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Behavior Problems and Synchrony 1
Running Head: BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS AND SYNCHRONY
Toddler-Mother Synchrony and the Development of Problem Behavior in At-Risk Boys
Emily Moye Skuban, Daniel S. Shaw, and Sara R. Nichols
Submitted: Developmental Psychology
October, 30, 2006
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank Frances Gardner and Anne Gill for their thoughtful comments on this
paper. This research was supported by grants MH06291, MH50907, and DA016110 from the
National Institute of Mental Health and the National Institute on Drug Abuse. Correspondence
regarding this article may be addressed to Emily M. Skuban, Department of Psychology,
University of Pittsburgh, 210 South Bouquet St, 4425 SENSQ, Pittsburgh, PA 15260,
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 2
Abstract
Several components of parenting and the quality of the mother-child relationship,
including maternal warmth and responsivity, as well as mother-infant attachment quality, have
been associated with children’s later adaptation. Dyadic synchrony is a measure of mother-child
quality that encompasses both parent and child characteristics and has been associated with the
development of both child competencies and problem behavior. The present study examined
associations between early mother-child synchrony at age 2 and mother- and teacher-reported
outcomes of child adaptation at kindergarten (age 5.5) in a sample of high-risk, low-income
boys. It was found that lower levels of synchrony were associated with higher levels of teacher-
reported internalizing and externalizing symptoms, greater impairments in social skills, and
lower quality teacher-student relationships; however, there was no association between mother-
report of behavioral symptoms and ratings of synchrony. The findings extend the literature on
synchrony and both child behavioral problems and competencies using a sample of children at
high risk for maladaptive outcomes.
Keywords: Mother-Child Relations; Psychosocial Development; Behavior Problems; At-risk
Populations
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 3
Toddler-Mother Synchrony and the Development of Problem Behavior in At-Risk Boys
Aspects of the early parent-child relationship have been found to contribute to later child
adjustment. For example, authoritative parenting and parental sensitivity have been associated
with fewer behavior problems and higher levels of social competence in children (Baumrind,
1975; De Wolff & van Ijzendoorn, 1997). Additionally, the fit of child characteristics (e.g.,
temperament) with a parenting style also has been found to contribute to later child outcome
(Bates, Pettit, Dodge, & Ridge, 1998; Martin, 1981; Olson, Bates, Sandy, & Lanthier, 2000;
Park, Belsky, Putnam, & Crnic, 1997). With few exceptions (Harris, 1998), developmentalists
view parents as playing an important role in the socialization of children. Research across
developmental periods has consistently found that particular facets of parenting are associated
with concurrent and future behavior problems (Campbell, Pierce, Moore, & Marakovitz, 1996;
Pettit, Bates, & Dodge, 1997; Shaw, Gilliom, Ingoldsby, & Nagin, 2003).
Components of parenting, such as monitoring in adolescence and attachment in infants,
while primarily focused on parental engagement, involvement, and responsivity to age-
appropriate child needs and challenges, implicitly consider contributions of the child to the
parent-child interaction (Dishion, Nelson, & Bullock, 2004). However, dyadic synchrony
(Harrist & Waugh, 2002) has been proposed as a construct that more explicitly captures the
transactional nature of the parent-child interaction by considering the interconnectedness,
mutuality and reciprocity of the dyad (Harrist, Pettit, Dodge, & Bates, 1994). Synchrony reflects
more than the sum of individual child and parent characteristics, but similar to Thomas and
Chess’s (Thomas & Chess, 1977) ‘goodness of fit’ perspective, captures the match of ongoing
parent-to-child and child-to-parent behavior (e.g., shared eye contact, expression of affect,
mutual responsivity). Researchers have studied parent-child synchrony at all stages of childhood,
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 4
including infancy (Cohn & Tronick, 1987; Isabella & Belsky, 1991), toddlerhood (Skuban,
Shaw, Gardner, Supplee, & Nichols, 2006), the school-age period (Harrist et al., 1994;
Kochanska & Aksan, 2004) and adolescence (Criss, Shaw, & Ingoldsby, 2003). The construct
has been labeled by different researchers as dyadic synchrony (Harrist et al., 1994), interactional
synchrony (Isabella & Belsky, 1991), mutuality (Deater-Deckard & Petrill, 2004), and mutually
responsive orientation (Kochanska, 1997).
The Parent-Child Relationship and Child Adjustment
Qualities of the parent-child relationship, such as attachment during infancy (Erickson,
Sroufe, & Egeland, 1985; Lyons-Ruth, Alpern, & Repacholi, 1993; Renken, Egeland,
Marvinney, Mangelsdorf, & et al., 1989), and monitoring during adolescence (Dishion &
McMahon, 1998), have been associated with the development of concurrent and future problem
behavior. In addition, parental warmth, openness and proactive strategies have been associated
with more positive child outcomes and fewer problem behaviors across developmental periods
(Ainsworth, 1979; Eisenberg et al., 2005; Gardner, Sonuga Barke, & Sayal, 1999; Pettit et al.,
1997), and more harsh and rejecting parenting have been related to problem behaviors (Maccoby
& Martin, 1983; Patterson, 1982; Shaw et al., 1998). Thus, several aspects of parenting have
been linked to both social competence and problem behavior.
Children who display insecure attachments to their mothers during the first and second
years of life have been found to display higher levels of externalizing problems (Aguilar, Sroufe,
Egeland, & Carlson, 2000; Erickson et al., 1985; Lyons Ruth, Alpern, & Repacholi, 1993;
Renken et al., 1989; Vondra, Shaw, & Kevenides, 1995) and fewer social competencies (Arend,
Gove, & Sroufe, 1979) during childhood. Maternal sensitivity has been posited to be the
mechanism underlying the association between secure attachment and child adjustment, as
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 5
children exposed to unresponsive and insensitive caregiving in early childhood would be
expected to develop insecure internal working models and as a result, show an increased
probability of demonstrating problem behavior (Shaw & Bell, 1993; Sroufe & Fleeson, 1986).
Conversely, secure attachments in infancy and early toddlerhood have been associated with
higher rates of child compliance and self regulation during the preschool years (Gilliom, Shaw,
Beck, Schonberg, & Lukon, 2002; Kochanska, Aksan, & Carlson, 2005; Matas, Arend, &
Sroufe, 1978; van Bakel & Riksen-Walraven, 2002), as well as more positive school outcomes,
including peer acceptance and social skills with peers and teachers (DeMulder, Denham,
Schmidt, & Mitchell, 2000; Elicker, Englund, & Sroufe, 1992; Suess, Grossmann, & Sroufe,
1992; Wood, Emmerson, & Cowan, 2004).
Synchrony and Child Adjustment
For children, particularly younger children, responsive and sensitive parenting appears to
be one of the most important factors in the development of a synchronous parent-child
relationship (Isabella & Belsky, 1991; Isabella, Belsky, & von Eye, 1989; Kochanska, 2002;
Skuban et al., 2006). Similarly, children in dyads demonstrating high levels of parent-child
synchrony are more likely to be securely attached to their parents than children who have low
levels of parent-child synchrony (Isabella et al., 1989; Lundy, 2002). As responsive and
sensitive parenting has been found to be strongly associated with synchrony (Isabella et al.,
1989; Skuban et al., 2006), and with low levels of problem behavior and high levels of prosocial
functioning, it follows that dyads characterized by high levels of parent-child synchrony also
would be expected to show low levels of problem behavior and high levels of prosocial
outcomes (e.g., emotion regulation, academic achievement).
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 6
In fact, dyadic relationships characterized by greater synchrony have been found to be
associated with greater competence and fewer behavior problems among children across
developmental periods (Criss et al., 2003; Feldman, Greenbaum, & Yirmiya, 1999; Harrist et al.,
1994; Lindsey, Mize, & Pettit, 1997; Mize & Pettit, 1997). Infants and toddlers who have more
synchronous relationships have been found to be more compliant with their mothers (Rocissano,
Slade, & Lynch, 1987) and demonstrate higher levels of self-regulation (Feldman et al., 1999;
Moore & Calkins, 2004). Further, synchrony with parents also appears to extend to school
outcomes. In one study, Harrist and colleagues (1994) found that greater dyadic synchrony
between kindergarten-age children and their mothers was associated with a number of positive
school outcomes, most notably social competence. Similarly, Mize and colleagues (Lindsey et
al., 1997; Mize & Pettit, 1997) found preschool-age children with higher ratings of both mother-
child and father-child synchrony were better liked by their peers and rated by their teachers as
being more socially competent. Clark and Ladd (Clark & Ladd, 2000) also found that higher
levels of synchrony were associated with a greater number of peer friendships and greater social-
emotional competence among five-year-olds. Thus, there is evidence that the development of a
synchronous relationship during the first years of life has beneficial consequences for children’s
social development.
Low levels of synchrony have also been related to the development of behavior problems.
Harrist and colleagues (1994) found that kindergartners who had more synchronous interactions
with their mothers were rated by their teachers and peers as being less aggressive and less
socially withdrawn than children in low synchrony dyads. Similarly, Mize and colleagues
(Lindsey et al., 1997; Mize & Pettit, 1997) found that preschoolers who had more synchronous
interactions with their parents were more likely to be rated by their teachers as less aggressive. In
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 7
a study of adopted school-age children, Deater-Deckard and Petrill (2004) found a negative
association between mother-child mutuality and child externalizing symptoms. In low-income,
boys, Criss and colleagues (2003) found that synchrony was associated with lower levels of
antisocial behavior and less deviant behavior among peers. Additionally, mothers who more
synchronous relationships with their sons had engaged in more monitoring behavior and reported
greater openness in their relationship. It is possible that the sensitivity and connection facilitated
by a synchronous relationship in early childhood allows mothers to be more effective parents in
later childhood, reducing the likelihood that children will engage in antisocial behavior (Criss et
al., 2003).
While consistent associations have been established between parent-child synchrony and
different aspects of child adjustment, most of the research has been cross-sectional (Deater-
Deckard & O'Connor, 2000; Deater-Deckard & Petrill, 2004; Lindsey et al., 1997; Mize & Pettit,
1997), limited to shorter-term (e.g., one-year or less) follow-ups of child adjustment (Harrist et
al., 1994), or focused primarily on the first three years of life (Cohn & Tronick, 1987; Isabella &
Belsky, 1991; Isabella et al., 1989; Rocissano et al., 1987). Little research has been conducted to
determine longer-term child outcomes associated with synchrony that span across developmental
periods. Further, many studies of synchrony have focused on single-outcomes of child
adjustment, such as child social skills or externalizing problems, rather than both child
competencies and problem behaviors. In addition, most of the research on parent-child
synchrony and child adjustment has been limited to studies of children at relatively low risk for
demonstrating clinically-meaningful levels of problem behavior. Thus, the primary goals of the
current study were to examine the role of toddler-parent synchrony in relation to multiple
domains of adjustment at formal school entry with a sample of boys initially identified on the
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 8
basis of multiple indices of adversity, including the presence of sociodemographic, family,
and/or child risk factors.
Based on previous research that has indicated synchrony to be associated with concurrent
ratings of parent and teacher reports of child problem behavior, it was expected that mother-son
synchrony at age 2 would be negatively associated with mothers’ and teachers’ ratings of
problem behavior at kindergarten, as well as teacher reports of boys’ social and academic
development within the classroom. In addition to examining direct associations between
synchrony and later child adjustment, child problem behavior in toddlerhood was controlled for
in analyses to examine how synchrony contributes to changes in levels of child adjustment.
Method
Participants
The sample consisted of 120 mother-son dyads recruited from the Women, Infant and
Children (WIC) Nutritional Supplement Program in the Pittsburgh, PA metropolitan area. In
2001, participants were recruited as part of a larger intervention study on the prevention of child
conduct problems. Families were invited to participate if they had a son between 17 and 27
months old and they met eligibility criteria for the study, which included having at least two
socioeconomic, family, and/or child risk factors associated with trajectories of persistent child
conduct problems in early childhood (i.e., two of the three risk factors were required for
inclusion in the sample; Shaw, Dishion, Supplee, Gardner, & Arnds, 2006).
Of the 327 mothers approached for study recruitment at WIC sites, 271 (83%) agreed to
participate in the initial screen. Of these, 124 families met the eligibility requirements and 120
(97%) agreed to participate in the study. At the time of the initial screen, participating children
had a mean age of 24.1 months (range 17.6 to 30.1 months). Mothers were between 18 and 45
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 9
years of age. The average family income was $15,374 per year (range $2,400 to $45,000) with a
per capita income of $3,624 (range $480 to $13,000). The mean level of education attainment for
mothers was 12 years (i.e., a high school degree or GED). Further descriptive characteristics of
the sample are provided in Table 1.
Out of the 120 families who participated in the initial home assessment, 112 (93%)
participated in the one year follow-up visit at age 3. 109 families (91%) participated in the age 4
visit, and 99 (83%) participated in the age 5.5 (kindergarten) visit. Of the 101 families who
participated at the age 5.5 assessment, 74 (75% of families participating at age 5.5) had
kindergarten teachers who returned completed questionnaires. There were no differences
between families who participated at age 5.5 and those who did not with regards to age 2 per
capita income, F (1, 116) = 0.38, ns, child race, χ2 (2, n = 120) = 0.19, ns, or maternal education,
χ2 (2, n = 120) = 0.32, ns.
Analyses were performed to determine if any selective attrition occurred for children with
or without teacher reports of behavior at school entry. As we did for later maternal reports of
child behavior, we compared children on the Externalizing and Internalizing factors of the Child
Behavior Checklist and observational ratings of synchrony at age two. For age-2 Externalizing,
no differences were found between children with age-5.5 school data (M = 21.79, SD = 7.41)
compared to children without teacher reports (M = 21.13, SD = 7.13, t = -0.49, ns). For
Internalizing, there was a nonsignificant trend for children without age-5.5 school data (M =
13.62, SD = 6.29) to demonstrate higher scores than children with school data (M = 11.79, SD =
4.75, t = 1.89, p < .06). For age-2 synchrony, no differences were found between those with
school-based data (M = 3.63, SD = 1.36) compared to those families without teacher reports (M =
3.26, SD = 1.05, t = 1.67, ns).
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 10
Procedures
Mothers and their sons were approached at WIC sites and were asked if they were willing
to complete a series of questionnaires about the “Terrible Two’s.” The questionnaires included
questions about the child’s behavior, the mother’s perception of her child, parenting hassles, and
maternal depressive symptoms. The screen took 20-25 minutes to complete and participants who
completed it received $10 for their assistance. Families who met criterion for study inclusion
based on socioeconomic status (i.e., maternal education and family income) and either or both
family and/or child risk (e.g., maternal depression or substance abuse; child externalizing
symptoms), were contacted about participating in a more intensive home assessment and their
willingness to be randomly assigned to a home-based, family intervention. If risk criterion were
attained only for socioeconomic and family risk, mothers were also required to rate children
above the normative mean on either the Intensity (M = 98) or Problem (M = 7) factors of the
Eyberg Behavior Inventory (Eyberg & Pincus, 1999) to increase the probability that parents
would desire assistance in this area (for more extensive details on recruitment and sample
selection, please see (Shaw et al., 2006).
Parents (i.e., mothers and, if available, alternative caregivers such as fathers or
grandmothers) and sons 1.75 to 2.5 years of age who met eligibility requirements and who
agreed to participate in the study were then scheduled for a 2.5-hour home assessment, which
included a free play (15 minutes), a clean-up task (5 minutes), a series of teaching tasks (3
minutes each), and the presentation of two inhibition-inducing toys (2 minutes each). Finally,
mothers were instructed to spend 10 minutes preparing lunch for their sons while the children
were waiting to eat. The dyad was then given 10 minutes (or longer if needed) to eat their lunch.
After lunch, mothers completed an assessment of expressed emotion (5 minutes) and all
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 11
remaining questionnaires (1.25 hours). Families received $100 for participating in the age-2
home assessment. At the end of the assessment, after the senior examiner had completed
observational ratings for the HOME Inventory (Caldwell & Bradley, 1984), the examiner opened
a sealed envelope, revealing the family’s group assignment and shared this information with the
family. Prior to this time, the examiners were kept “blind” as to the family’s group assignment
so that this knowledge would not bias ratings about the home environment.
Families randomly assigned to the treatment condition were then scheduled to meet with
a parent consultant. Therapist parents consulstants provided a brief intervention based on
motivational interviewing and behavioral parent training, modeled after the Drinker’s Check Up
(Miller & Rollnick, 2002). Typically, the intervention, labeled the Family Check Up, included
two sessions during which the parent consultant summarized the results of the initial assessment
using motivational interviewing strategies. After these sessions, the parent was offered a
maximum of six additional follow-up sessions that were focused on areas of parental concern.
Families were paid $25 for completing the feedback session. Among the families assigned to the
treatment condition, 92 percent met with the parent consultant for at least 2 sessions.
Similar follow-up assessments occurred at ages 3, 4, and 5.5 (kindergarten), in which the
child and caregivers participated in a series of interactive tasks, and the caregivers completed
questionnaires. When children entered kindergarten, permission was obtained to contact their
teacher, and a series of questionnaires were sent to the boys’ primary classroom teacher.
Teachers who returned the questionnaires were given $25 to thank them for their assistance.
Measures
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 12
Demographics questionnaire. A demographics questionnaire was administered to
mothers during the age-2 assessments. This measure included questions about family structure,
socioeconomic status, parental criminal history, child care and areas of familial stress.
Synchrony Global Coding System. The coding system used in this paper was adapted
from systems used in previous research with school-age children and has used either a single 7-
or 9-point global rating (Criss et al., 2003; Harrist et al., 1994). Because these systems were
developed to assess synchrony in older children, some modifications of the previous coding
criteria were required. Descriptions of behaviors such as non-verbal communication, child
positivity and child negativity were used to help anchor coders in concrete toddler behaviors.
Further, ratings were adjusted to reflect the expectation that mothers would likely initiate a
greater percentage of interactions with toddlers than school-age children. Three tasks using this
global system were coded based on the videotaped interactions at the age-2 assessment: a clean-
up task (5 minutes), two of the three teaching tasks (a puzzle and a peg board; 6 minutes), and
portions of meal preparation and lunch tasks (10 minutes.)
Following the structure of the system designed by Criss et al. (2003), a 9-point scale was
used to assign a single code to describe the dyad’s synchrony based on their behavior across the
three aforementioned observational activities at the age-2 assessment. Coders used this single
code to rate the reciprocity, shared affect, and mutual focus of the dyad during their interactions.
The first author trained four research assistants in the use of the global coding systems.
Coders were trained to become reliable with the lead coder on the 9-point global scale over a
period of six months. To assess reliability, fifteen percent of the interactions (n = 18) were
independently rated by all four coders. Interclass correlations were used to assess inter-rater
reliability between each of the coders and the author. Analyses of the mean inter-rater reliability
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 13
for synchrony between the author and each coder were in the acceptable range (range of ρ = .70 -
.85, p < .01). The inter-rater reliability for the group of five coders was also acceptable (ρ = .79,
p< .01) (Mitchell, 1979). All coders were blind to the research hypotheses of this study.
Child Behavior Checklist 2/3 and 4-18 (CBCL; (Achenbach, 1991b, 1992). The CBCL
2/3 is a 100-item questionnaire that assesses behavioral problems in young children. Mothers
completed the CBCL at the age 2 assessment. This questionnaire has two broad-band factors,
Internalizing and Externalizing, and six narrow band factors. Test-retest reliability for the CBCL
is reported to be .87 (Achenbach, McConaughy, & Howell, 1987). For purposes of this study,
only the broad-band Externalizing and Internalizing factors were used and were found to have
inter-item reliability coefficients of .81 and .77 respectively for this sample at the age 2
assessments.
Similar in construct to the CBCL 2/3, the CBCL 4-18 is a 118-item questionnaire that
assesses behavioral problems in children between the ages of 4 and 18. Thus, while there is
some overlap between the items on the CBCL 2/3 and the CBCL 4-18, items vary between the
two measures based on developmental appropriateness. This questionnaire also has the
Internalizing and Externalizing broadband factors, but has eight narrow band factors. For
purposes of this study, only the Externalizing and Internalizing factors were used, which
respectively had inter-item reliability coefficients of .91 and .82.
Teacher Report Form (TRF; (Achenbach, 1991a). The TRF is a 118-item questionnaire
that assesses behavioral problems in school-age children. It is designed to complement the
CBCL 4-18. Teachers completed the TRF when the children were in their kindergarten
classrooms. This questionnaire has two broad-band factors, Internalizing and Externalizing, and
eight narrow band factors. Test-retest reliability for the TRF is reported to be .92 (Achenbach,
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 14
1991b). Again, only the broad-band Externalizing and Internalizing factors were used and were
found to have inter-item reliability coefficients of .95 and .87 respectively for this sample in
kindergarten.
Student-Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS; (Pianta & Nimetz, 1991; Pianta, Steinberg,
& Rollins, 1995). The STRS is a 16-item questionnaire designed to assess teacher’s perceptions
of their relationship with children. Kindergarten teachers completed the STRS. For the present
study, we utilized the Overall Relationship Scale, which includes two subfactors, including the
Conflict factor and the Close Relationship factor. This rating was comprised of all 16 items
assessing the frequency of conflict (e.g., “This child and I seem to always struggling with one
another”) and the level of openness (e.g., “If upset, this child will seek comfort from me”) on a
5-point Likert scale. Coefficient alpha for this measure in a sample of preschool children was
.90 (Pianta & Steinberg, 1991). This sample was found to have an inter-item reliability
coefficient of .76 for the teacher’s ratings in kindergarten.
Social Skills Rating Scale (SSRS; (Gresham & Eilliot, 1990). The SSRS is an instrument
that provides a broad assessment of the child’s social behaviors in the classroom, including a
number of factors including, Cooperation, Assertion, Self-Control and Academic Competence.
Kindergarten teachers completed the SSRS for the children in this sample. The present study
used the 30-item total social skills score, which consists of the sum of Cooperation, Assertion,
Responsibility, and Self-Control scales with an inter-item reliability of .93 for the current
sample. Additionally, the 9-item academic competence scale was used, which has an inter-item
reliability of .95 for this sample.
Results
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 15
Results for each of the three study hypotheses are reported following the presentation of
descriptive statistics for all independent and dependent variables. As displayed in Table 2 and as
expected based on the screening process used to recruit the sample, participants’ scores were
appreciably higher than published data for normative populations. Mothers reported a mean
score of 21.39 (SD = 7.22) on the CBCL Externalizing factor, which corresponds to a T-score
one standard deviation above the mean of the normative sample and similar to scores of
clinically-referred children (Achenbach, 1991b; Achenbach, 1991c; Achenbach, 1992). By
kindergarten, average ratings for CBCL Externalizing scores were reduced to 14.20 (SD = 8.87),
but were still slightly more than a half of a standard deviation higher than scores for normative
samples (Achenbach, 1991b). Mean scores on the Internalizing factor at age 2 (12.48, SD= 5.46)
were approximately .8 standard deviations higher than those scores reported in normative
samples (Achenbach, 1992), whereas Internalizing scores at kindergarten were comparable to
those reported in normative samples (M = 6.02, SD = 5.44).
Teacher reports of the children’s externalizing symptoms in kindergarten were also
elevated compared to a normative sample (M = 22.15, SD = 20.03), and were 0.7 SD higher than
normative sample (Achenbach, 1991a). Similarly, teacher reports of internalizing symptoms (M
= 7.86, SD = 7.89) were 0.5 standard deviations higher than normative sample. Mean global
ratings of synchrony (3.49) were only slightly above the score of minimally synchronous, with
only six dyads above a rating of “5” (“moderately synchronous”) and no dyad receiving a rating
higher than “7” (“mostly synchronous”) on the 9-point rating scale. These ratings are
appreciably lower than ratings of synchrony reported in more middle-class samples (Colwell,
2001), but similar to the mean score of 4.04 reported in another low-income sample, in which the
scores for school-aged boys and their mothers ranged from 1 to 8 (Criss et al., 2003).
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 16
Preliminary Analyses. Analyses were performed to determine if dyadic synchrony was
associated with demographic characteristics of the sample, as previous studies have suggested
that both ethnicity and socio-economic status may be associated with synchrony (Deater-
Deckard, Atzaba-Poria, & Pike, 2004). To test if ethnicity was differentially associated with
ratings of synchrony and child behavioral symptoms, analyses of variance were computed in
which child ethnicity served as the independent variable and synchrony and child behavioral
symptoms served as the dependent variables. No differences were found between European
American, Biracial and African American families in relation to synchrony, F (2,111) = 1.63, ns.
Further, child ethnicity was not found to be associated with maternal report of internalizing or
externalizing symptoms in kindergarten, nor was it found to be associated with teacher reports of
behavior symptoms or social competences. A similar series of ANOVAs were conducted with
maternal education serving as the independent variable. As with ethnicity, there were no
significant differences found in ratings of dyadic synchrony across levels of maternal education,
F (2, 111) = 1.74, ns. Maternal education also was not significantly associated with child
outcomes in kindergarten by either mother (F (2, 96) = 1.72, ns, and F (2, 94) = 1.94, ns, for
externalizing and internalizing respectively) or teacher report (F (2, 70) ranged from 0.04 to
0.52, ns). Thus, neither child ethnicity nor maternal education was controlled for in further
analyses.
As can be seen from Table 3, ratings of synchrony at age 2 were not associated with
concurrent maternal report of internalizing or externalizing symptoms. Initial maternal ratings of
externalizing symptoms at age 2 were significantly associated with maternal ratings of
externalizing symptoms at kindergarten entry (r = .57, p <.001). Similarly, maternal ratings of
internalizing symptoms at age 2 were associated with maternal ratings of internalizing symptoms
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 17
at kindergarten entry (r = .21, p < .05). Consistent with prior research on associations between
maternal reports of toddler behavior and teacher reports of problem behavior at school entry
(Shaw et al., 1999), no significant associations were evident between mother report of child
internalizing and externalizing symptoms at age 2, and teacher report of symptoms in
kindergarten. However, there was significant agreement between teachers and mothers in their
ratings of externalizing symptoms at kindergarten (r = .41, p < .001) and a trend towards an
association between concurrent mother and teacher reports of internalizing symptoms (r = .23, p
< .06). To be conservative, it was decided to control for initial maternal ratings of internalizing
and externalizing symptoms to assure that any association between later maternal ratings of
internalizing and externalizing symptoms and synchrony was not the result of an association
between initial symptoms and later symptoms. Further, as this was an intervention study,
treatment status was controlled for in subsequent regression analysis.
Synchrony and Child Problem Behavior in Kindergarten. Four hierarchical multiple
regression analyses were performed to examine associations between age 2 dyadic synchrony
and parent and teacher reports of child problem behavior at kindergarten. For these regressions,
treatment status and age 2 externalizing symptoms were entered prior to dyadic synchrony. As
shown in Table 4, dyadic synchrony at age 2 was not significantly associated with maternal
report of externalizing symptoms in kindergarten; however, higher levels of dyadic synchrony
were associated with lower levels of teacher-reported externalizing symptoms (B = -3.69, β = -
0.26, p < .05). As shown in Table 5, a similar pattern was found for age-5.5 internalizing
symptoms. Dyadic synchrony was not significantly related to mother reports of internalizing, but
higher levels of synchrony were related to lower rates of internalizing symptoms based on
teacher reports (B = -1.42, β = -0.25, p < .05).
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 18
Synchrony and Children’s Social Competence. Three additional hierarchical multiple
regression analyses were performed to examine associations between dyadic synchrony and
teacher reports of children’s social skills, academic competence and teacher-child relationship
quality. Again, treatment status was entered initially in analyses, as were children’s age-2 CBCL
Externalizing scores, the latter to control for early problem behavior. Similar to teacher reports
of child problem behavior, higher levels of age-2 synchrony were associated with higher rates of
teacher- reported social skills on the SSRS (B = 2.60, β = 0.36, p < .05). Additionally, teachers
reported significantly higher levels of academic competence on the SSRS in children from dyads
displaying higher levels of synchrony (B = 1.59, β = 0.25, p < .05). Kindergarten teachers also
reported better relationship quality with boys who had been part of more synchronous dyads at
age-2 (B = -1.28, β = -0.24, p < .05).
Discussion
The findings of this study suggest that early parent-child synchrony is significantly
associated with later teacher, but not maternal, reports of both internalizing and externalizing
symptoms in low-income boys. Additionally, boys who were rated as being in more
synchronous dyads with their mothers at age 2 were viewed by their kindergarten teachers as
displaying better social skills, greater academic competence, and having better quality
relationships with their kindergarten teachers at age 5.5. These findings corroborate and literally
extend previous research on parent-child synchrony and child adjustment by expanding the time
period between initial assessment of synchrony and later child outcomes, and doing so with a
sample of boys initially recruited on the basis of high levels of early problem behavior and other
types of family and socioeconomic adversity.
Synchrony and Teacher Reports of Children’s Kindergarten Adjustment
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 19
Of particular interest is the finding that early parent-child relationship quality as
measured by synchrony is associated with the later quality of the child’s relationship with his
teacher. These findings support the tenets of both attachment (Sroufe & Fleeson, 1986) and
social learning models (Patterson, 1982), suggesting the importance of the dynamics of
children’s early parent-child relationships in relation to the quality of later adult-child
relationships (Martin, 1981). Accordingly, children’s early experiences with primary caregivers
would be expected to provide the model for expectancies and styles of interacting for
relationships with teachers in the school setting. Alternatively, as children have been shown to
actively contribute to the development of synchronous relationships (Easterbrooks, Chaudhuri, &
Gestsdottir, 2005) and synchrony has been associated with high levels of language proficiency
and self-regulation (Moore & Calkins, 2004; Skuban et al., 2006), it is possible that child factors
that elicit responsive and sensitive caregiving lead to the development of synchronous
relationships with parents and also positive relationships with peers and teachers at school entry.
Thus, toddlers who are able to engage with their mothers in responsive and attuned manners, and
whose mothers are more responsive and engaging with their toddlers, appear more likely to be
able to engage with other adults and peers in similar ways at school entry.
The finding that components of the early parent-child relationship are associated with
teacher perceptions of child behavioral symptoms and social skills corroborates results from
several other studies of lower-income children (Erickson et al., 1985; Lyons-Ruth et al., 1993;
Renken et al., 1989). For example, Shaw and colleagues (Shaw, Winslow, & Flanagan, 1999)
found that lower levels of parental involvement and higher rates of rejecting parenting at age 2
were associated with increased rates of teacher-reported externalizing symptoms at school entry.
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 20
Interestingly, behavioral symptoms were not the only teacher-reported characteristics of
the child associated with early dyadic synchrony in this sample. Observed synchrony at age 2
was also associated with academic competence and social skills at school entry. While items on
this scale were focused primarily on academic performance, such as perceived reading and
mathematical readiness, research with kindergarten teachers on the skills they find important for
success in math and reading include social and behavioral domains, such as self-control and
attention span, in addition to cognitive abilities (Denham, 2006; Ladd, Herald, & Kochel, 2006).
Further, previous research has demonstrated that the quality of early parent-child relationships is
a consistent predictor of academic functioning in the primary grades (Connell & Prinz, 2002),
including early math and reading skills (Hill, 2001). In addition to corroborating previous
research on early parent-child relationship quality and children’s early academic functioning,
these results also suggest that early relationships with primary caregivers may have lasting
effects on the later development of children’s social competencies and school success. Thus,
targeting and improving the early parent-child relationship may have beneficial consequences on
a child’s ability to succeed with peers and within the classroom environment.
Synchrony and Maternal Reports of Children’s Problem Behavior
While consistent associations were found between observations of mother-son synchrony
and teacher reports of multiple domains of child adjustment at age 5.5, synchrony was
consistently unrelated to maternal reports of concurrent and later child problem behavior. These
findings echo previous research by Fagot and Leve (1998), who found that for boys only,
observed parenting at 18 months was associated with TRF ratings of externalizing symptoms in
kindergarten, but not associated with parent’s ratings of externalizing symptoms on the CBCL.
What could possibly explain this consistent null pattern of findings, especially in reference to the
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 21
consistent pattern of positive results between synchrony and teacher-based child outcomes? One
possibility is informant and method bias. Synchrony was measured based on observations of
parent-child interaction and coded by trained raters. Teachers come in contact with a broad range
of children and although not immune from bias, are generally able to view children’s behavior
within a more normative framework of development. Conversely, parents generally come in
contact with a more limited range of children and as a result would be expected to have less
expertise in gauging normative versus atypical child behavior, particularly for their own children
(Loeber, Green, & Lahey, 1990).. In addition, mothers with elevated rates of depressive
symptoms have been shown to be particularly biased in rating child behavior (Briggs-Gowan,
Carter, & Schwab-Stone, 1996; Fergusson, Lynskey, & Horwood, 1993). In fact, while
significant mother-teacher agreement was found for this sample (r = .41, p < .001), in other
studies, agreement between parent and teacher reports of child problem behavior has been found
to be quite modest at school entry. For example, Fisher and Fagot (1996) found teacher and
parent agreement on child disruptive behavior to be virtually nonexistent at kindergarten (r = -
.05), while Shaw and colleagues (1999) reported a significant, but modest positive association at
age 6 (r = .18, p < .01). Another potential contributing factor to the discrepancy in association
between synchrony and maternal and teacher reports is maternal well being. Depressive
symptoms were one of the primary criterion for inclusion in the present study, with mean scores
for mothers at the age-2 assessment on the Beck Depression Inventory (M = 11.97, SD = 9.31) in
the moderate range (Beck, Ward, Mendelson, Mock, & Erbaugh, 1961). Thus, as teacher reports
were more likely similar to observations of parent-child interaction, particularly among a sample
of mothers with heightened levels of depressive symptoms, it was not entirely surprising to see
discordance between mother and teacher reports of child problem and prosocial behavior.
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 22
Limitations
There are several important limitations of this study. First, this sample consisted entirely
of boys who were a part of a low-income sample at heightened risk for the development of
conduct problems. Thus, the findings may not be generalizable to populations with greater
variability in income or samples including girls. However, these findings are consistent with the
results of studies using more normative populations and samples including both boys and girls
(e.g., Harrist et al., 1994). Second, the sample size of the children who had teacher-report data is
relatively small (n = 73), thus, it would be important to replicate the findings with larger samples
of boys and girls, including those from more rural and suburban communities. Third,
kindergarten is the age when many children begin formal schooling; however, its curriculum is
frequently less formal and structured than the later primary-school years. Teachers of
kindergarten may view children’s behavior differently from colleagues teaching older children in
more structured classroom environments. Despite these limitations, this study provides further
evidence of the influence of parent-child synchrony and similar dyadic-based constructs in
relation to multiple domains of children’s longitudinal outcomes. While previous research has
found evidence that synchrony is associated with social and behavioral outcomes for school-aged
children (Harrist et al., 1994; Lindsey et al., 1997; Mize & Pettit, 1997), the findings of this
paper included several methodological safeguards and strengths to extend previous work. First,
multiple methods and informants were used to measure synchrony and child adjustment,
minimizing the possibility that the findings could be accounted for by informant or method bias.
Relatedly, early child problem behavior was controlled for in multivariate analyses, minimizing
the possibility that associations between synchrony and later child problem and prosocial
behavior were attributable to early externalizing or internalizing symptoms. In addition, by using
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 23
a sample of boys at high risk for early-starting pathways of externalizing problems, and linking
synchrony assessed at age 2 to multiple domains of child adjustment at school entry, the study
extends earlier work that has focused primarily on lower-risk samples and been limited to cross-
sectional or shorter-term longitudinal designs.
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 24
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Behavior Problems and Synchrony 34
Table 1 Socio-demographic Description of Sample at the Age 2 Home Visit (N=120)
Mean Standard Deviation
Child’s Age at Initial Visit (Months) 24.1 2.8
Maternal Age (Years) 27.2 6.1
Annual Income $15,504.92 8,754.25
Annual Per Capita Income $3,624.14 2,058.24
N %
Child’s Ethnicity
African-American 58 48.3 Caucasian 48 40.0 Biracial 14 11.7
Maternal Education
Less than High School 22 18.3 High School/GED 58 48.3 Greater than High School 40 33.3
Maternal Marital Status
Married/Living with Partner 54 45.0 Single and Never Married 60 50.0 Divorced/Separated/Widowed 6 5.0
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 35
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Maternal and Teacher Ratings of Behavioral Symptoms and Social Skills and Observed Synchrony.
N Mean SD
Maternal Report:
Externalizing Symptoms
Age 2 Child Behavior Checklist 2/3: Broadband Externalizing Factor
119 21.39 7.22
Kindergarten Child Behavior Checklist 4-18: Broadband Externalizing Factor
99 14.20 8.87
Internalizing Symptoms
Age 2 Child Behavior Checklist 2/3: Broadband Internalizing Factor
119 12.48 5.46
Kindergarten Child Behavior Checklist 4-18: Broadband Internalizing Factor
97 6.02 5.44
Teacher Report:
Kindergarten Teacher Report Form 4-18: Broadband Externalizing Factor
73 22.15 20.03
Kindergarten Teacher Report Form 4-18: Broadband Internalizing Factor
72 7.86 7.89
Teacher-Child Relationship Scale Total Score
73 35.52 7.80
Social Skills Rating (SSRS) 73 38.75 9.90 Academic Competence Rating (SSRS) 73 28.18 8.77
Observer Report:
Global Rating of Observed Synchrony 114 3.49 1.26
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 36
Table 3. Correlation among Dyadic Synchrony, Internalizing Symptoms and Externalizing Symptoms on the CBCL and TRF.
2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
1. Observed Synchrony 0.01 -0.12 -0.12 -0.05 0.28* -0.26*
2. CBCL EXT Age 2 -- 0.47*** 0.57*** 0.18# -0.08 0.08
3. CBCL EXT Age 5.5 -- 0.35*** 0.46*** 0.41*** 0.43***
4. CBCL INT Age 2 -- 0.21* -0.06 0.22#
5. CBCL INT Age 5.5 -- 0.11 0.23#
6. TRF EXT Age 5.5 -- 0.60***
7. TRF INT Age 5.5 --
# p<.10, *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 37
Table 4 Summary of regressions predicting externalizing symptoms from age 2 dyadic synchrony. Model B SE B β t-score
DV: Kindergarten CBCL Externalizing Symptoms
Step 1: Treatment Group EXT Age 2
-0.97 0.56
1.60 0.11
-0.06 0.47
-0.61 5.06***
Step 2: Treatment Group EXT Age 2 Dyadic Synchrony
-1.05 0.57 -0.89
1.59 0.11 0.64
-0.06 0.47
-0.13
-0.66 5.11***
-1.40
DV: Kindergarten TRF Externalizing Symptoms
Step 1: Treatment Group EXT Age 2
3.46 -0.33
4.53 0.32
0.09 -0.12
0.77
-1.04 Step 2: Treatment Group EXT Age 2 Dyadic Synchrony
3.24 -0.27 -3.69
4.40 0.31 1.62
0.09
-0.10 -0.26
0.74
-0.86 -2.28*
#p<.10, *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 38
Table 5 Summary of regressions predicting internalizing symptoms from age 2 dyadic synchrony. Model B SE B β t-score
DV: Kindergarten CBCL Internalizing Symptoms
Step 1: Treatment Group INT Age 2
0.56 0.23
1.11 0.11
0.05 0.22
0.51 2.17*
Step 2: Treatment Group INT Age 2 Dyadic Synchrony
0.56 0.23 -0.10
1.12 0.11 0.45
0.05 0.22
-0.02
0.50 2.12*
-0.23
DV: Kindergarten TRF Internalizing Symptoms
Step 1: Treatment Group INT Age 2
2.78 0.46
1.75 0.19
0.18 0.28
1.59 2.47*
Step 2: Treatment Group INT Age 2 Dyadic Synchrony
2.78 0.44 -1.42
1.70 0.18 0.63
0.18 0.27
-0.25
1.64# 2.41*
-2.23*
#p<.10, *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001
Behavior Problems and Synchrony 39
Table 6. Kindergarten Teacher Rated Child Social and Academic Skills Model B SE B β t-score
DV: Kindergarten SSRS Social Skills
Step 1: Treatment Group EXT Age 2
-2.20 0.38
2.27 0.16
-0.11 0.27
-0.97 2.34*
Step 2: Treatment Group EXT Age 2 Dyadic Synchrony
-2.04 0.33 2.60
2.12 0.15 0.78
-0.10 0.24 0.36
-0.96 2.19* 3.34***
DV: Kindergarten SSRS Academic Competence
Step 1: Treatment Group EXT Age 2
-0.50 0.35
2.00 0.14
-0.03 0.29
-0.25 2.49*
Step 2: Treatment Group EXT Age 2 Dyadic Synchrony
-0.40 0.33 1.59
1.95 0.14 0.72
-0.02 0.26
-0.25
-0.21 2.34* 2.22*
DV: Kindergarten STRS Quality of Relationship
Step 1: Treatment Group EXT Age 2
3.61 0.01
1.72 0.12
0.25 0.01
2.10* 0.04
Step 2: Treatment Group EXT Age 2 Dyadic Synchrony
3.53 0.03 -1.28
1.68 0.12 0.62
0.24 0.03
-0.24
2.10* 0.22
-2.06* *p <.05, **p <.01, ***p <.001