Research Collection

Report

The atmosphere of our Earth, of planets of our solar system andof exoplanets

Author(s): Brüesch, Peter

Publication Date: 2016

Permanent Link: https://doi.org/10.3929/ethz-a-010580544

Rights / License: In Copyright - Non-Commercial Use Permitted

This page was generated automatically upon download from the ETH Zurich Research Collection. For moreinformation please consult the Terms of use.

ETH Library

The Atmosphere of

our Earth, of Planets

of our solar System

and of Exoplanets

Peter Brüesch

0 - 0

There are more things in Heaven and Earth, Horatio,

than are dreamed of in your Philosophy.

from «Hamlet»

by William Shakespeare

(1564 – 1616)

0 - 1

0. Introduction – Contents pp A - Q

1. Prologue: The Atmosphere of our Earth pp 1 - 11

2. Physical and Chemical Basis pp 12 - 55

3. The Weather in the Troposhere pp 56 - 105

4. Flying and gliding through the air pp 106 - 189

5. Air contamination, toxic gases

and radioactive Fallout pp 190 - 243

6. Breathing and Photosynthesis of Plants pp 244 - 270

7. Breathing of men and animals pp 271 - 333

8. Selected atmospheric phenomena pp 334 - 373

9. Breathing in Psychology, Philosophy and

in World Religions pp 374 - 404

10. Atmospheres of Planets and Exoplanets pp 405 – 500

Each Chapter contains an Appendix with complementary information.

A

CONTENTS

PrefaceMy first Book has been dedicated to the subject of «WATER: Its Significance in Science, in Nature and

Culture, in World Religions and in the Universe».

According to the old Greek Philosophers, everything consists of the four basic elements: Air, Water,

Earth and Fire. This second Book is dedicated to the element «Air» or more generally to the

«Atmosphere». Similar to water, air is indispensable for all human beeings. Water and air in the first

place make life on our Planet possible.

In contrast to liquid and solid water (ice), the air of our Earth is invisible. The air layer of our planet is

extremely thin compared with the radius of the Earth. Our Atmosphere consists of several gases.

Without these gases we would be burned by the intensive heat of the Sun during the days, and during

the nights we would freeze because of the very low temperatures.

Although we need air constantly for breathing, we take it for granted. As a consequence, average

people are hardly interested about the properties and quality of air. Only if the air is strongly

contaminated (by thick smog, by carbone dioxide (CO2) etc. or by bad odour), the alarm bells are

ringing. Clean air and clean water are indispensable for our life.

Several implications associated with «Global Warming» have been discussed in my first Book

dedicated to «WATER» and are therefore not repeated in the present work.

I found it necessary to embed each of the different topics into the associated larger context. Only in this

way is it possible to generate a well-rounded and meaningful representation.

My last and tenth Chapter contains a survey about the properties and atmospheres of the Planets of our

solar system as well as of Planets outside the solar system – the so-called extrasolar Planets or

Exoplanets.

With a view exceptions, the Book is written deliberately simple and should be easily comprehensible.

Each Chapter contains a large list of References for complementary and more detailed information.

Peter Brüesch January 2016 B

0 - 2

C

Acknowledgements

My deep thanks go to the following friends and collegues:

I would like to thank the late Dr. Walter Schneider for many years of support: During a large period

of time he sent me highly relevant information from Journals and Books about the present topics.

During many discussions with Mister Peter Etter, I learned a lot about Insects and I am indepted for

his highly illustrating demonstration and explanations of his very interesting butterfly collection

(Chapter 4, Section 4.2.2). In addition I would like to thank him for his information concerning the

smallest insect of the world, the «Dicopomorpha Echmepterygis» (Chapter 4, Sect. 4.2.2, p. 127).

In addition, I would like to thank Dr. Dieter Kuse for his suggestion to include a discussion about

«Polar Lights» and the «Kennely-Heaviside Layer» (Chapter 8, Sections 8.2 and 8.3).

I am also indepted to Professor Dr. Straumann for his information concerning relevant Literature

about «Exoplanets» (Chapter 10, Sections 10.3 and 10.4).

Many thanks to Reto Stephan Grimm for providing me with interesting Literature concerning the

present «Brake of Climate Change» as well as for information about «Exoplanets».

I am very thankful to Mister Kirkor Arsik for his valuable help related to Data handling and PC

support.

Furthermore, I thank my daughters Elisabeth Schraner – Brüesch and Christine Brüesch for Books

about Exoplanets from which I have learned a lot about the Atmosphere of Extrasolar Planets. Many

thanks also to my granddaughter Angéline Da Silva for helping me correcting a few Chapters of my

text.

Last but not least I would like to thank my dear wife for her interest and valuable suggestions as well

as for her support and never ending patience during the elaboration of this work.

Peter Brüesch

D

Peter Brüesch : Scientific Career

1934 Born in Schuls (Scuol) – Graubünden – Switzerland

1948 – 1954 Academic high school in Chur, Switzerland

1954– 1960 Study of Experimental Physics at the ETHZ in Zürich

1960 – 1965 PhD at the Laboratory of „Physical Chemistry“ at the ETHZ

1965 – 1967 Postdoctoral Fellowship at the Chemistry Department , Oregon State University, USA

1967 – 2002 Scientific collaborator and Project Leader at the ABB Research Center – Switzerland

Studies of „Solid State Physics“ , resulting in 72 publications in refereed Journals

1975 Nominated «Assistant Lecturer» at the Physics Department of the EPFL in Lausanne

Lectures about «Phonons: Theory and Experients»

1987 Nominated „Professeur Titulaire“ at the Physics Department of the EPFL

Lectures about «Phonons» and «The Physics of Water and Aequeous Solutions»

1982 – 1986 Author of a 3- Volume Book about the «Physics of Phonons» -Springer Series in Solid State Physics

1998 – 2000 Consultant at the ABB Research Center in the field of «Water Technology and Aqueous Solutions»

2000 – 2011 Studies and Research on „Water and Aequeous Solutions and its role in Nature“

- Since 1997: Lectures about „Solid State Physics“ and about „Water“ at the EPFL in Lausanne

- 2002 – 2001: Elaboration of a comprehensive work about „Water“ :

This formed the basis of the following extended Work in German and English:

„Wasser : Seine Bedeutung in der Wissenschaft, in der Natur und Kultur,

in den Weltreligionen und im Universum“

„Water : Its Significance in Science, in Nature and Culture,

in World Religions and in the Universe“

2011 - 2015: «The Atmosphere of our Earth, of the Planets of our Solar Sysrem and of Exoplanets»

E-Mail : p.brueesch@bluewin.ch

0 – 3

E

General References

R.0.1 The Greek four classical elements

a) Classical elements

http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/Classical_ele,emts

b) Elemental: The Four Elements

From Ancient Greek Science and Philosophy to Ancient Sites Poetry

http://www.webwinds.com/myth/elemental.htm

R.0.2 Vier_Elemente_Lehre

http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vier:Elemente_Lehre

R.0.3 Feuer, Wasser, Erde, Luft

Horst Rademacher, Erwin Lausch, Dagmar Röhrlich, Wiebke Rögener

Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA

1. Auflage (12. Mai 2003); ISBN-10: 3527404473

R.0.4 WATER: Its Significance in Science, in Nature and Culture,

in World Religions and in the Universe

Brüesch, Peter

Home – ETH E-Collection

e-Collection.ethbib.ethz.ch

R.0.5 Die Atmosphäre der Erde» (Eine Einführung in die Meteorologie)

Helmut Kraus

Verlag: Springer Berlin (2004); ISBN: 978-3-540-20656-9

R.0.6 Air: Our Planet’s Ailing Atmosphere

Hans Tammemagi

Oxford University Press, April 2009; ISBN-10: 0195430077

F

R.0.9 Atmosphärenphysik

Niklaus Kämpfer: Institut für angewandte Physik, Univ. Bern

[PDF] Atmosphärenphysik; Frühlingssemester 2011

www.iapmw.unibe.ch/teaching/.../FS.../AT-phys_FS13_Kapitel1_2.pdf

R.0.10 Die Entdeckung der Stratosphäre – ein Ereignis der

Berliner Wissenschaftsgeschichte

Karl-Heinz Bernhardt

Sitzungsberichte der Leibniz – Sozietät 12 (1996) 4, pp 91 – 96

www.leibnizsozietaet.de/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/07_bernhardt_kh.pdf

R.0.11 Physik unserer Umwelt: Die Atmosphäre

buch.de; Erschienen bei Springer

3. überarbeitete und aktualisierte Auflage, 06-2000

Walter Roedel

ISBN-10: 3-540-67180-3 ; ISBN-13 : 978-3-540-671800-0

R.0.12 Thermal Physics of the Atmosphere

Maarten H.P. Ambaum

ISBN: 978-0-470-74515-1

John Wijey & Sons , April 2010

R.0.8 Fundamentals of Atmospheric Physics

Murry L. Salby

Elsevier Science 1996

ISBN 0126151601, 9780126151602

R.0.7 An Introduction to Atmospheric Physics

David G. Andrews

Second Edition published 2010Cambridge University Press ; ISBN 978-0-521-87220-1

0 - 4

G

R.0.13 Lectures in Atmospheric Physics , 2010

Björn-Martin Sinnhuber

University of Bremen - Master of Environmental Physics

www.iup.uni-bremen.de(.../lecture.../AtmosphericPhysics-09_01.pdf

R.0.14 Atmospheric Physics

[PDF] Lecture Notes - Assoc. Prof. Dr. Aysegül Yilmaz (2006)

Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University

www.nu.edu.sa/userfiles/semohammad/atmosphere.pdf

R.0.15 Wetter & Klima

Vorhersagen – Wetterphänomene – Klimaänderung – Meteorologie

DORLYNG KINDERSlAY – DK

H

Contents

1. Prologue pp 1 - 11

1.1 Formation of the Earth’s Atmosphere 2 - 4

1.2 The Atmosphere and the Air 5 - 8

1.3 The Layers of the Atmosphere 9 - 11

A-1 Appendix

R-1 References R-1-0 - R-1-3

2. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth’s Atmosphere pp 12 - 55

2.1 Prelimenary remarks and Contents 13 - 14

2.2 Composition of dry air 15 - 23

2.3 The Troposphere with water vapor 24 - 32

2.4 The Stratosphere 33 - 42

2.5 The Mesosphere 43 - 45

2.6 The Thermosphere 46 - 50

2.7 The Exosphere 51 - 55

A-2 Appendix

R-2 References R-2-0 - R-2-7

0 - 5

I

3. The Weather in the Troposphere pp 56 - 105

3.1 Weather – General 57 - 62

3.2 The Troposphere 63 - 67

3.3 The World of Clouds 68 - 78

3.4 The Wind 79 - 86

3.5 Precipitations and extreme Weather conditions 87 - 99

3.6 Use of Wind Energy 100 - 105

A-3 Appendix

R-3 References R-3-0 - R-3-14

4. Flying in the Air pp 106 - 189

4.0 Flying – Overview 107 - 108

4.1 Physical principles 109 - 119

4.2 Flying and gliding Animals - Invertebrates 120 - 139

4.2.1 Invertebrates and Vertebrates 121 - 123

4.2.2 Flying and gliding Invertebrates: Insects 124 - 139

4.2.2.1 Bees, Ants and Termites 130

4.2.2.2 Butterflies 131 - 134

4.2.2.3 How Flies are flying 135 - 136

4.2.2.4 Hymenopteras Insect - Dragonflies 137 - 139

J

4.3 Flying and gliding Vertebrates 140 – 174

4.3.1 Flying Protozoa 141 - 144

4.3.2 The birds 145 - 153

4.3.3 Gliding flight of Fishes 154 – 156

4.3.4 Gliding flight of Reptiles 157 - 160

4.3.5 Gliding Amphibians 161 - 163

4.3.6 Gliding and flying Mammals 164 - 174

Review 165

4.3.6.1 Bats - General 166 - 169

4.3.6.2 Flying Foxes 170 - 171

4.3.6.3 Little Red Flying Fox 172

4.3.6.4 Gliding Squirrels 173

4.3.6.5 Gliding Lemurs 174

4.4 Gliding and flying of Men 175 - 189

4.4.1 The dream of fying with wings 176 - 179

4.4.2 The first gliding and flying machines 180 - 182

4.4.3 The Zeppelin Airship 183

4.4.4 The Glider 184

4.4.5 The Jumbo-jet Boeing 747 – 81 185 - 187

4.4.6 The Helicopter 188 - 189

A-4 Appendix

R-4 References R-4-0 - R-4-24

0 - 6

K

5. Air contamination – Toxic gases – Radioactive Fallout pp 190 - 244

5.1 General Aspects 191 – 194

5.2 Primary Pollutants 195 – 208

5.2.1 Carbon dioxide CO2 196 – 197

5.2.2 Carbon monoxide CO 198 – 199

5.2.3 Oxides of Nitrogen NOx 200 - 201

5.2.4 Methane CH4 202 – 203

5.2.5 Sulfur oxides SOx 204 – 206

5.2.6 Ammonia NH3 207 - 208

5.3 Toxic organic molecuces 209 – 220

5.3.1 Volatile organic compounds 210 - 212

5.3.2 Persistent organic Pollutants (POP’s) 213 - 215

5.3.3 The Seveso Disaster with Dioxin 216 - 217

5.3.4 The Bhopal Disaster 218 - 220

5.4 Particulate Matter (PM’s) in the Atmosphere:

Formation and Dynamics 221 – 233

5.4.1 Particulates – Categories – Particle sizes 222 - 224

5.4.2 Cunningham-Correction– Viscosity 225 - 226

5.4.3 Stoke’s Law with Cunningham-Correction 227

5.4.4 Descent velocities of falling particles in air 228 - 231

5.4.5 Asbestos - Diseases 232 - 234

L

5.4.6 Nanoparticles - pullutants 235

5.4.7 Chernobyl Disaster 236 - 237

5.5 Secondary pollutants 238 – 244

5.5.1 Ozon O3 239 – 244

A-5 Appendix

R-5 References R-5-0 – R-5-17

6. Photosynthesys and Respiration of Plants pp 245 – 270

6.1 Photosynthesis 246 – 254

6.2 Cellular respiration 255 – 261

6.3 Respiration and Photosynthesis of Water – Plants 262 – 270

A-6 Appendix

R-6 References R-6-0 – R-6-9

0 - 7

M

7. Breathing of Humans and Animals pp 271 - 333

7.0 Animal Classes 272 – 276

7.1 Breathing of Mammals 277 - 286

7.2 Breathing of Amphibians 287 - 290

7.3 Breathing of Reptiles 291 - 305

7.4 Breathing of Birds 306 - 310

7.5 Breathing of Fishes 311 - 319

7.6 Breathing of Invertebrates 320 . 333

7.6.1 Invertebrates – General and Examples 321 - 323

7.6.2 Insects 324 - 333

7.6.2.1 Tracheae – Tracheoles – Spiracles 325 – 327

7.6.2.2 Butterflies 328 - 329

7.6.2.3 Ants 330

7.6.2.4 Termites 331

7.6.2.5 Aquatic Insects 332 - 333

A-7 Appendix

R-7 References R-7-0 - R-7-22

N

8. Selected Atmospheric Phenomena pp 334 - 373

8.1 Thunderstorm clouds, Lightenings and Thunder 335 - 350

8.1.1 Origin and Structure of Thunderstorm clouds 336 - 338

8.1.2 Electrical charges in a Thunderstorm cloud 339 - 342

8.1.3 Origin and Properties of Thunder 343 - 344

8.1.4 Danger of Lightnings and Lightning Protection 345 - 347

8.1.5 Fractal Properties of Lightnings 348

8.1.6 Ball-Lightnings – Observations and Properties 349 - 350

8.2 Earth’s Magnetic field, Solar Wind, Magneto-Plasma

and Polar Lights 351 - 361

8.2.1 Internal Structure of the Earth and Earth’s magnetis field 352

8.2.2 Solar wind and Magnetic field 353 - 357

8.2.3 Origin and Formation of Polar Lights 358 - 361

8.3 Heaviside-Layer, Short Waves and Short-Wave Transmitters 362 - 365

8.3.1 The Ionosphere with Kennelly-Heaviside Layer 363

8.3.2 Kennelly-Heaviside Layer and Short-Wave Transmitter 364 - 365

8.4 Further Atmospheric Phenomena 366 - 373

8.4.1 The Rainbow 367

8.4.2 Halos: Formation and Appearance 368

8.4.3 St. Elme’s Fire: General and History 369 - 370

8.4.4 «Purple Light» 371

8.4.5 Night sky glow – Airglow 372

8.4.6 «Red Sprites», «Sprites» and «Blue Jets» 373

A – 8 Appendix

R – 8 References R-8-0 – R-8-14

0 - 8

9. Breathing in Psychology, Philosophy and World Religions pp 374 - 404

9.1 Breathing in Psychology 375 – 378

9.2 Breathing in Philosophy 379 – 380

9.3 Breath in World Religions 381 - 385

9.3.1 World Population 382

9.3.2 World Religions 383 - 385

9.4 Breath in the five World Religions 386 - 404

9.4.1 Christianity 387 - 391

9.4.1.1 Christianity – General 388

9.4.1.2 Breathing and the Holy Ghost 389 - 390

9.4.1.3 Soal and Breath in the New Testament: Citations 391

9.4.2 Islamism 392 - 394

9.4.2.1 Islamism – General 393

9.4.2.2 Spirit and Breath in Islamism 394

9.4.3 Hinduism 395 - 397

9.4.3.1 Hinduism – General 396

9.4.3.2 Breath in Hinduism 397

9.4.4 Buddhism 398 - 401

9.4.4.1 Buddhism – General 399

9.4.4.2 The eight Meanings of the Buddhistic Symbols 400

9.4.4.3 Breath in Buddhism 401

9.4.5 Judaism 402 - 404

9.4.5.1 Judaism – General 403

9.4.5 2 Breath in Judaism 404

A – 9 Appendix

R – 9 References R-9-0 – R-9-10O

P

10. The Atmospheres of Planets and Exoplanets pp 405 – 501

10.1 The Atmospheres of the Planets of our Solar System:

An Overview pp 406 - 416

10.2 Our Solar System: Properties and Atmospheres pp 417 - 456

10.2.1 The Planet Mercury pp 418 - 422

10.2.2 The Planet Venus pp 423 - 427

10.2.3 The Planet Earth pp 428 - 429

10.2.4 The Planet Mars pp 430 - 434

10.2.5 The Planet Jupiter pp 435 - 438

10.2.6 The Planet Saturn pp 439 - 444

10.2.7 The Planet Uranus pp 445 - 451

10.2.8 The Planet Neptune pp 452 - 456

10.3 Exoplanets: Hystorical Observations and Examples pp 457 - 481

10.3.1 Observation of Stars – Search for Exoplanets pp 458 - 465

10.3.2 Discovery and Systematics of Exoplanets pp 466 - 470

10.3.3 Our Milky–Way Galaxy – Search for a Second Earth pp 471 - 481

10.4 Atmospheres of Exoplanets pp 482 - 490

10.5 Exoplanets in the Universe pp 491 - 500

A – 10 Appendix

R – 10 References pp R-10-0 - R-10-26

0 - 9