Roman Britain in The Late Roman Empire285AD to 500AD

Britain under Diocletian

•Miximian was declared co-Emperor in 286• One of his tasks was to restore Britain to

the Empire after Carausius (a Roman Commander) had seized power in Britain.• Carausius had been ordered to tackle the

pirate raids on Britain along the East coast.• He was successful but made himself an

outlaw by embezzling funds recovered from the pirates.

Carausius in Britain

• Carausius ruled efficiently in Britain and his coinage was of a better quality than that of the devalued coins of the greater Empire.• The coins were inscribed ‘Come, the one we

long for’. - which indicates there was a high level of literacy in Britain at this time.• Who beyond the aristocracy could read and

write is uncertain but tiles and pottery have been found with worker’s graffiti on them.

Constantius 1

•Maxminian took up the task of recapturing Britain in 293AD as Caesar in the West.•Maxminian had failed when he attempted

to invade and lost most of the roman navy. It was put down to whether but it was probably a defeat at the hands of Carausius.• Constantius had to rebuild the navy before

he could act.

Constantius 1 Restores Britain to the Empire• Carausius added to the forts that had been

along the Eastern coasts of Britain.• Carausius is overthrown by one of his

officials Allectus – we do know why this happened.• Allectus also proved to be an efficient ruler• Constantius split his fleet in to two one

attacked Dover and the other landed troops near Southampton

Constantius 1 Restores Britain to the Empire (cont.,)• Allectus caught between the possibility of

being attacked in his rear by troops advancing from Southampton retreated towards London but was defeated before he got to London.• Constantius spends time in Britain instigating

new fortifications of towns and forts.• A purge of the rebel government might have

been expected but Constantius did not embark on a ruthless purge.

Britain Under Diocletian’s Reforms• Britain was split into three provinces and

shortly afterward into four.• The provincial capitals were London,

Lincoln , York and Cirencester.• The four provinces formed part of a

diocese under the governorship of a Vicar.• The Vicar of Britain was accountable to the

Praetorian Prefect in Gaul.

Constantine Arrives in Britain

• In 305-306 AD Constantius was campaigning in Scotland and was joined by his son Constantine.• Constantius becomes ill and dies in York

where the troops declare Constantine Emperor in his father’s place.• Constantine steps down and becomes

Caesar in the West.

Constans makes a Visit to Britain• After the death of his father Constans the

Emperor in the West made a surprise visit to Britain after defeating the Franks in Gaul in 342AD.•We do not why he made a visit in winter.

We have scraps of information that suggests that Hadrian’s Wall had been breached. • A coin was struck announcing a victory but

with no detail to enlighten us further.

Magentius Declares himself Emperor in Britain in 350AD• Magentius declared himself Emperor in

Britain in 350AD and crosses with troops to Gaul.• Britain is under the rule of Magentius for 3

years until he is defeated by Constantius11 in 353AD. (Magentius commits suicide).• Constantius sends the notorious Paulus (the

Chain) to purge Britain of Maxentius’s supporter. Paulus exceeds his orders and the and the purge turns to a horrific bloodbath.• Paulus was later burned to death by Julian.

Britain’s worth to the Empire• Britain was mainly a rural economy under the

Roman empire producing large quantities of grain.• During Julian’s campaign (359AD) on the

Rhine there is evidence that he was supplied with grain from Britain.• Under Diocletian's price edict British woollen

cloth and robes are mentioned and are highly valued. • Mining for minerals is also carried out in

various parts of Britain

Life in Britain

• The economy depended on farming.• The farms were administered from Villas in the

countryside are of all sizes from small to large/grand.• Its not always clear whether the Villas are occupied by

the landowners or were run by estate managers with the owners living in the towns.• Nor is it possible to estimate how large these estates

were. No documentary evidence has come down to us.• The governance was carried out from the provincial

capital and the town councils. Tax collection was a main and unpopular role of town councillors.

Standard of living

• The rich in Roman Britain enjoyed a good standard of living. Archaeology has uncovered evidence of luxury goods being imported from all over the empire.• Villas and town houses had mosaic floors

and under floor heating. Some villas had the their own hot baths.• Towns had public baths and basilicas.• As in the rest of the Empire the rich

depended on slave labour.

Standard of Living• Interestingly the Emperor Pertinax was the

owner of the Villa at Lullington between 185-7AD as a retreat.• The population of Roman Britain has been

estimated as being 2 million people some believe it was greater than this.• Towns although important did not have.

Apart from London have large population.• Verulamium had a population of about 5,000• However, towns were important in the

governance of the Empire

Forcester Roman Villa

Fishbourne Villa/Palace

Roman Villa Mosaic

Mosaic from Verulamium

Villas in Britain

• After the Chaos in 376AD the expansion of villas appears to have halted although the Villas are continuously inhabited until the late 5th century.• We do not know who actually occupied these

villas late in the 5th century. Fires lit upon mosaic floors suggests some of the occupants were not Romano-British.• Numerous Infant burials have been found

under the floors of villas and in their grounds. Which indicates a high infant mortality rate.

The Great Conspiracy 367AD

• In 367AD Britain descended into Chaos when Barbarian tribes invaded Britain.• This event has been dubbed the ‘Barbarian

Conspiracy’ but there is no evidence that it was a coordinated invasion.• The barbarian tribes took advantage of

military vulnerabilities and their main aim was to plunder the countryside.

The Great Conspiracy (cont.,)• There appears to have been to a

breakdown in effective army leadership and army manpower.• Troops had probably been taken to

support Valentinian 1’s campaigns on the Rhine.•Many of the remaining troops deserted

and joined the Barbarian raiders.

Attempts to Solve the Problem• This chaos must have been a real thorn in

Valentinian’s side as he need all his military resources on the Rhine.• He sent his Master Soldier Jovinas to

Britain to tackle the problem. • Before he could mount a meaningful

campaign he is recalled by Valentinian who the sends another general – Severus to Britain.

Theodosius The Elder

• Severus is not successful probably because he did not really understand the nature and aims of the barbarian invasions.• Finally Theodosius (the Eder) is sent to

Britain. • Theodosius is a shrewd campaigner and

takes his time to make sure he has all the information he requires before taking action.

Theodosius’s Tactics

• Theodosius discovered that the Barbarians were operating in small bands raiding estates in the countryside and carrying off plunder.

• He split his troops into small fast moving squads and attacked the bands raiders.• This tactic proved highly successful and

within a fairly short period of time order was restored. • Theodosius rewarded his troops with some of

the plunder that was recovered.

Was it Such a Big Problem?

• Some modern historian wonder whether it was as big a problem as contemporaneous writer made it out to be - especially Ammianus Marcellinus who seems to over egged the victorious campaign..• They point out that Theodosius seems to

have tackled this revolt with only 2000 troops.

Post ‘Chaos’ Restoration• Theodosius did not punish the rebel soldiers

but reinstated the to their legions• Hadrian's Wall had work carried out to

improve it and forts were modified.• Although there is no evidence that towns

were attacked it seems that the ‘chaos’ scared the town’s people into improving the fortifications of their walls. With artillery platforms being added. • The inclusion of these platforms indicates

that some troops were billet in the towns to operate the artillery

Post Chaos

• After the Chaos it seems that the ‘Vici’ (the communities/villages that grew up outside the walls of forts) were abandoned and people move within the walls of the forts.

• Ammianus Marcellinus wrote about a new province being created in Britain. No-one is sure where this was but it may have been the area/strip to the south of Hadrian’s Wall. Its capital may have been Carlisle.

Post Theodosius (the Elder)

• The history of Britain after Theodosius left Britain in 373AD for Africa is vague.

• Archaeology suggests that the restored Britain flourished and the Villas and towns continued to be prosperous for the next decade.

The Revolt of Magnus Maximus 383AD• After ten years of relative peace and prosperity a

Roman Commander (probably a Dux) Magnus Maximus won a victory over invading Picts and is declared Emperor by his troops.• We do not know why he revolted.

Contemporaneous Greek writer allege that he was related to Theodosius and was driven by envy. (remember Theodosius was a fellow army commander before his elevation to emperor.)• Maximus maintained that his elevation by his

troops was the clear will of God.

Maximus leaves Britain• Maximus moved into Gaul with his troops

and the Emperor Gratian’s troops deserted him to join Maximus. The British troops had no loyalty to Gratian• Gratian fled but was caught and killed.• Maximus set up his court at Trier and later in

Arles.• Maximus was defeated and executed in

388AD• We do not know if all the troops taken from

Britain were returned

Britain Post Maximus

• Life Britain, despite the rebellion of Maximus, went on much as before in relatively stability.• Army recruitment was a problem in Britain as it

was in the rest of the Empire and more and more barbarian troops made up the bulk of the arm. • When the Emperor Theodosius 1 died in 395AD

Britain was still a part of the Western Empire and accountable to the Prefect in Gaul.• Stilicho was the Commander in Chief of the

Western Armies, guardian of the boy Emperor Honorius AND defacto Emperor

Stilicho Distracted by Events in the Empire• Stilicho had to deal with the Goths under

Alaric in the East and the Franks and Alimanni in the West. He needed troops to pursue these campaigns.

• The only source we have for this period is the poet Cluadian and it is not always certain what he is describing.• Apparently an appeal for troops in 398AD

met with a positive response from Stilicho.

Victory over the Irish Scots and Saxons in 398AD ??• From what can be deduced - is that there may

have been a victory over the Irish Scots and the Saxons by additional troops sent by Stilicho.• There is another interpretation of Cluadian's

verse because he dose not mention victory but emphasises the better defence of Britain.• It is at this time the rank/role of the Count of the

Saxon Shore is first mentioned. • It does appear that Hadrian’s wall and the

coastal defences are strengthened at this time.

Cluadian’s verse

• ‘When I [Britain] too was about to succumb to the attack …………• For the Scots had raised all Ireland against

me, and the sea foamed with hostile oars you - Stilicho fortified me. This was to such effect that I no longer fear the weapons of the Scots, nor tremble at the Pict nor along my shore do I look for the Saxon on each uncertain wind’

Withdrawal of Troops from Britain• Peter Salway in his book ‘A history of Roman

Britain’ argues that there was no great victory and that in 398 troops were already being withdrawn even though Cluadian first mentions it in 400AD.• He argues that Stilicho had quickly put down a

revolt in Africa by Gildo and could briefly spare troops which were then quickly withdrawn.• There was then a rationalization of the army in

Britain with the closure of some of the less critical forts.

New Usurpers in Britain!!

• The British troops felt that there would be a Germanic invasion in Britain and they need to take the initiative.• In 406AD there had been a mass invasion of

Barbarian tribes across the Rhine into Gaul. Stilicho had to deal with an invasion by Radagaisus in 405AD and was planning to seize back Illyricum from the East with the aid of Alaric in 406AD.

Constantine 111• The British troops selected two men to be Emperor

in succession but deposed them both before settling on Constantine 111.• The aim was to tackle the invasion of the Barbarians

in Gaul but remain loyal to the Court now based in Ravenna .• Constantine crossed into Gaul. The fact that he and

his troops risked this is evidence that the British army felt strong enough to tackle the invaders. • This conflicts with the theory that Stilicho had taken

a large number of troops from Britain in addition to those he sent temporarily to Britain.

Troop Numbers Post Constantine

• The troop numbers in Britain in the mid 2nd century stood at between 40,000 to 50,000. one tenth of the Roman Army.• After Constantine 111 had left there may have

been less than 12,000. Most of these troops would have been of Germanic origin.• The forts on Hadrian's Wall were manned by

200-300 troops and some only had 100 troops.• The 12 forts along the Saxon-Shore were took

the bulk of the remainder.• There was no field army in Britain.

Constantine 111

• Constantine 111 had initial successes and was recognised by Honorius as Co-emperor but his conquest of Gaul i.e. repelling the Barbarians running amuck in Roman territory was never complete.• Stilicho who had fallen out of favour and had been

executed in 408AD• In 409 AD Britain expelled Constantine's officials from

Britain and this marked the end of the Roman rule in Britain.• Constantine’s control of Gaul and Spain unravelled and

he was eventually defeated by Constantius the successor to Stilicho in 411AD

Britain’s self - rule

• Now the Briton’s were free from the burdensome tax regime of the Roman administration and could in theory finance there own defence. • Zozimus; ‘ The situation in Britain made it

necessary for the inhabitants of Britain and some Celtic natives to revolt and obey Roman Laws no longer . The Britons took up arms and braving danger because the were now independent freed themselves of the barbarians who were threating them’.

An Appeal to Honorius 410AD• Those now governing Britain made a plea to Honorius for

troops to held with tackling raiders/invaders.• Honorius wrote to the towns in Britain to the affect that

Britain must defend themselves. • It is disputed whether the letter/edict actual was

addressed to towns in Britain or to another province. However, it not unlikely that his response would have be identical.• It is interesting that the Britons still see themselves to

part of the Empire although self governing.• Honorius was having to combat the Goths under Alaric

without the aid of Stilicho who he had executed. Rome was sacked by the Goths in 410AD

Post Independence• The history post 409AD is very sketchy and difficult

to piece together.• We have some sources but these are often

unreliable.• Gildas a monk writing in the 6th century is a major

source but is unreliable at times. Bede wrote his Ecclesiastical History of the English People in the 8th century.• The governance of Britain began to fall apart and

there seems to have been a lack of coordination with Britain being split into small areas under local governors.

The Anglo –Saxon Invasion?

• There is much debate amongst historians on this subject.• The question is whether there was amass

invasion or was there a process of Adulteration (the adoption of the culture of another group). • The archaeology seems to support a gradual

settlement by the Saxons at least in the years leading up to about 450AD.• The peoples/tribes coming from Demark, Sleswig

Holstein and the Rhine regions did not call themselves Anglo-Saxons.

The Events According to Gildas• Gildas was a monk who wrote a history ‘On the Ruin

of Britain’ some time before 550AD• He writes from a high Christian moral point of view

and was using his history to impress the ‘right way’ for rulers of his own time to behave.• The chronology is difficult and there is a lack of

other sources to support his history but it cannot be dismissed.• He refers to a British tyrant but does not name him.

It is thought that this was probably Vortigern a leader/king who ruled in Wales and Southern England

Vortigern Employs Saxons• Gildas says that this tyrant employed Saxons to fight off

his enemies in exchange for land in the East of Britain.• For a time this worked well and more Saxons came to

live in the East Anglia.• The Saxons and Britons fell out and this ended in a war.

Gildas says that some Saxons left to go home but other stayed to fight.• There was a battle at Mount Badon (Gildas gives no date

or place for this battle). The Britons may have been led by Ambrosius (Arthur of legend?)• It appears from his account there followed a peaceful

period of time until the 550s AD when a series of battles took place between the Britons and the Saxons which were all lost by the Britons.

A Plea for Help Again.

•Gildas states that another plea was made to the Roman Commander probably Aetius who was having success in re-establishing Roman Rule in Gaul.•Historians have worked out that this

likely to have been in 446AD but this was refused.

The Roman Way of Life Diminishes• By 420 there is little evidence that Roman coinage is

still being used• Town population has shrunk and some are towns

abandoned by 450 AD Britain is no longer Roman• Villas are occupied still but are in decline and some

occupants do not appear to be Romano-British.• Britain is now very much on its own with fragmented

governance.• Gildas himself had a Roman education and though of

himself as a Briton with strong Christian/Roman values. There would have been many like him but they were in a minority – The Anglo-Saxons are here.

The End of Roman Influence

• Although there is a marked decline in the former Roman way of life there is evidence it did linger on into the late 5th century in some places.• For example in Wroxeter where the Basilica and

baths were in use into the late 5th century.• In Verulamium a corn dryer was built as part of a

town house also in the late 5th century. Pipe work was laid before the barn was built over it indicating a local planning authority within the town directing work for the common good.