Counseling & PhysiologyCO 740

Reformed Theological Seminary-Charlotte

Fall 2015

Professor

Jeffery S. Forrey, Ph.D.

forreyjs@yahoo.com

Required Textbooks

Note: See the Reader’s Guide (starting on page 5) and the pre-class assignment to develop a reading strategy to use with these books. You will not be responsible for every section—nor all of the technical detail—of these texts. There is also a Glossary (starting on page 10) that defines some neurobiological and psychological terminology to facilitate your reading.

Luke, Chad. Neuroscience for Counselors and Therapists. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2015.

Mack, Wayne. Anger & Stress Management God’s Way. Merrick, NY: Calvary Press, 2004.

Sood, Amit. The Mayo Clinic Guide to Stress-Free Living. Boston, MA: Da Capo Press, 2013.

Welch, Edward T. Blame It on the Brain? Phillipsburg, NJ: P & R Publishing, 1998.

Course Overview & Purpose

This course provides an overview of how the body’s functioning affects matters of concern to biblical counselors. The objectives for the course are:

(1) Learners will describe in general terms how the nervous, endocrine, and genetic systems1 influence cognitive, emotional, & behavioral outcomes.

(2) Learners will develop a model for understanding the relationship between the body and what the Bible refers to as the “soul,” “mind,” “inner man,” etc.

(3) Learners will explore how the body’s functioning or malfunctioning might affect personal responsibility for behavior.

1 There is no need for a science background in order to do well in this course. We will be examining the nervous, endocrine, and genetic systems at a basic level.

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(4) Learners will apply a model of body/soul interaction & personal responsibility to case studies, with special consideration of stress management as a counseling issue.

Course Structure & Requirements

Before the week of class time:

(1) Due by the end of the first day of class:

(a) A review of Luke’s Neuroscience for Counselors and Therapists in the light of Welch’s Blame It on the Brain. How do the authors agree or disagree on the nature of the “mind,” the interaction of the mind and the body, the relationship of the “mind” to the brain, the usefulness of counseling compared to psychoactive medications, and helping people who struggle with depression or alcohol abuse? I recommend you take notes on these topics as you read these texts according to the schedule provided in the Reader’s Guide. Then, formulate your conclusions in a paper that is 5-8 pages, approximately 1250-2000 words. (Use a common 12-point font, such as Times New Roman or Arial. Double-space the paper. Indent your paragraphs rather than putting an extra space between them.) (50 pts)

(b) A review of Sood’s Guide to Stress-Free Living in the light of Mack’s Anger & Stress Management God’s Way. How do the authors agree or disagree on the nature of “stress,” the causes of stress, and helping people who are “stressed out” by their lives? I recommend you take notes on these topics as you read these texts according to the schedule provided in the Reader’s Guide. Then, formulate your conclusions in a paper that is 5-8 pages, approximately 1250-2000 words. (Use a common 12-point font, such as Times New Roman or Arial. Double-space the paper. Indent your paragraphs rather than putting an extra space between them.) (50 pts)

Before you submit your reviews to me (at forreyjs@yahoo.com)2, you should proofread them using the “Common Mistakes” (starting on page 15). You also should read them aloud to yourself so you can hear what you’ve written—or, have another person read it—to help you assess its clarity.

During the week of class time:

(2) Class participation: For example, small-group inductive Bible studies, case study discussions, & large-group interaction with media. (40 pts)

(3) Multiple-choice quiz on the physiological topics of the week. (There will be daily reviews of the relevant material leading up to the quiz on Friday.) (60 pts)

After the week of class time:

2 I prefer the document be sent as a Word attachment. Or you could send it as a pdf attachment. If necessary, you could also give me a hard copy the first day of class. The benefit of sending it to me as a Word document is that I can return it to you with my comments.

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(4) Research Paper Options—pick one of the following (100 pts):

(a) Select a problem with obvious “mind & body” manifestations (for example, a chronic pain condition, a specified substance abuse, an anxiety disorder, bipolar disorder, hypothyroidism). In your paper, describe what is going on in the body, what standard secular treatments entail (both medical & psychological options), and what a biblical counseling agenda might entail (focus on: important data gathering considerations, relevant biblical principles & categories for understanding the counselee’s problem and potential for change, and potential homework assignments). Your paper must include interaction with a minimum of 3 outside sources (journal articles, book chapters, etc., written by experienced researchers and/or clinicians working on your topic). You can also refer to your textbooks, to our class discussions, and to theological or biblical studies.

Your paper should be 8-10 pages, approximately 2000-2500 words. Use a common 12-point font, such as Times New Roman or Arial. Double-space the paper, except for block quotations. Indent your paragraphs rather than putting an extra space between them. Before you submit your paper to me (at forreyjs@yahoo.com)3, you should proofread it using the “Common Mistakes” (starting on page 15). You also should read it aloud to yourself so you can hear what you’ve written—or, have another person read it—to help you assess its clarity.

(b) Read one of the following books that is often mentioned in Luke’s Neuroscience for Counselors and Therapists.

Badenoch, Bonnie. Being a Brain-Wise Therapist. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2008.

Cozolino, Louis. The Neuroscience of Psychotherapy. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2010.

LeDoux, Joseph E. The Synaptic Self: How Our Brains Become Who We Are. New York: Penguin Books, 2003.

Siegel, Daniel. The Developing Mind, 2nd edition. New York: The Guilford Press, 2012.

In your paper, discuss the ways in which Luke was influenced by the writer and how well Luke used the writer’s material. Then discuss how you think this writer’s material should be assessed by the biblical counseling community: What was useful, if anything? On what biblical & theological basis do you arrive at your conclusions? What was unhelpful—and on what biblical & theological basis do you arrive at your conclusions? You can refer to our class discussions and to published theological or biblical studies.

Your paper should be 8-10 pages, approximately 2000-2500 words. Use a common 12-point font, such as Times New Roman or Arial. Double-space the paper, except for block quotations. Indent your paragraphs rather than putting an extra space between them. Before you submit your paper to me (at forreyjs@yahoo.com)4, you should proofread it using the

3 I prefer the document be sent as a Word attachment. Or you could send it as a pdf attachment.4 I prefer the document be sent as a Word attachment. Or you could send it as a pdf attachment.

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“Common Mistakes” (starting on page 15). You also should read it aloud to yourself so you can hear what you’ve written—or, have another person read it—to help you assess its clarity.

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A READER’S GUIDE FOR THE “PHYSIOLOGY & COUNSELING” TEXTS

(1) Read from Blame It on the Brain: Introduction and Chapters 1-2.

(2) Read from Neuroscience for Counselors: Chapters 1-2.

Clarifications & Corrections for Chapters 1-25:

(1) Luke writes, “The content of this chapter [2] is more of an owner’s manual to the brain and central nervous system.” The brain is part of the central nervous system; the CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord.

(2) Sometimes Luke writes about the “cortex,” “cerebrum,” and “cerebral cortex.” These terms refer to the same structure. In anatomy “cortex” refers to the outer layer of an organ. In the cerebrum, the outer layers contain its neurons’ cell bodies, which is where much of the cerebrum’s activity is concentrated. Therefore, sometimes the cerebrum is referred to as the “cortex.”

(3) When Luke writes about the “thinking brain” and the “emotional brain,” he is using popular language to refer to different functions of the brain that are centered on different sets of structures. Yet, at the same time these different sets of structures are interconnected. Although we can describe the conscious experiences of thinking and feeling to highlight their differences, these two functions influence one another in a normally functioning brain.

(4) Luke writes, “The basic components of neurons (generally) include the following: axon, dendrite, glia, myelin …” “Glia” actually refers to a different type of cell in the nervous system. Whereas neurons are the information-receiving and information-sending cells of the nervous system, glia cells are the cells that support and protect the neurons in a variety of ways. However, it is true that one type of glial cell produces the myelin that Luke mentions. So there is a close relationship between the neurons and the glia.

(5) Luke writes, “Myelin is the fatty tissue covering a neuron’s axon …” Technically, this is inaccurate. In anatomy a “tissue” is a set of similar cells that perform a common function. Myelin is a fat-like compound that insulates the axons of neurons and enables them to send their messages more effectively and efficiently than otherwise would be possible.

(6) Luke describes the vesicles in the axon’s terminal button as “pockets” that hold neurotransmitters. They are better thought of as sacks, because they are structures that are

5 In footnote 2 of chapter 2 Luke says that that he has opted not to delve into many of the technical details of neurobiology since counselors do not need that in order to use neuroscientific information with their clients. On the one hand, he is right: Too much detail will obscure the value of what he wants counselors to use with clients. On the other hand, there are times when his way of writing misrepresents neuroscientific concepts or data. This does not ultimately help anyone. Therefore, I will offer clarifications or corrections on these misrepresentations in his book. I also offer clarifications or corrections on a few of his comments about psychological theories.

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completely bounded by a membrane so they can hold the neurotransmitter molecules until they are needed at the terminal button. The neurotransmitter molecules are released into the synapse when the vesicle’s membrane attaches to the axon’s membrane and is pried apart. (See his Figure 2.7.)

(7) In his description of the flight or fight response, Luke mentions the adrenal glands are stimulated for “sudden bursts of energy.” This is true, but they can also sustain an organism’s high level of arousal/energy as long as they secrete their hormones during a threatening situation. The nervous system can directly cause the same types of reactions within the body as do the hormones produced by the adrenals, but the hormones can sustain the reactions over a longer stretch of time.

(8) In describing the general functions of the hypothalamus, Luke writes, “The hypothalamus also controls the neuroendocrine system, which is responsible for the release of neurotransmitters.” It would be more accurate to say it is responsible for the release of hormones, which are the products of the endocrine system.

(3) Read from Blame It on the Brain: Chapters 3 and 6.

(4) Read from Neuroscience for Counselors: Chapters 3-6.

Clarifications & Corrections for Chapters 3-6:

(1) Luke writes that Freud’s model of psychosexual development “extended only through adolescence.” However, Freud’s last proposed stage, the “genital” stage, was presumed to extend throughout adulthood, since the id’s drives supposedly continue to be focused on “mature genital satisfaction.”

(2) In his assessment of Freud’s method of theory development, Luke says, “This is not unlike how some theories are developed today, but we have more rigorous methodologies to disguise any biases.” I think his use of “disguise” sounds too negative. Today it is commonly acknowledged that scientists have biases; consequently, contemporary theorizing involves numerous checks and balances that are intended to help them with their “blind spots.”

(3) Luke periodically refers to Dan Siegel’s concept of “interpersonal neurobiology.” Siegel’s construct will be discussed in our classes, but in a nutshell, it refers to understanding personal experiences, ultimately rooted in the brain, in the context of relationships. He thinks of the “mind” as a function of our close, influential relationships; it shapes how the brain develops and changes throughout our lives. Siegel attempts to draw data from a wide range of disciplines in order to understand our experiences—neurology, psychology, physics, sociology, mathematics, etc.—and organize them under the term “interpersonal neurobiology.”

(4) Luke refers to Freud’s “iceberg model” for describing the levels of consciousness we experience. The iceberg metaphor is helpful for understanding Freud’s thinking on

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consciousness, but it was proposed by later psychologists. Freud used an architectural metaphor instead.

(5) In his description of different types of memories, Luke defines “semantic memory or declarative memory” and then defines “explicit memory.” This could be misunderstood. The usual hierarchy of memory systems is as follows:

Explicit (Declarative) Memories, which includes:

Semantic memory

Episodic (autobiographical) memory

Implicit Memories, which includes:

Procedural memory

Priming (e.g., fear memories)

Note that episodic memories are also forms of explicit or declarative memory. Explicit memories are also called “declarative” memories because they can be recalled and explained to others. Implicit memories are “non-declarative” in the sense that they influence our behavior without a significant draw on our attention, and thus, they are not easily explained to others. For example, I can tie a necktie without having to spend much cognitive energy thinking about the movement of my hands. However, when I first tried to explain the process to my son, I got “tongue-tied.”

(6) In “classical” (or, Pavlovian) conditioning, the following terms are used to describe this form of learning:

Neutral stimulus: a stimulus that does not normally produce a specified bodily response. E.g.: hearing a bell would not normally prompt salivation in a typical dog. It is a “neutral stimulus” with respect to salivation.

Unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus that normally prompts a specified bodily response. E.g.: the smell or presence of food normally prompts salivation in a dog. There is no learning necessary for salivation to occur. In this example, the response of salivation to food is called an unconditioned response.

Conditioned stimulus: after a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus, it can become a conditioned stimulus, which means it now can prompt a response similar to that of the unconditioned stimulus. The response prompted by the conditioned stimulus is called a conditioned response.

(7) Luke places Albert Bandura under “operant conditioning,” which is odd, because Bandura was reacting against the unduly restrictive point of view of Skinner (who championed operant conditioning). Bandura added the influence of thoughts and expectations to his explanation of behavior, which Skinner wanted to avoid.

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(8) Luke mentions “operant factors in shaping behavior.” I think this phrase refers to the variables that Skinner suggested were necessary & sufficient to explain animal behavior. Whereas Pavlov had stressed the antecedent stimuli in conditioning, Skinner stressed the effect of consequences after a voluntary behavior. “Operant” was a word Skinner used to describe a voluntary behavior (as opposed to an involuntary bodily reaction) that is “emitted” by an organism in its environment. If the operant behavior is followed by a pleasurable/desired consequence, then it is more likely to recur.

(9) When you read about “self-efficacy,” do not confuse this with “self-esteem.” Bandura is specific in defining self-efficacy as one’s expectation of being able to complete a specific task. He differentiates this from “self-esteem,” how one feels about oneself. Self-esteem is a more global construct; self-efficacy is narrowly focused on a behavior.

(10) In Table 6.7 Luke writes, “… only 10% of the brain is seen as functional in running the whole of humanity.” This is a very odd sentence. He may be referring to a wrong notion that we only use 10% of our brains. There is no empirical evidence for this claim. Even if he is saying that the “gray matter” (which he says amounts to 10% of the brain’s substance) is what “runs humanity,” that is very misleading. The whole brain, in a normally functioning person, is active.

(5) Read from Neuroscience for Counselors: Chapter 8.

Clarifications & Corrections for Chapter 8:

(1) Luke writes, “Part of this genetic code includes the template for her biologically determined temperament and personality.” This statement needs clarification: Temperament is part of one’s personality, and it is genetically rooted, but this should not be understood to say that it is unmodifiable.

(2) In Biology Box 8.1 Luke writes, “Research on serotonin and depression continue to proceed in an a priori fashion—after the fact.” This is a confusing sentence. If he means that research continues on the presumption of a causal connection between serotonin-related activity in the brain and depression, then that is true. “After the fact,” however, does not seem to fit, since a priori generally is used to mean “apart from experience or empirical evidence.”

(3) Also in Biology Box 8.1, Luke says, “Monoamines assist in the transmission of serotonin in the synaptic cleft, and then are broken down in order to ‘turn off’ the transmission. MAOIs prevent the breakdown of monoamines in order to keep the transmission turned on …” To clarify: Serotonin is one type of monoamine neurotransmitter (i.e., its chemical structure includes one amine group). Monoamine oxidase is an enzyme that breaks apart monoamine neurotransmitters like serotonin; therefore, its presence in the synapse means there will be fewer serotonin molecules to communicate with the postsynaptic neuron. MAOIs are “monoamine oxidase inhibitors”; they are drugs that inhibit the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which in turn, means that more serotonin will be available in the synapse for communication.

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(6) Read from Blame It on the Brain: Chapter 7.

(7) Read from Neuroscience for Counselors: Chapter 10.

(8) Read from Blame It on the Brain: Chapter 10.

(9) Read from Neuroscience for Counselors: Chapters 7 and 9.

Clarifications & Corrections for Chapter 9:

(1) In describing where stress is in the brain, Luke says the pituitary gland stimulates the adrenal glands to secrete their stress hormones: epinephrine, norepinephrine, and cortisol. In commenting further on epinephrine & norepinephrine, he then describes them as “neurotransmitters.” To clarify: Epinephrine and norepinephrine are produced by some neurons in the brain—and when used in the brain they are “neurotransmitters.” They are also produced by the adrenal glands and distributed via the bloodstream to various target organs in the body. When used in this way, they are “hormones.”

(2) Luke describes the corpus callosum as a “dense bundle of nerves and nerve fibers.” More precisely, it is a bundle of axons. “Nerves” are bundles of axons that are part of the peripheral nervous system (i.e., outside the central nervous system).

(3) Luke writes, “The parasympathetic nervous system is the excitatory system … Its role is to … prepare the body for action.” This is incorrect. It is the portion of the nervous system that calms us once a threat has passed. It is the function of the sympathetic nervous system to prompt the “flight or fight” response.

(10) Read from Guide to Stress-Free Living: Preface, Introduction, and Chapters 1-3.

(11) Read from Anger & Stress Management God’s Way: Chapters 5-6.

(12) Read from Guide to Stress-Free Living: Chapters 4-7.6

(13) Read from Guide to Stress-Free Living: Chapters 8, 18-20, 9-11 (in this order).

(14) Read from Anger & Stress Management God’s Way: Chapters 7-8.

(15) Read from Guide to Stress-Free Living: Chapters 12-17.

(16) Read from Anger & Stress Management God’s Way: Chapters 1-2.

(17) Read from Guide to Stress-Free Living: Chapters 21-23, 26.

(18) Read from Anger & Stress Management God’s Way: Chapters 3-4.

(19) Read from Blame It on the Brain: Chapter 11.

6 Although not required for this class, you might find it an interesting exercise to compare Sood’s chapters 5-7 (attention training) and Welch’s chapter 8 (Attention Deficit Disorder). Does this comparison spark any fresh insights on ministry to this segment of our congregations?

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GLOSSARYAdler, Alfred: Adler was a one-time associate of Sigmund Freud who eventually expressed disagreement with some of Freud’s ideas. This led to a break in their relationship, although it also afforded Adler the opportunity to develop what he called “Individual Psychology,” a theoretical framework in which he emphasized the critical importance of one’s social network in development. One aspect of Adler’s therapeutic approach was to ask patients to recall their earliest memories. He assumed that such early memories reflected the fundamental perspective that had shaped the development of the person’s personality and life style.

Affect: As a noun in the psychological literature, “affect” refers to emotions.

Conation: One’s will, purpose, or volition.

Depressive/manic episodes: In the DSM-5 (see below), depressive or manic episodes are not diagnosable conditions; they are the building blocks for determining the presence of a depressive disorder or bipolar disorder. A “depressive episode” is a two-week period in which there is a persistent sadness and/or lack of interest in normally pleasurable activities, and in addition, there are likely disruptions in eating behaviors, sleeping, and sexual desire. The person is typically fatigued, has difficulty concentrating, and may report hopelessness, worthlessness, and suicidal thoughts or activities. A “manic episode” is a one-week period in which a person might experience an unusual and persistent elevated or irritable mood, a lot of goal-directed energy, and in addition, there might be a grandiose sense of one’s importance or abilities, extreme talkativeness, racing thoughts, extreme distractibility, and involvement in risky behaviors.

DSM-5: The American Psychiatric Association’s The Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition. It is a book that contains the diagnostic labels for the types of problems addressed by psychologists, psychiatrists, and other licensed mental health practitioners (e.g., Social Anxiety Disorder, Schizophrenia, Bipolar Disorder, Pyromania). Associated with each label is a criteria set that describes the types of experiences a client must report during a clinical assessment in order for the diagnostic label to be given to him or her.

Endogenous depression: Depression that cannot be clearly tied to external (situational or relational) trials in one’s life. It seems to come from within the person, who is usually presumed to have a physiological problem.

Environment (in genetics): Every influence on a person’s development that is not a gene. Thus, conditions in the womb, nutrition, educational opportunities, parenting strategies, etc., are considered part of the environment.

Epigenetics: the general term used for the variables that influence when—or if—genes are “expressed” and that do not involve a change in the DNA sequence itself.

Executive functions: A person’s abilities to organize, regulate, and plan behavior and to resist unhelpful urges.

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Gene: A segment of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) that provides the information needed by a cell to build a protein.

Gene expression: When genes are “expressed,” the information they encode is used to create specific proteins in the cell. Gene expression is a two-stage process. (a) Genes are “transcribed” in the nucleus of the cell by “messenger RNA” molecules, and their information is taken to special structures outside the nucleus (the ribosomes). At the ribosomes the information from the genes is used to create proteins (the genetic information is “translated” into a protein).

Genome: All of the DNA found in the cells of an organism.

Hormone: A hormone is a chemical messenger produced by an endocrine gland. Endocrine glands produce their hormones and then release them directly into the circulatory system. The hormones travel through the bloodstream until they reach their “target organs,” i.e., organs whose cells have special receptors for the hormones to bind to & affect the organs’ functioning. Consequently, hormones can affect organs in the body far removed from the gland that produced them. For example, hormones from the adrenal glands (which sit on top of the kidneys in the trunk of the body) can influence the functioning of the brain.

Learned helplessness: The tendency for organisms who are exposed to inescapable stressors to eventually give up trying to avoid them. In humans, this can be a precursor to severe depression.

Mindsight: “our human capacity to perceive the mind of the self and others. … Mindsight is a kind of focused attention that allows us to see the internal workings of our own minds. It helps us get ourselves off of the autopilot of ingrained behaviors and habitual responses.”7

Neuroendocrine system: The various organ systems of the body are interconnected. The nervous system’s primary channel of connection with the endocrine (hormonal) system is the link between the hypothalamus and pituitary gland within the brain.

Nucleus: This term is used in various ways in biology. The two most important uses for our purposes are: (a) The structure (“organelle”) in the cell that contains most of its genetic material, and thus, controls what proteins are constructed by the cell, both for structural and functional purposes. (b) A cluster of neurons of similar shape that forms an identifiable structure in the brain.

Object (in psychodynamic theory): The term used for influential people, symbols, etc., in the life of a young child with which there is some type of relationship.

Organ inferiority & inferiority complex: In Adler’s theory, he proposed that every person is motivated in life by a sense of inferiority, very often connected to a weak organ (e.g., a birth defect or poor eyesight). Usually the person develops goals in order to overcome the source of inferiority. Sometimes, however, a person so focuses on the source of inferiority that it seems to overshadow any possible attempts to compensate. In those cases Adler said the person had developed an inferiority complex.

7 From: http://www.drdansiegel.com/about/mindsight/ (accessed 6/15/2015).

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Paralanguage: The elements of verbal communication other than the words: intonation, speed of speaking, hesitation noises, etc.

Parasuicide8: Those thoughts, feelings, or behaviors associated with potentially fatal self-harm, but they are motivated by a weaker determination to end one’s life than those activities that result in death.

Process addiction: a compulsive behavior pattern in which the process of completing the behavior is analogous to the “high” received from taking drugs. Two examples are “pathological gambling” and “compulsive shopping.” In both substance abuse and process addictions the brain’s “reward circuit” is activated.

Psychodynamic: A general term used to describe those theories of personality & counseling that highlight unconscious forces at play in determining people’s behaviors. Freud’s psychoanalytic theory was the “fountainhead” for this way of explaining people’s experiences in life. His original ideas have been modified or changed in various ways by later theorists; however, when unconscious forces are considered to be important in understanding people, the theories are classified as “psychodynamic.” The prefix psycho refers to one’s “psyche,” which was a common term used in Freud’s day for the “mind”; “dynamic” refers to “a lot of activity.”

Plasticity/neuroplasticity: The ability of the brain to modify its structure either as a function of development or learning in one’s life. There are two ways in which the brain might make these changes: (a) the generation of new neurons (neurogenesis) and (b) the creation of new communication channels, i.e., synapses (synaptogenesis). In adult humans, as far as we know, neurogenesis is very limited. Synaptogenesis appears to be the primary form of plasticity in human beings after adolescence; it allows for much more effective & efficient communication between neurons.

Presynaptic/postsynaptic (neurons): These adjectives are used to describe the direction of information flow between two neurons. Recall that neurons communicate across a synapse. The sender of the information is the presynaptic neuron (since it is positioned before the synaptic gap), and the receiver is the postsynaptic neuron (since it is positioned after the synaptic gap).

Temperament: The emotional reactivity that is typical of a person and that is evident even when the person is a very young child. Therefore, temperament is heavily influenced by one’s genes.

Transference: This was a key element in Freud’s psychoanalytic process. It occurs when the client becomes comfortable enough with the therapeutic relationship that he or she unconsciously reacts to the analyst as if the analyst was an important person from the client’s past. This enables the therapist to see firsthand how this past relationship continues to influence the client’s current relationships, and Freud thought it allows therapeutic change to occur.

Unconscious: Freud taught that there were three levels of consciousness: a “conscious level” (what we are currently aware of thinking), a “preconscious level” (what we are not currently thinking about, but can easily access), and the “unconscious level.” In Freud’s theory, the 8 Note that the terms “paralanguage” and “parasuicide” use a common meaning of the Greek preposition para, “around.”

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unconscious mind represents all those factors (variously referred to as desires, wishes, needs, instincts) that shape our thinking, behavior, and motivations without our awareness of their presence. Although he was very confident that later neurological research would verify his speculations about the unconscious mind, he himself was restricted to using various metaphors to describe how he thought the unconscious worked. Today, it is clear that there is a lot of brain activity that occurs outside our awareness, although psychological researchers do not typically embrace Freud’s original ideas without significant modifications.

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GRADING RUBRIC FOR ASSIGNMENTSCRITERIA EXCELLENT

WORK

(90-100%)

AVERAGE WORK

(70-89%)

BELOW AVERAGE WORK

(< 70%)

POINTS

Compre-hension of Course Material

The submission demonstrated a firm grasp of the relevant theories, concepts & strategies under consideration. All assignment instructions were followed.

The submission demonstrated an elementary grasp or demonstrated misunderstanding of the ideas or their use that could lead to a misleading application. Or some assignment instructions were not followed.

The submission demonstrated such misunderstanding of the relevant theories & concepts under consideration that no accurate presentation could be given.

50%

Reasoning & Development of Arguments

The submission demonstrated: no significant flaws in use of logic (weakening the value of the paper), clearly articulated conclusion(s), & well developed substantiation of the conclusion(s).

The submission demonstrated some logical error(s) that lowered confidence in the argumentation or did not substantiate key points supposed to lead to the conclusion(s).

The submission demonstrated extensive logical fallacies or lack of good substantiation so that the conclusion(s) were not credible.

25%

Writing Standards

The submission demonstrated good use of standard English grammar & spelling with no more than 5 violations of the “Common Mistakes.”

The submission demonstrated 6-10 violations of the “Common Mistakes” which made the submission challenging to understand.

The submission demonstrated over 10 violations of the “Common Mistakes” & it was difficult to grasp the intent of the paper or its sources.

25%

Total Points 100%

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COMMON MISTAKES IN ASSIGNMENTSBelow are correctives to common grammar and style mistakes I find in students’ writing assignments.

Problems with Commas and Semicolons

1. Use a comma with the next-to-the-last item in a series of three or more items.

2. Place commas and periods within quotation marks, but place other punctuation marks outside of quotation marks.

3. Use the semicolon for (a) separating independent clauses9 within a compound sentence that does not have a coordinating conjunction or (b) separating lengthy items in a series where commas are used already within the items themselves.

4. In a compound sentence with two independent clauses, join the independent clauses by either a semicolon or a comma + “and.” In a compound sentence with more than two independent clauses, separate all the clauses by a semicolon except for the last one, which should be separated by a comma + “and.” For example:

INCORRECT: My mother went to Washington and a tour guide took her through the Smithsonian Institute. [Here there are two independent clauses; that is, each part of the sentence could stand alone as a separate sentence.]

CORRECT: My mother went to Washington, and a tour guide took her through the Smithsonian Institute.

INCORRECT: My mother went to Washington, she visited the Smithsonian Institute and she saw the President.

CORRECT: My mother went to Washington; she visited the Smithsonian Institute, and she saw the President.

5. Use a colon (:) to introduce clarifying clauses, phrases, or lists.

9 An “independent clause” is a clause with a subject & predicate that could stand on its own as a separate sentence.

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INCORRECT: James decided to spend his day doing these chores; washing his car, paying his bills, and washing his clothes.

CORRECT: James decided to spend his day doing these chores: washing his car, paying his bills, and washing his clothes.

Problems with Pronouns

6. Make sure pronouns and their antecedents match in number, gender, and person. For example:

INCORRECT: Anxiety will not be overcome if a counselee refuses to apply Matthew 6:25-34 to their life. [Here the pronoun “their” does not match its antecedent “counselee” in number.]

CORRECT: Anxiety will not be overcome if counselees refuse to apply Matthew 6:25-34 to their lives.

7. To avoid unnecessary “gender-biased language,” wherever appropriate, use collective nouns (“humanity,” or “people”) and plural pronouns (“they,” “them,” “their,” etc.). Avoid use of “he/she” or “s/he.” Also avoid exclusive use of either “he” or “she.”

8. Use personal pronouns consistently within a sentence or paragraph. For example:

INCORRECT: Biblical counselors must be careful to use passages of Scripture appropriately. You must “rightly divide” the Word of Truth (2 Tim. 2:15). [Here the first sentence is written in the third person, and the second sentence is written in the second person.]

CORRECT: Biblical counselors must be careful to use passages of Scripture appropriately. They must “rightly divide” the Word of Truth (2 Tim. 2:15).

Problems with Quotations

9. Use block quotations for quotes that will be over 5 lines of text.

10. Do not use quotation marks to open or close block quotations; instead, indent them as many spaces as you indent your paragraphs. Single-space block quotations.

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11. Use single quotation marks only within double quotation marks (signifying a quote within a quote).

Problems with Formatting

12. Reserve the use of Latin phrases (“e.g.,” “etc.,” “i.e.,” and so on) for parenthetical comments or footnotes (or endnotes).

13. Use a double space between lines within the body of the paper and between separate bibliographic entries. Use a single space between lines within footnotes and within bibliographic entries.

14. In bibliographies, indent the second and subsequent lines 5 spaces (a “hanging indentation”).

15. Format headings and subheadings consistently throughout the paper.

16. Do not allow subheadings to “hang” at the bottom of a page without at least two lines of supporting text underneath them.

17. Format citations consistently throughout the paper; do not mix citation systems.

18. Use parallel construction of items in lists or series. For example:10

INCORRECT: The participants were told to make themselves comfortable, to read the instructions, and that they should ask about anything they did not understand. [Here the first two items in the series are infinitive phrases and the last one is a dependent clause introduced by a relative pronoun.]

CORRECT: The participants were told to make themselves comfortable, to read the instructions, and to ask about anything they did not understand.

19. Capitalize “Scripture” and “Bible.” Do not capitalize “biblical,” “scriptural,” “pastor” (unless it’s used with a particular name, e.g., “Pastor Mark” or “Pastor Smith”), “biblical counseling,” or “biblical counselor.”

10 This particular example comes from Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 5th ed (Washington, D. C.: American Psychological Association, 2001), 60.

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20. When you delete a portion of quoted material (a word, phrase, or sentence), you show that with an ellipsis. An ellipsis does not replace the period of the sentence before it.

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