exiesslve`y ld nekjirmtli lnej`jfy jr jd

nlsirlkldmtldf mutcjrlty R=5[, R=9[. Lsjirmtes, ms L mrfue, ls tce hjudner jh tce sydtcetli

aetweed tce (l) rcetjrli mdn pcl`jsjpcy, (ll) pmtrljtli mdn ijskjpj`ltmd nlsijurses mdn

(lll) tce prldilpè jh tce nekjirmtli mdn tce mrlstjirmtli sjilety. ^ce ijkaldmtljd jh tcese

ceterjfedejus p`mys tce kmld rjè ld cls njitrlde tj kmbe tce pemie, cmrkjdy mdn

ldtefrlty jh cls sjilety. Vcmt ls ldterestldf, tcjufc, ls tcmt tcey mre neterklden ms tce

ldfrenledts jh tce hjudnmtljd jh tce kjnerd sjiletles. Cjwever, tce kjnerd nekjirmtlistmte ls kjre i`jse tj tce tjèrmtljd mdn wlsnjk. ^cls eèkedt ls tce iedtrm` nlversljd

pjldt aetweed tce mdiledt mdn kjnerd nekjirmtli stmte, wclic nlreit`y tmbes ehheit hrjk

twj mspeits jh tce enuimtljd mdn tce rcetjrli sbl``s jd tce pejpè. Cedie, tce rlfct

fjverdkedt, wclic estma`lscen jd tce kjttjs jh ‐jh tce pejpè, ay tce pejpè mdn hjr tce

pejpè‛, scm`` we`` exeiute tce rcetjrlim` sbl`` mdn we`` exerilse tce gust enuimtljd amsen

jd tce `laerty jh tce speeic.

=?. Mkalmdie, Ketcjn mdn Lnem

^ce kmld ijkpjdedts jh Lsjirmtes“s lnems, gust `lbe m`` jtcer pj`ltlim` tcldbers, mre tce

_j`ls mdn lts iltlzeds. Ce, mt tce edn jh tce scmkehu` mdn nlsfrmildf Mtcedlmd ‐Yjilm`

Vmr‛, wclic wms majut Mtcedlmd ijdhenermiy mdn lts ij`jdles (955 A.I.), wms ijdierden

wltc tce repua`li `lhe2 mdn tce kmtter jh lts smhety R1>, =>?71[ mdn lts re`mtljd tj tce _j`ls

ltse`h. Ldneen, wced jde ls ijdierden wltc tce re`mtljdsclp aetweed _j`ls mdn lts iltlzeds,

‐tce aest jrner‛, tce hjrk jh pjwer re`mtljd mdn pjwer struiture, ijkes ldtj questljd tjj.

Lsjirmtes wms djt ijkpète`y mfmldst tce lnem jh nekjirmiy aeimuse nekjirmiy

m``jwen clk tj spemb wltcjut hemr R1>, =>97=6[. Ce wms, cjwever, cjpldf hjr m nlhheredt

bldn jh nekjirmiy. ^cus, nesplte cls strjdf irltlim` jpldljd mfmldst tce nekjirmiy jh cls

tlke, ud`lbe _`mtj mdn, tcls ls tce bey pjldt, ce tcjufct tcmt nekjirmiy wms m wmy tcmt m

_j`ls imd ae perheit`y ruèn tjj. Mdn kjre lkpjrtmdt`y, ce nln djt mrfue mfmldst

nekjirmiy ms m sjùtljd tj tce iurredt irlsls jh cls tlke, rmtcer ce rehers tj tce Rfjjn[‐emr`ler nekjirmiy, wclic wms ldstltuten ay Yj`jd mdn re-estma`lscen ay Ièlstcedes.‛


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9=

R1>, =>9[. Miijrnldf tj wcmt cmve aeed cltcertj kedtljden, we imd see tce `ldb aetweed

cls lnems jh m fjjn ilty wltc tce jde tcmt tcjse emr`y hmkjus ruèrs trlen tj estma`lsc ms

gustlhlen nekjirmtli stmte.

^ce nmte tcmt tce wjrn ‐nekjirmiy‛ wms ldvedten ld tce clstjry jh kmdbldn, ls

re`mtlve`y udlkpjrtmdt, aut tce hjrks jh nekjirmiy scju`n ae md lkpjrtmdt kmtter tj

udnerstmdn lts kemdldf, lts prjiess mdn lts fjm`s. ^cese mre tce tcree mspeit jh m stmte

èfltlkmiy7 ldput, tcrjufcput, mdn jutput èfltlkmiy. ^cere ls dj lssue ‐wcere:‛, aeimuse,jh ijurse, lt cmppeden ld tce _j`ls jh tce Mtcedlmds. Vcmt ls lkpjrtmdt, tcjufc, ls tcmt, tce

nekjirmiy ld Mdiledt-Freeb-styè wms extreke`y nlhheredt hrjk jurs, ld struiture, lts

prjiess mdn lts te`js. Kjre lkpjrtmdt ls tcmt, wced we mre spembldf majut tcmt kjkedt,

tcmt tce nekjirmiy we reherren tj, wms m dewhmdfèn nekjirmiy wclic ekerfen hrjk

sjke styès jh sj im`èn ‐ruèn ay sjke‛, wclic L wju`n im`` lt –tce pre -Yjirmtes

Mr lstjirmiy“. ^ce djal`lty, kytc, nlvlde `mw jh jrmiè mdn tce lkmfldmry f`jrles jh tce

Cjkerli pjeks were `jsldf lts mutcjrlty R>1, pp. =?>-15[, ih. R98, p. =9[. ^ce sjpclstlim`

rehjrks jh tce hlrst mdn seijdn federmtljd èn tcls mfe tj twj nlhheredt nlreitljd jh

estma`lscldf m nekjirmtli stmte, twj nlhheredt hjrk jh nekjirmiy. Jde wms imrryldf tce

nekmfjfy eèkedt udner tce nekjirmiy“s dmke, tce jtcer wms imrryldf tce rlfct tj tce

pua`li ne`laermtljd hjr m``, mdn ldslstedie jd pjsslal`ltles jd retcldbldf jd `mws udner tcetwj ijdnltljd jh rlfcts tj hreenjk jh speeic mdn pua`li enuimtljd, tce ijdiept jh jrfmdli

`mw jr `lvldf ijdstltutljd. ^cese mre tce rmnlim` lnem jh tcmt tlke tcmt cms aeed tmbed hjr

frmdten tjnmy. Lt ls amsen jd suic clstjrlim` prjiess, wclic èn tj wcmt we cmve tjnmy ms

Qepresedtmtlve Nekjirmiy.

Cjwever, Lsjirmtes wms irltlim``y ijdierden majut tce kjvekedt tcmt èn tcek tj

tce rlfct nekjirmiy. ^cmt nekjirmtli lnem kust fj amib tj tce represedtmtlve nekjirmiy

jr ld sjke pjldt tj tce Mrlstjirmiy, aut ld md esjterli hjrk. Jde klfct msb7 wcy ld

esjterli hjrk: Aeimuse jh tce ldtjèrmdie jh tce jrnldmry pejpè tcmt wju`n imuse tce

revjùtljd, ldstmal`lty mdn mdmricy ld tce pj`ltlim` ijkkudlty. Ve èmrd hrjk tcek tcmt

tce impmilty jh m sjilety cldfen upjd tce enuimtljd, sj ms lts nekjirmtli icmrmiterlstlis. M

a`ldb mt tce Klnnè Emst ijudtrles, jde kmy wjdner cjw ijke tce nekjirmtli prjiess lssj `jw: Kmy wcmt we cmve presedten cere wju`n ae jde jh tce kmld mdswer tj suic

questljd. Mdjtcer remsjd tcmt mpprjves jur i`mlk ls re`mten tj tce exlstedie jh tjdes jh

Lsjirmtes“ jppjdedts. Mt èmst, lt cms aeed ièmr hrjk tce mppemrmdie jh tce wjrns tcmt ce

cms aeed tm`bldf majut tce nekjirmiy, usldf tcls terk ms smke ms jtcer pj`ltlim` tcldbers

mt cls tlke, aut lt imd ae seed m`sj tcmt ce pjrtrmyen clkse`h ms exlstldf wltcld mdn

ijdtednldf wltc cufe irltlim` vjlies. Ce mitum``y reielves mttmibs upjd clkse`h, cls

prjhessljd mdn cls prjpjsen _j`ls, aut Vcy:

Vced we try tj l`ùstrmte tce sltumtljd wltc m slkpè exmkpè, we imd lkmflde tcmt

tcere ls m ajmt wclic cemns tj ls`mdn S. _ercmps sjkeajny mkjdf tce pmssedfers scjuts

jut tcmt we scju`n fj tj tce ls`mdn S, tced ce hmies `jts jh jppjdedts mfmldst clk. Lh tce

ajmt ls fjldf tj ls`mdn S, tce remsjd jh tce jppjdedts“ vjlies imd ae severm`7

=) ^ce ajmt njes djt fj tj ls`mdn S.

1) ^ce jppjdedts mre djt mwmre tcmt tce ajmt fjes tj ls`mdn S.

9) ^ce ls`mdn S cms mdjtcer kemdldf ’ cere ls mdjtcer p`mie- tcmd wcmt tce jtcers

tcldb.

Ld m hever jh nekjirmtli sjilety mkjdf emic jde jh tce pjpu`mtljd jh tce Mtcedlmd, wms

djt tcmt strmdfe mdn mdjkm`lstli tj tm`b majut tce nekjirmiy. ^cmt eùilnmtes us cjw

Lsjirmtes kemdt sjketcldf e`se, eved tcjufc ce usen tce terk jh nekjirmiy severm`

tlkes. Cls nekjirmiy wms nlhheredt wltc tce mdiledt Freeb nekjirmiy, gust ms tce

nlhheredie eèkedt tcmt imd ae hjudn aetweed tce Mdiledt mdn kjnerd nekjirmiy. Jd tcejtcer cmdn, tce irltlis wclic were jd clk ldnlimte tce sepmrmtljd jh clk hrjk cls


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91

ijdtekpjrmry tcldbers. M`tcjufc, Lsjirmtes cmn njde m`` mdn ce refmrnen cls ehhjrt ms m

rekeny hjr m sltumtljd sj kjkedtjus, l.e. tce presedt sltumtljd jh Mtceds2 mdn ce cjpen

tcmt cls wjrb wju`n ae md ldsplrmtljd hjr tce huture, aut djt mt mdy rmte rekmlds ms gust

‐jrmiè hjr tce huture‛ R18, =6=[.

==. Kjnerd rcetjrlim` mpprjmic

Ld tce kjnerd stmdn jut pj`ltlim` tcejrles, tcere mre twj kmgjr mpprjmices tj tce mdiledt

Freeb rcetjrlim` trmnltljd. Jde ls md lnej`jflim` irltli, wclic ls kjst`y mpp`len ay tce

tekpjrm` gunfkedts jh exefetlim` ketcjns mdn tce jtcer ls tce cukmd mfediy ld tce _j`ls,

wclic ls kjre re`len jd tce mdm`ytlim` mpprjmic. Lt ls lkpjrtmdt tj djte tcmt tce lnej`jflim`

irltli kust djt ae mpp`len ay tce gunfkedt majut tce pmst tcrjufc tce vmùmtljd jh tce

presedt. Kjst jh tcese hmlùres ijke hrjk tce nmrb slnes jh tce rmilsk, e`ltlsk mdn sexlsk

tcmt cmppeden ld tce clstjrlim` tcrjufc extreke kjvekedts mdn èmns sicj`mrs tcmt Freeb

rcetjrlim` trmnltljd cmn djtcldf ld essedie tj presedt tj us hjr jur kjnerd sjilety. Ld hmit,

tcere mre twj kjvekedts ld jur kjnerd pj`ltlim` pcl`jsjpcy mfmldst tcls hmlùre.

Jde jh tce kjvekedt ls tce wmy tj reimst tce rcetjrlim` ednemvjrs, ms Lsjirmtes

trlen tj, tj presedt tcek ms tcey mre djt hjr h`mtterldf tce munledie R==, >89 m[ jr tcey mredjt tj temic tcek cjw tj fmld njkldmtljd ld ijdh`lits, aut tj reimst tcek ms tce wmy tj

enuimte tce iltlzeds tce mrt jh iltlzedry ay flvldf tcek tce mal`lty tj ne`laermte mdn

pmrtlilpmte ld tce pj`ltlim` rem`k. Frmnum` icm`èdfldf sprlte jh emic mrfukedt, lh lt amsen

jd tce rlfct prldilpès, ls amsen jd tce ldte`èitum` trmnltljd jh tce sjpclsts/pcl`jsjpcers.

^cls ketcjn, wclic revlven ms tce ijdsequedie jh tce mdiledt Freeb pcl`jsjpclim`-

rcetjrlim` trmnltljd cms aeed kjven tce kjnerd pj`ltlim` sjiletles tj tce kjre sj`ln

dmtljd-stmtes R>9[, ih. R>=, p.


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99

tcmt tlke mdn tcls ls md lkpjrtmdt pjldt aeimuse ce nln djt mttekpt nlreit`y tj mnnress tce federm`

prenlimkedt hjr cmvldf tce aest _j`ls wltc djaè iltlzeds. Ve imd see ld _`mtj mdn Mrlstjtè vlews

tcmt tce wcjè imd ae reijdstruiten jd`y hrjk m vlew jh tce wcjè, aut tcmt wcjè ls djt supp`len ay

m speeic ms speeic, wclic slkp`y re`mten tj m pmrtliu`mr sltumtljd. ^jnmys, cedie, tce nekjirmtli

stmte scm`` hjius kjre jd tce enuimtljdm` mspeit jh tce pcl`jsjpcy rmtcer tcmd tce rcetjrlim` mspeit,

m`tcjufc jde jh tce kmld kmdlhestj jh tce `laerm`lsk l.e. hreenjk jh tce speeic, imd jd`y djurlscen

mdn ekpjweren ay tce rcetjrlim` sbl``.^ce seijdn nlhhliu`ty ls tcmt, cjw i`jse`y mdy pmssmfe kmy ae lnedtlhlen wltc tce mutcjr's

jwd jpldljd cms aeed m`wmys m questljd mdn lt requlres m fremt ednemvjrs hrjk ldterpreters tj hldn

tcmt jut. Lt ls djt m sure tcldf tj smy, Yjirmtes ld tce _rjtmfjrms imd ae lnedtlim` wltc _`mtj's jwd

vlews. Ylkl`mr`y, lt ls djt gustlhlmaè tj miiept Lsjirmtes stmtekedts ld ijdvedtljdm`lzen speeices tj

tce Mtcedlmd Msseka`y ms cls fedulde`y lnems. Kjrejver, tce nlstlditljd aetweed tce wjrbs re`mten

tj tce hlrst perljn jh Lsjirmtes“ `lhe mdn tce wjrbs re`mten tj tce seijdn pmrt ls udmvjlnmaè tj

udnerstmdn Lsjirmtes rem` njitrlde. Ms per tce mhjrekedtljden remsjds, lt imd ae seed tcmt cls

wrltldfs iju`n djt cmve tcmt emsl`y mpprecedslaè icmrmiter frmdten tj tcjse wcjse fjm`s cmve m

kjre lkkenlmte speilhlilty mdn i`mrlty. Cjwever, Lsjirmtes imd ae m fremt resjurie ld tce prmitlim`

mspeit jh tce rcetjrli sbl`` mdn esjterli temicldf jh tce represedtmtlve nekjirmiy.

^ce tclrn nlhhliu`ty ls tcmt, nesplte jh m`` prenlimkedts tj ldterpret rcetjrlim` speeices ms tcejwd lnems jh tcelr wrlters2 we imd mrfue tcmt Lsjirmtes neens mdn wjrbs wms mlken, ld sjke pjldt,

tj kmbe tce iltlzeds jh tce _j`ls, fjjn iltlzeds R16, 9-5[, R15, 36[. ^cjufc, djt tce mrt jh spembldf,

aut m ijkaldmtljd aetweed enuimtljd mdn rcetjrlim` sbl`` wclic mre tce ijrderstjde jh Lsjirmtes

sicjj` imd ae ijdslneren ms tce kmld eèkedts jh cls lnem tj tce prjfress jh pj`ltlim` sltumtljd jh cls

tlke. Qefmrnldf tce slkl`mr lkpmit jh tcls ijkaldmtljd jd m`` pj`ltlim` mfes, clfc`lfctldf tce

lkpjrtmdie jh lt ld tce enuimtljd systek mdn mkjdf tce pj`ltlilmds, wced tce ijdierd ls wltc tce

aetter pj`ltlim` `lhe jh tce we`hmre jh tce iltlzeds ld tce `laerm` nekjirmtli stmtes. Lh we use tce

rcetjrli, ms Lsjirmtes ekpcmslzes, ms m rehèitlve, mestcetli ne`laermtljd wclic kmdlhests ldtj tce

pj`ltlim` nlsiussljd, we cmve tj reimst pcl`jsjpcy ms tce jtcer wldfs jh tcls h`lfct ld jut `laerm`

enuimtljd tj cmve m gust kjnerd nekjirmtli sjilety tcmt jde jh lts kmld hjius ls cukmdlstli

enuimtljd ld re`mtljd tj tce ilvli vlrtue mdn ilvli mitlvltles.Ld tcls wmy, we imd see Lsjirmtes ms jde jh tce lkpjrtmdt hlfures ld tce clstjry jh westerd

pj`ltlim` pcl`jsjpcy. Cedie, jur hjius jd rcetjrlim` mspeits jh pj`ltlim` pcl`jsjpcy kust djt `lklten

ld hlhtc mdn hjurtc iedtury. ^cere mre iedturles jh `mte Freeb mdn Qjkmd rcetjrlim`-pj`ltlim` tcejrles

tcmt re`mten tj jur kjnerd pj`ltlim` jde mdn tcey mre stl`` kust tj ae exp`jren.

=1. Ijdiùsljd

Lt cms aeed eùilnmten tcmt tce iu`ture jh tce pj`ltlim` mitlvlty mdn lts eèkedt ls amsen jd wcmt tce

sjilety ls ijdslsts jh7 tce pejpè ms sjilj-pj`ltlim` ijkpjdedt mdn tce pj`ltlim` prldilpès jh m pjwer

struiture. Ajtc jh tcek udner tce rmtljdm`-djrkmtlve prldilpè imd ae tce hjudnmtljds jh tce

re`mtljdsclp aetweed pejpè mdn tce stmte. Ld tcls respeit, pcl`jsjpclim` mdn rcetjrlim` mspeits jh

pj`ltlim` enuimtljd mre jde jh tce kmld imuses jh pj`ltlilzmtljd mdn h`jurlscldf jh nekjirmiy. ^cls

mspeit ld enuimtljd seeks iruilm` hjr tce irltlim` kldns jh iltlzeds mdn tce `lhe jh kjnerd nekjirmtli

stmtes.

^ce ijrre`mten ekpcmsls jd tcls kmtter miiruen ld Lsjirmtes wjrbs ms tce ldltlm` pjldt jh m``

irltlim` tcldbldf ld pj`ltlis mdn tcmt wms hjr tce smbe jh lkprjvldf tce pj`ltlim` reflke. ^cls

prjfress cms aeed m`wmys miijkpmdlen wltc ekpcmsls jd twj mspeits7 tce sbl`` jh èmnersclp, mdn

tce sbl`` jh rcetjrli. Cjwever, ms Lsjirmtes clfc`lfcten, –èmnersclp“ ls m`wmys cmdfldf upjd mdjtcer

sbl``s suic ms aeldf e`jquedie ld `mdfumfe jr cmvldf m ne hmitj ldte`èitum` pjwer. ^cls ls aeimuse

kmd“s dmture ls ijdslstldf jh hmiu`ty jh `mdfumfe. Ld tcls sedse, tce lkpjrtmdie jh `mdfumfe, jr ld tce

jtcer wjrn, tce pjwer jh irltlim` tcldbldf, ls bdltten, jd tce jde cmdn, tj tce dmture jh cukmd aeldf,l.e. ldte`èitum` aeldf2 mdn jd tce jtcer cmdn, tj lts huditljd, l.e. pj`ltlim` mitlve ms m iltlzed. ^cmt ls


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cjw Lsjirmtes reijfdlzen tce nlhheredie aetweed tce wjrn ϏκβΪώελεωγυμ l.e. –tj `lve ms m iltlzed“,

ldstemn jh tce amre terk –tj `lve“. Ajtc jh suic ijdiepts mre pertmldldf tj tce ijdiepts jh pj`ltlim`

pjwer7 –pjwer jver“ mdn –pjwer tj“.

Kjrejver, Lsjirmtes“ kmld jageitlve, wclic ekpcmslzen jd tce pcl`jsjpclim` ketcjns ld tce

prmitlie jh èmnersclp ld jrner tj arldf –pemie“ tj m pj`ltlim` struiture ls ijdversmdt`y ijrre`mtes tce

njitrlde jh tce tjèrmtljd mdn wlsnjk ld kjnerd nekjirmtli stmte. ^cls mspeit ls md mssesskedt tj

tce tclrn ijdiept jh pjwer ms m ijkaldmtljd jh `mst twj wclic ekpcmsls jd tce mutjdjkjus wl``,–pjwer jh“. Cjwever, L cmve mrfuen tcmt tcls mspeit requlres kjre pj`ltlim` prmitlie tcese nmys.

Hurtcerkjre, ld tce rem`k jh tcejretli, tce jtcer kjvekedt ls tj scjw tcmt cjw tce rcetjrlim`

ednemvjrs mre lkpjrtmdt tj tce ilvli enuimtljd wced tcese ednemvjrs ijkalden wltc tce

pcl`jsjpclim` ijdtext.

^ce nekjirmtli ijkkltkedt tj tce stmte ls tce ijdsequedie jh tce rcetjrlim`-pcl`jsjpclim`

trmnltljd. ^cls trmnltljd e`majrmten ay tce kjnerd ijdiept jh dmtljd-stmte mdn lts ijkpjdedts ld

nlhheredt mspeits, suic ms cjw rcetjrlim` prmitlies ld sjilety imd scmpe tce ldte`èitum` mal`lty ld

sjilm` mitlvlty mdn cjw enuimtljd imd scmpe tce rcetjrli prldilpè hjr tce smbe jh estma`lscldf mdn

kmldtmldldf jh, wcmt we im`` lt tjnmy ms, tce vmùes jh `laerm` mdn nekjirmtli stmtes. Lt cms aeed

presedten ms tce frjudn tcmt cjw tce Mdiledt tcemtrlim` tcejrles jh pj`ltlis mdn prmitlim` prmitlies jh

jrmtjry R==, 85


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=?. Iclscj`k, C. Ediyi`jpenlm Arltmddlim, @jdnjd, =.93.

^ce Cj`y Ala`e, Njumy -Qcelks Xersljd, =


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98

9.

>?. ^jj, \. @. ^ce Qcetjrli jh Lnedtlty ld Lsjirmtes7 ^ext, _jwer, _enmfjfy. Imkarlnfe

REdf`mdn[7 Imkarlnfe Udlverslty _ress, =1. Vl`bersjd, B. E. Hrjk Cerj tj Iltlzed7 _ersumsljd ld emr`y Freeie. _cl`jsjpcy mdn

Qcetjrli, Yprldf, =9.

\udls, C. ^mkldf Nekjirmiy7 Kjne`s jh _j`ltlim` Qcetjrli ld I`msslim` Mtceds . Ltcmim7

Ijrde`` Udlverslty _ress, =98, _`mtj ld >1

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