s12tim18

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i

ridhk oHdj12 jk fYa%Ksh

.=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh^2009 jif isg ls%hd;aul f&

oHd" fi!LH yd Ydl wOHdmk fomd;fka;=joHd yd ;dlaIK mSGh

cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh

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ii

ridhk oHdj12 jk fYa%Ksh

.=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh^2009 jif isg ls%hd;aul f&

cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh

m%:u uqo%Kh - 2009

oHd" fi!LH yd Ydl wOHdmk fomd;fka;=jcd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh

uqo%Kh -

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iii

wOHCI ckrd,a;=udf.a mKsvh

jI 2007 6 iy 10 hk fYa%Ksj,g ykajd fok ,o ksmqK;d mdol bf.kq

b.eka m%fYh l%ufhka jika jir 7" 8" yd 11 hk fYa%Ksj, Ih ud,djinkaOfhka o fhdod .kakd ,o w;r 2009 jif th w'fmd'i^W$fm

5/28/2018 s12tim18

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iv

ix{dmkh

okakd foa mj;ajd f.k hdug yd mQjfhka;SrKh lrk ,o foabf.kSug ld,hla;siafia

lghq;= lsrSu ksid" mj;sk foa kej; f.dv keSug mjd wo wmg yelshdj we;af;a iqjYfhks' mdi,augf bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sfha uyd mudK fjkila we;s lrka

fodrg jk fuu oa;shsl wOHdmkh ms

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v

jvd iqfYaIS h' fl ld,Sk h' B

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vi

lKavdh iQodk jkafkaiajlSh wkdjrK iduQyslj;a" ksudKYS,Sj;aiuia; lKavdhug

bosm;a lsughs' bosm;a lsu ms .fIKhla" isiqjrK yd ia;drK fm

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vii

WmfoaYkh ( uydpdh ,d,a fmfrd - wOHlaI ckrd,acd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'

wdpdh whs' t,a' .sksf.a - iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,acd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'

wCIKh ( iS' t' wd' weka;ksuy;d - wOHlaI oHd" fi!LH ydYdl wOHdmk &cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'

Ih inkalrKh(ta' ' ta' o is,ajd uy;d - jHdmD;s lKavdh kdhl^ridhk oHdj&jHdmD;sks,Odcd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'

Ihud,d lgqj ( wNHka;r

iS' t' wd' weka;ks uy;d - wOHlaI oHd" fi!LH ydYdl wOHdmk &cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'

ta' ' ta' o is,ajd uy;d - jHdmD;slKavdh kdhl^ridhk oHdj&jHdmD;sks,Od

v' ta' iqu;smd, uy;d - jHdmD;s ks,Odt,a' fla' jvqf.a uy;d - jHdmD;sks,Odud,skS rd.jpd h - jHdmD;sks,Od

ndysruydpdh t' ' .=KjOk - fld

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viii

wd' tka' ' nKavdr uhd - Ourdc oHd,h" uykqjr'mS' ' tia' fmruqK uhd - mskakj, uOH uyd oHd,h" rUqlalknka, rKisxy uhd - fjia,soHd,h" fnd/,a,'iS' tka' ta' fmfrd fukh - foand,sld oHd,h" fnd/,a,'t' tka' tia' chiQh h - u,shfoaj nd,sld oHd,h" l=reKE.,'B' ' mS' OujxY h - idka; mdjq`M oHd,h" ,d.sh'Nd o is,ajd h - idka; mdjq`M oHd,h" ,d.sh'

msgljr ksudKh - wd' wd' fla' m;srK hcd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'

m.Kl ieliSu - wd' wd' fla' m;srK h

cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'wd' ta' ' whs' oikdhl hcd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'

fj wvh - www.nie.lk

O iydh - ux., je,smsh uhdcd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'moaud rjOk h

rx;a ohdjxY uhd

cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'

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ix

mgqk

msgqj

1'0 wOHCI ckrd,a;=udf.amKsvh ii

2'0 ix{dmkh iii

3.0 im;a odhl;ajh iv

4'0 bf.kqM, yd fhda; bf.kq - b.eka 1 - 144

l%shdldrl

5'0 mdi, mok lr.;a;lafiarelrKh - ye|skau 145

6'0 we.hS ie,iq 147

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1

ksmqK;dj 1'0 ( mod:fha iajNdjh ksKh lsu i|yd bf,lafg%dkslieleiau" bf,lafg%dksl wka;l%shd yd Yla;s yqjudre fhdod

.kshs'

ksmqK;d ugu 1'1 ( mrudKql jHQyh ms

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2

iuia:dksltl u mrudKql%udxlh we;a;d jQ o fjkia ialkaO l%udxl we;a;d jQ omrudKqtu uQ,jHfha iuia:dksl f,i ye|ska f'

kshqla,hsvh ksYa; fm%dafgdak ixLHdjla yd ksYa; kshqfg%dak ixLHdjla iys;mrudKqjla" whkhla" kHIahla fyda ixfhdackh jQmrudKqjlakshqla,hsvhlaf,i ye|skaf'

lsrKYS,;dj

kHIafhaia:dhs;dj Wfoid wia:dhs kHIa iskaa fydawxY= iska fyda lsrKksl=;alsu lsrKYS,;dj f,i ye|ska f'

mrudKqj ms

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3

.hs. iy udiavkaf.a mlaIKfha oS ,;a kslaIK meyeos,s lsu

mrudKql wdlD;s f;dika 'ma,mqu' wdlD;sh

rom' mrudKql wdlD;sh

kHIAh

bf,lafg%dak

wxY=kHIa

mrudKq

wm.ukhjq

wxY=

bf,lafg%dak

Ok wdfrdams; f.da,h

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4

fnda wdlD;sh

fnda wdlD;sh wkqj yhsrcka mrudKqf kHIah

yd bf,lafg%dak mj;sk m

5/28/2018 s12tim18

15/161

5

ksmqK;dj 1'0 ( mod:fha iajNdjh ksKh lsu i|yd bf,lafg%dkslieleiau" bf,lafg%dksl wka;l%shd yd Yla;s yqjudrefhdod .kshs'

ksmqK;d ugu 1'2 ( mod:fhaYla;s yqjudre ksKh lrkq msKsi oHq;apqnllsrKj, O;ajh Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 05 hs'

bf.kq M, ( ;rx.hl .=K ia;r flfrk rdYs k lr tajd w;r in|;d m%ldY lrhs' oHq;a pqnl jKdj,sfha O mrdi ykajd tu mrdij,g wh;alsrKj,

Nd; i|yd ksoiqka imhhs' W; Wml%u Nd; lrka oDYH mrdih kslaIKh lr tys iajNdjh jd;d

lrhs'

Ih lreKqmeyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la(

;rx. wdhuh yd ixLHd;h jkg oHq;a pqnl ;rx.hl m%f.h -

C= oHq;a pqnl ;rx.hl Yla;sh -

E = hfuys h hkq ksh;hls' th ma,dkala

ksh;h k f'ma,dkala ksh;h } 6'624 10-34J s

fu u`.ska

ixLHd;h wdfrdayKh jkms

5/28/2018 s12tim18

16/161

6

oHq;a pqNl jKdj,sfha O mrdij,g wh;a lsrKj, m%fhdack ffhda ;rx. ( rEmjdyskS" .=jka,s udOH Tiafia ikaksfok

lghq;=i|yd fhfoa' laIq ;rx. ( laIq ;rx. Wkaj, l%shdld;ajh fu u`.skais f'

jKdj,SlaI l%u uska flfrk Yaf,aIKlghq;=j, oSfhfoa'

wfOdarla; ;rx. ( fN!; ls;ail m%;sldr lghq;=j, oS fhfoa' ria:md,l ix{d ksl=;a lsf oS yd jKdj,SlaI l%uu`.skaflfrk Yaf,aIK lghq;=j, oSNd; flf'

oDYH ;rx. ( oDIah" PdhdrEm Ys,amh fuu mrdifha;rx. weiqkais f' jK;sl Yaf,aIKfha oS fhfoa'

mdrcnq, ;rx. ( Ic keiSug" uqo,afkdagqwdosfhafhdod we;sryiHixfla; lshug fhfoa' jKdj,SlaI Yaf,aIKj,

oSNd; flf' X- lsrK ( XlsrK PdhdrEm .ekSu yd iaMl wdosfha jHqy

yeoEf oS Nd; flf'

- lsrK ( ms

5/28/2018 s12tim18

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7

ksmqK;dj 1'0 ( mod:fhaiajNdjh ksKh lsu i|yd bf,lafg%dkslieleiau" bf,lafg%dksl wka;l%shd yd Yla;s yqjudrefhdod .kshs'

ksmqK;d ugu 1'3 ( mrudKqj, bf,lafg%daksl Yla;s ug ms

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8

wjfYdaIK jKdj,sh

fudapk jKdj,sh

yhsrckays fudapk jKdj,sfha fLd we;s jk wkaou meyeos,s lsu

isyska isre

iys; ;yvq m%siauh

fLd jKdj,sh

W;af;a; wjia:dfmj;sk jdhqksheosh

wika;;sl jKdj,shksheh

m%siauh

isyskaisreiys; ;yvq

''

'

''

' '' '''

wdf,dallnh

,hsudkafY%aKsh

ndufY%aKsh

;rx. wdhduh$nm

n = 1

n = 2

n = 3

n = 5n = 4

l=434

nm

l=486

nm

l=656

nm

400 500 600 700

5/28/2018 s12tim18

19/161

9

lafjdkag wxl m%Odk lafjdkag wxlh ^n&

bf,lafg%dakh wh;a m%Odk Yla;s ugu fuuska ksrEmKh flf'

n = 1, 2, 3, ......

Woaos.xY lafjdkag wxlh ^l&bf,lafg%dakh wh;aWmYla;sugu (s, p, d, f, ...)fuu`.skaksrEmKh flf'l= 0, 1, 2, ...... ^n-1&

pqnl lafjdkag wxlh ^ml&

h WmYla;s ugul bf,lafg%dakh mj;akd ldlaIslh (ksoiqka (px, p

y, p

z)

fuuska ksrEmKh flf'm

l= -l,(-l+1),....,0,.....,(l-1), l

neuq lafjdkag wxlh ^ms&

h ldlaIslhl msys bf,lafg%dakhl osYdk;sh ksrEmKh flf'

ms=

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10

* mrudKqjl msys h bf,lafg%dakhl lafjdkag wxl l=,lh ,shd oelaug we;s yelshd w'fmd'i'^W$fm

5/28/2018 s12tim18

21/161

11


ksmqK;d ugu 1'4 ( mrudKqj, yd whkj, jHqyh yd .=K ksKh lrkqmsKsitajdfha yqfol,d jdhquh mrudKqj, yd whkj, N+

wjia:df bf,lafg%dak kHdi Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 07 hs'

bf.kq M, ( bf,lafg%dak msrSf rgdjg wod< uQ,Ou yd kS;s m%ldY lrhs' mrudKql l%udxlh 1 isg 54 olajd jk uQ,jHj, jdhq wjia:df mj;sk

yqol,d mrudKqj, yd whkj, bf,lafg%dak kHdi iu; wdldrhg ,shdolajhs'

Yla;s ugj, yd WmYla;s ugj, ia:dhSbf,lafg%dak kHdi ie,ls,a,g.kskauQ,jHj, wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;syd m%:u whkSlrK Yla;sp,khmeyeos,s lrhs'

Ih lreKqmeyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

Wm Yla;s ugj, mej;sh yels Wmu bf,lafg%dak ixLHd

bf,lafg%dak msf rgdjg wod< uQ,Ou yd kS;s

yqka kS;shiudk Yla;sfhka hq;a ldlaIslj, bf,lafg%dak mj;skqfha tajdfha neuqiudka;r jk mos h' ke;fyd;a hq.au bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj Wmu jk mosh'mjq,S nysIaldr uQ,Ouhfuu uQ,Oufhka lshefjkafka h ldlaIslhl bf,lafg%dak follg jvdmej;sh fkdyels nj hs' ke;fyd;a mrudKqjl h bf,lafg%dakhlai|yd jklafjdkag wxl l=,lh thg u wkkH jk nj hs'&f.dvkexf uQ,Ouhka lshefjkafka ldlaIslj,g bf,lafg%dak msu mjq,S nysIaldr uQ,Ouhg

wkqj hkaldlaIslj, Yla;s wdfrdayKh jk wkqms

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12

WmYla;s ugj, Yla;s wdfrdayKh jk wkqms

5/28/2018 s12tim18

23/161

13

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( wod< kshu yd uQ,Ou fhdod .kskamrudKql l%udxlh 1- 54 olajd uQ,jHj,ska

mjrk ,o lsysmhl bf,lafg%dak kHdi lKavdh jYfhkaf.dvkxjkakg

fhduqlrkak' mjrk ,o uQ,jHj, bf,lafg%dak kHdi ii|katajdfhka jvd;a ia:dhS

kHdi iys; uQ,jH ykd .ekSug i,iajkak' wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s yd m%:u whkSlrK Yla;s p,k" bf,lafg%dak

kHdij, ia:dhs;dj weiqfrka .%y lsug fhduq lrkak'

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14


ksmqK;d ugu 1'5 ( mrudKqj, yd whkj, jHqyh yd .=K ksKh lrkqmsKsi tajdfhayqfol,d jdhquh mrudKqj, yd whkj,N+ wjia:df bf,lafg%dak kHdi Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 07 hs'

bf.kq M, ( bf,lafg%dak kHdi mok lr f.k wdj;s;d j.=j f.dvkxjhs' uQ,jH s, p, diy ff.dkq hgf;a j.SlrKh lrhs' s, p iy df.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jH iy 1 isg 18 olajd ldKavj,g wh;a uQ,jH

ykd .kshs'


15 jk msgqf oelaf'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

Yd, m%udKfha wdj;s;d j.=jla m%oYkh lr ldKav yd wdj; ms

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15

ns

1

ns

2

ns

2np

1

ns

2np

2

ns

2np3

ns

2np

4

ns

2np5

ns

2np6

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13/III

14/IV

15/V

16/VI

17/VII

18/VIII

1/I

2/II

5/28/2018 s12tim18

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16


ksmqK;d ugu 1'6 ( mod:fhajHqyh yd .=K ksKh lrkq msKsi nyq mrudKqlmoaO;sj, mj;akd m%d:l wka;l%shd Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 07 hs'

bf.kq M, ( ixhqc;d nkaOkjdoh bosm;a lrhs' mrudKqjl ldlaIsl w;sPdokh fuka ridhksl nkaOk iEfok nj m%ldY

lrhs'

nkaOkhg inkaO mrudKqj, oHq;aRK;d fjki wkqj tajd ksO%ehiyixhqc nkaOk" O%eh iyixhqc nkaOk iy whksl nkaOk f,i fjkalrhs'

odhl nkaOk iy f,dayl nkaOk we;sjk wdldrh meyeos,s lrhs'

Ih lreKqmeyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( mrudKqfjys ixhqc;d ljpfha bf,lafg%dak nkaOk iEoSug iyNd.sf'

nyqmrudKql moaO;shl Yla;sh wju lr .ekSu i|yd mrudKqw;r mj;sk

wdlIKh ridhksl nkaOkhla f,i ykajhs'

nkaOk bf,lafg%dak hq.,a mrudKq folg u fmd jk mos ;nd .ekSfuka

iyixhqc nkaOk iEfoa'

iyixhqc nkaOkj,ska nekq wKq;=< fyda whksl moaO;s ;=< fydamj;akdwdlIK m%d:l wka; l%shd f,i ye|skah yel'

wKqjl mj;sk nkaOkhl oS bf,lafg%dak ;ud foig wdlIKh lr .ekSf

yelshdj uQ,jHfhka uQ,jHhg fjkia f' m%udKd;aul j m%ldY l< fuu

yelshdj uQ,jHhl oHq;a RK;dj f,i ye|skaf'

oHq;a RK;dj O mudKhkag wkqj m%ldY lr we;' fmda,ska mudKhg

wkqj O uQ,jH i|yd oHq;a RK;d w.h my; j.=f oelaf'

Li1.0

Na0.9

K0.8

Rb0.8

Cs0.7

Be1.5

Mg1.2

Ca1.0

Sr1.0

Ba0.9

B1.0

Al1.5

Ga1.6

In1.7

Tl1.8

C2.5

Si1.8

Ge1.8

Sn1.8

Pb1.9

N3.0

P2.1

As2.0

Sb1.9

Bi1.9

O3.5

S2.5

Se2.4

Te2.1

Po2.0

H2.1

F4.0

Cl3.0

Br2.8

I2.5

At2.2

fmda,ska mudKh wkqj uQ,jHj, oHq;aRK;d w.hhka

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17

fmda,ska mudKhg wkqj tla tlauQ,jH i|yd ksYa; oHq;a RK;d w.hla

m%ldY lr we;suq;a h uQ,jH mrudKqjl oHq;a RK;dj tu mrudKqf

mirh ^uqyqlrKh" wdfrdamKh" TlaislrK wxlh& u; fjkia f'

ksoiqka ( yd hk m%fNaoj,os N ys oHq;a RK;dj

f,i p,kh f'

tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,la mj;sk mrudKql ldlaIslhla fjk;a mrudKqjl

ixhqc;d ljpfha ysia ldlaIslhla iu`. w;sPdokfhka nkaOkhla iEosh yels

h' fu f,i iEfok nkaOkh odhl nkaOkh f,i ykajkq ,ef' fuys oStlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,h fokq,nk m%fNaoh odhl ldKavh f,i o nkaOkh

iEoSu i|yd bf,lafg%dak ,nd .kakd m%fNaoh m%;s.%dyl ldKavh f,i o

ykajkq ,ef'

ksoiqka (

oHq;a RK;d fjki wl mrudKq hq.,hla w;r nkaOkhla we;sf oStlamrudKqjl ixhqc;d bf,lafg%dak fjk;a mrudKqjlg ,nd oSwe;sjk Ok yd

RK whk w;r yg .kakd ia;s oHq;a wdlIKh whksl nkaOkhlaf,i

ye|ska f'

>k wjia:df mj;sk fidah laf,darhs ie,l+g whk" ia;s oHq;a

f,i wdlIKh ksYa; rgdjlg weis mj;S t neka whksl ixfhda.hla

>k wjia:df mj;sk g whkj,g ip,kh f yelshdj ke;' wxY=msys

ia:dkj, u isg lmkh u muKla is f' f wkqj whksl iaMlhlaoHq;h ikakhkh fkd lrhs'

j wjia:df mj;sk fidah laf,darhs ie,l+ g whk fjka j mj;S'

whksl ixfhda.hlaj wjia:df mj;sk g whkj,g ip,kh f yelshdjmj;sk neka oHq;h ikakhkh lrhs'

f,day mrudKqj, ixhqc;d ljpfha bf,lafg%dak mrudKqjg ,sys,a j ne|S we;'

t neka f,day mrudKqj, ixhqc;d ljpfha bf,lafg%dak uqod yka Okwhk f,i mej;Sug keUqrejlawe;' ta wkqj f,day mrudKqj,ska ksoyia jk

bf,lafg%dak u`.ska we;s jk bf,lafg%dak c,dYfha .s,Smj;sk Ok whkj,skaiuka; moaO;shla we;sf' Ok whk iy bf,lafg%dak c,dYh ia;s oHq;a

jYfhka wdlIKh f,dayl nkaOk iEfoa'

ksoyia bf,lafg%dak mj;sk nekaf,day oHq;h ikakhkh lrhs'

bf,lafg%dak c,dYh

- +fyda+ -

5/28/2018 s12tim18

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18

f,day whkfha ;ru l=vd jk g" f,day whkfha wdfrdamKh Yd, jk g

yd f,dayl nkaOkhg odhl lrk bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj je jk g m%n,

f,dayl nkaOk we;s f'

f,dayl nkaOk m%n, jk g f,dayfha jdxlh by< hhs'


O m%d:l wka; l%shdj,g ksoiqka jk wKqyd whksl moaO;s iuQyh ne.skaisiqlKavdhj,g ,nd oS tajd ms

5/28/2018 s12tim18

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19

ksmqK;dj 1'0 ( mod:fha iajNdjh ksKh lsu i|yd bf,lafg%dkslieleiau" bf,lafg%dksl wka;l%shd yd Yla;s yqjudre fhdod

.kshs'

ksmqK;dj ugu 1'7 ( mod:fhajHqyh yd .=K ksKh lrkq msKsi iyixhqcwKqj," O%eh iyixhqc wKqj, yd ir, whk ldKavj,

yev Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 07 hs'

bf.kq M, ( iq,n j yuqjk yd Wmu jYfhka mrudKq oyhlaolajd wvx.=iyixhqc

wKqj, yd whk ldKavj, ,qia jHqy w|shs'

ixhqc;d ljp bf,lafg%dak hq., lIK jdoh fhdod .kska iyixhqcwKqj, yd whk ldKavj, uOH mrudKqj jgd tu bf,lafg%dak hq.,aosYdk;jk wkaou yd wKqf$whkfha cHd;sl yevh mqfrdal:kh lrhs'

W; WodyrK weiqfrkasp, sp2ydsp3uqyqlrKh we;sjk wkaou ia;r lrhs' fok ,o wKqjlg fyda whk ldKavhlg fydamej;sh yels ish u im%hqla;

jHqy we| tajdfha ia:dhS;dj ixikaokd;aul uiqug ,la lrhs' im%hqla; jHqy wdOdrfhka im%hqla; uqyq jHqyfha mj;sk nkaOkj, os. yd

m%n,;dj ms

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20

yd tlir hq.,a .Kk ia jHqyfhka,nd f.k ixhqc;d ljp bf,lafg%dakhq.,alIK jdoh ^VSEPRT&fhdod .kskawKqj, yev mqfrdal:kh l< yel'

uOH mrudKqj jgd ;sfnk bf,lafg%dak hq.,a .Kk wkqj tajd wjldYfha osYdk; jk wdldrh

fh

;,Sh ;%sfldaKdldr

p;=ia;,Sh

;%swdk;soa msrvdldr

wIag;,Sh

bf,lafg%dak hq., hq.,a ilia jk wKqf yevhtl;=j nkaOk tlir wkaou

2 2 0 fh fh

3 0 ;,Sh ;%sfldaKdldr

3 ;,Sh ;%sfldaKdldr2 1 fldaKsl

4 0 p;=ia;,Sh

4 3 1 ;%sfldaKdldr

p;=ia;,Sh msrvh

2 2 fldaKsl

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21

tl u wKqjla fyda whk ldKavhla i|yd bf,lafg%dak ieleiqf fjkialu; muKlafjkia jk ,qiajHqy follafydaje .Kklamj;sk wjia:dyuqf' h wKqjla i|yd jk t jeks jHqy im%hqla; jHqy f,i ye|ska f' wKqfienE jHqyh ka tllaj;afkd jk w;r th im%hqla; jHqy uqyq fuka iEfokjvd;a ia:dhs fjkia jHqyhls'

im%hqla; uqyq jHqyfha O- OnkaOk" os.ska iudk jk w;r tu os. O- O

talnkaOk os.g jvd wvqf' O} Ooa;aj nkaOk os.g jvd je f'

bf,lafg%dak hq., hq.,a ilia jk wKqf yevhtl;=j nkaOk tlir wkaou

5 0 ;%swdk;soa msrvh

4 1 iS-fida

5

3 2 ;%sfldaKdldr T- yevh

oa msrh

2 3 fh

6 0 wIag;,Sh

6 5 1 wIag;,Sh iup;=ri%dldr

msrAh

4 2 ;,Sh

iup;=ri%dldr

O3i|yd jk im%hqla; jHqy O3 ysim%hqla; uqyqu

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22

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( my; i|yka wKqj,$whkj, iajHqy we| cHd;sl yev ksKh lsug

Wmfoiafokak' ^fjk;a W; ksoiqka o bosm;a lsu l< hq;=h'&BeCl

2, BF

3, CH

4, NH

3, H

2O, PCl

3, NH

4+, SF

6, SF

4, ClF

3, XeF

2, IF

5, XeF

4

- 2- 2-3 3 4

NO , CO , SO ,

my; wKqj,$whkj, uOH mrudKqf uqyqlrKh ksKh lsug i,iajkak'BeCl

2, BF

3, CH

4, NH

3, H

2O, C

2H

2, C

2H

4, NH

4+ ^fjk;a W; ksoiqka o bosm;a

lsu l< hq;= h'&

my; m%fNaoj, im%hqla; jHqy we| im%hqla; uqyqu we|Sug Wmfoiafokak'

O3, N

2O ^fjk;aW; ksoiqka o bosm;alsu l< hq;=h'&

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23


ksmqK;d ugu ( mod:fha jHqyh yd .=K ksKh lrkq msKsi O moaO;s;=< mj;sk oa;Shsl wka;l%shd Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 07 hs'

bf.kq M, ( O%elrKh" oaO%ej >QKh yd O%ejKYS,;dj hk ixl,am W; WodyrK f.k

yer olajka ia;r lrhs' Ih ksfoaYhg we;=QKh tlatlankaOkh inkaOfhkaie,lsh yelsh' tajdfhaim%hqla;h wKqf oaO%ej >QKh f,i ie,fla'

ish u N - HnkaOkj, oaO%ej >QKj,im%hqla;h u`.skaNH

3

wKqf oaO%ej >QKh,ef'

iuyr iu;sl wKq i|yd oaO%ej >QKh Y+kH f'

ksoiqka(

+

N

Cl Be+ Cl

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24

O%ejKYS,;djmmQK whksl ixfhda.hla ie,l+ g tajdfha ix>gl jk legdhk yd

wekdhk i >k f.da, jYfhkamj;sk nj ie,fla' kuq;awhksl ixfhda.hiuka; jk legdhkfha yd wekdhkfha iajNdjh wkqj wekdhkfhabf,lafg%dak j,dj legdhkh fj;g wdlIKh u fya;=fjka wekdhkfhabf,lafg%dak j,df lD;s;d we;sf'

kso ( mQK whksl nkaOkh O%elrKhla fkdue;

lD;s u O%ejKYS,;dj je u

h m%udKhlg iyixhqc,laIK fmkakq lsu

O%ejKYS,;dj by< kxjk idOl legdhkh ( m%udKfhkal=vd u

by< wdfrdamKhlska hqla; u wekdhkh ( m%udKfhkaYd, u

by< wdfrdamKhlska hqla; u

ksoiqka ( AgF, AgCl, AgBriy AgIj, whksl .=K my; mos p,kh f'AgF > AgCl > AgBr >AgI

wekdhkh Yd, u fya;=fjkaO%ejKYS,;dj je jk w;r tawkqj iyixhqc ,laIK h muKlg fmkakq lsu fuhg fya;=j

hs' MCO3 MO + CO

2

2-

3CO ldKavh O2-yd CO

2f,i |S hdug M2+whkfha

O%ejKYS,;dj n,mdhs,ef' IIldKavfhalegdhkj, O%ejKYS,;djBe>Mg>Caf,i p,kh f' tu ksid fo jk ldKavfhaldnfkagj, ;dm fhdack WIaK;aj BeCO

3< MgCO

3< CaCO

3

f,i p,kh f'

O oa;shsl wka;l%shd i|yd ksoiqka oaO%ej - oaO%ej wka;l%shd

yhsrckankaOk yhsrckankaOk hkq oHq;a RK mrudKqjlg ^X&iyixhqc j ne|S mj;sk

yhsrcka mrudKqjla" tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,a tllafyda lsysmhlaiys;oHq;a RK mrudKqjla ^Y& iu`. we;s lr .kakd fYaI ia;s oHq;awka;l%shdjls'

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25

Xyd Yhkq F, O, N, Clhkd oSjvd oHq;a RK mrudKq jk wjia:dj, oSyhsrckankaOk jvd;a m%n, f' ^yhsrcka nkaOk m%n,;dj F>O>N>Cl

f,i wvq f' fuh FONCl kS;sh f,i ye|skaf'& XydY hk ia:dk by;i|yka uQ,jH mrudKqj,g wu;r j fjk;a mrudKqiskaw;alr .kakdiuyr fYaI wjia:dj, oS m%n, yhsv%cka nkaOk yg .kakd kuq;afuu IhksfoaYh ;=< t jekswjia:d wjOdrKh fkd flf'

c, wKqw;r mj;akd yhsv%cka nkaOk

15" 16 yd 17 ldKavj, yhsrhsvj, ;dmdxl p,kh

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( 15" 16 yd 17 ldKavj, yhsv%hsvj, ;dmdxl p,k m%ia;drh m%oYkh lr tu

p,khg fya;= h yels lreKq uikak' ir, wKqlsysmh ne.skaisiqlKavdhj,g bosm;alr tajdfhaoaO%ej >QKhla

mej;Su$fkdmej;Su yd oaO%ej >QKfha m%n,;d ms

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26

^ fuh E5 wdlD;shg wkqj ie,iq l< fhda; l%shdldrluls&

ksmqK;dj 1'0 ( .=K yd jHqyh weiqrska mod:fha iajNdjh .%y lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 1'9 ( cd,j, ieleiau mok lr .kska tajdfha .=K uYkhlrhs'

l%shdldrlu 1'9 ( cd, ieleiau weiqka mod:fha.=K uiuq'

ld,fo ( 07 hs.=Kd;aul fhojq ( weuqKqu 1'9'1g we;=

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27

mshjr 1'9'2 ( mka;sh lKavdh mylg fnokak'

Wmfoia m;%sld" lsh jH" uhs lvodis yd meiag,a

lKavdhj,g imhkak' ldh mjrd" lKavdh" .fIKfhysfhdojkak'

iuia; lKavdh bm;a lsula i|yd iQodk lrjkak'^ks;a;= 60 hs&

mshjr 1'9'3 ( lKavdh wkdjrK mka;shg bm;a lrjkak' m%:u ia;drKh i|yd bm;al< lKavdhj,g u wjia:dj

fokak'

fiiqlKavdhj, ixjOkd;aul fhdackd uikak' my; lreKq u;= lrka iudf,dapkhl fhfokak'

iucd;Sh mrudKqj,skaf.dvkeSwe;soshuka;syd ksrka

oe,siaiu mrudKql cd, i|yd ksoiqka jk nj Iucd;Sh mrudKqj,ska f.dvkeS we;s is,slka

vfhdlaihs Iu mrudKql cd, i|yd ksoiqkla jknj

ksO%eh whkawKqj,skaf.dvkeSwe;swhkaiaMl

ksO%eh wKql cd, i|yd ksoiqklajk nj

O%eh wKqj,skaf.dvkeSwe;swhsiaO%eh wKql cd,hla

i|yd ksoiqka jk nj fidah whk yd laf,darhs whkj,ska ie,;a

fidah laf,darhs whksl cd, i|yd ksoiqklajk

nj iucd;Sh yd Iucd;Sh mrudKql oe,sia ksudKh

we;af;amrudKq tlsfkl iyixhqc j ne|Sfuka nj

ksO%eh wKql cd, f.dvkeS we;af;a fm%a; oaO%ej -fm%a; oaO%ej w;r we;s lr .kakd wdlIK n, uska

ksO%eh wKq tlsfkl ne|Sfuka nj

O%eh wKql cd, f.dvkeSwe;af;a iar oaO%ej-iar

oaO%ej w;r we;s lr .kakd wdlIK n, uska O%ehwKq tlsfkl ne|Sfukanj

whksl cd, f.dvkeS we;af;a Okdfrd am s; yd

RKdfrdams; whk w;r we;slr .kq ,nk m%n, ia;s

oHq;a wdlIK uska whk tlsfkl ne|Sfuka nj iucd;Sh yd Iucd;Sh mrudKql cd, f.dvkeSwe;af;a

m%n, iyixhqc nkaOkj,ska neka tu oe,siaj,skaksudKh jQ jH by< oe njlskao by< jdxl$

;dmdxlj,skao hq;=nj

mrudKql cd, ;=< mj;sk iyixhqc nkaOk jvd;a m%n,

neka djK .; ug keUqrejla fkdue;s nj ip, bf,lafg%dak fkdue;s mrudKql cd, oHq;h

ikakhkh fkdlrk nj

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28

n, jeka v'jd,aian,j,ska tlsfkl neKq wKqj,ska

iuka; ksO%eh wKql cd, iys; jH oe nka wvq

w;r wfkl=;acd,j,ska ksudKh jQ jHj,g idfmalaIj my< jdxl$;dmdxlj,skahqla; nj

ksO%eh wKqj,ska ksudKh we;s nekaksO%ehwKql cd,j,skaks; jH ksO%eh djl ;=< osh jk

w;r ip, bf,lafg%dak fkdue;s neka oHq;hikakhkh fkd lrk nj

iar oaO%ej-iar oaO%ej wdlIK n,j,ska ^fyda

yhsrcka nkaOkj,ska& neKqwKqj,skaiuka; O%ehwKql cd,j,ska ks; jH ksO%eh wKql cd,j,ska

ks; jHj,g idfmalaI j by< oe njlska yd bygkd .=K yd ;a;s .=K WodyrK iys; j ia;r lrhs'

Ih lreKqmeyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( wka; cd;sl tall l%uh -SI

wka; cd;sl tall l%uh Systeme International d' Unite's - SI& wkqj uQ, rdYsy;la iy tajdg tall y;laiu; lr f.k we;'

rdYsh tallh tallfha ixfla;h

os. grh mialkaOh lsf,da.a?uh kgld,h ;;amrh s;dm.;sl WIaK;ajh fl,akh KoHq;a Odrdj wemshrh AjH m%udKh ujq,h moloSma; ;Sj%;dj lekafv,dj cd

SI jHq;amkak talljHq;amkak fN!;sl rdYshl SItallh tu fN!;sl rdYsfhaw: oelau wdY%fhka,nd .; yels h' th ,sf oSuQ,sl rdYSka fjkafldg oelaug tla tla uQ,sl

rdYsfha ixfla; w;r ysoeila ;nkq ,ef' we;e jHq;amkak rdYs i|yd Nd;lrk fYaI k we;' kuq;atajd o SIuQ, tall weiqfrkam%ldY l< yels h'fYaI k fkdue;s jHq;amkak tall lSmhla my; j.=f oelaf'

rdYsh w: oelau$ilrKh SItallh

j.M,h os. m

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33

;ajrKh m s-2

>k;ajh kg m-3

.uH;dj ialkaOh m%f.h kg m s-1

fYaI k iys; SItall

m%f.h fjki ld,h

ialkaOh

mrsudj

rdYshSI tallfha

fYaI ku

ixfla;hw: oelau

^ilrKh&

wkH SI tallweiqfrkam%ldYh

uQ,sl tallweiqfrkam%ldYh

n,h

mSvkh

ldhh

Yla;sh

ixLHd;h

oHq;awdfrdamKh

oHq;a Njh

oHq;am%;sfrdaOh

oHq;aOd;dj

ksgkh

meial,h

cQ,h

cQ,h

y'ih

l+f,dauh

fjda,agh

uh

*ervh

ialkaOh;ajrKh

n,hia:dmkh

Odrdjld,h

n,hj.M,h

ldhhwdfrdamK

NjhOdrdj

wdfrdamKhNjh

N

Pa

J

J

Hz

C

V

F

N m-2

N m

J C-1

V A-1

C V-1

kg m s-2

kg m-1 s-2

kg m2 s-2

s -1

A s

kg m2 s-3 A-1

kg m2 s-2 A-1

lmk .Kkld,h

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34

.=Kk idOlh Wmi.fhaku ixfla;h

hlsis fN!;sl rdYshl w.h Wmi.h iu. ,sf oStu Wmi.hg wod< ixfla;h SI

ixfla;hg bosfhkaysoeila fkd;nd ,sh hq;= h'

WodyrK ( ;;amrfhka-31 = 1 10 s = 1 ms

1000

grfhka-21 = 1 10 m= 1 c m

100

gr 1000 = 1103m = 1 km

kE u fN!;sl rdYshla my; oelafjk mos bosm;a l< yel'fN!;sl rdYsh } ixLHd;aul w.h tallh

ksoiqka ( os. } 5 cm

id:dxl

.Kka lsu iy uekSu w;r fjkilawe;' .Kkalsu ksYa;j u l< yels w;ruekSu wdikak w.h m%ldY lsula f' m%ldY lrk ,o lsish fN!;sl rdYshlixLHd;aul w.fhys wvx.= jk w:j;a wxl .Kk id:dxl f,i ykajhs'

ksoiqka(mEkl os. O kq WmlrKj,skauek my; mos m%ldY l< yels h'fika gr fldgia muKla igyka fldajlska uekSu 18 cm

gr fldajlskauekSu 18'1 cm

jksh le,smrhlska uekSu 18'12 cm

1018

1015

1012109

106

103

102

101

10-1

10-2

10-3

10-6

10-9

10-12

10-15

10-18

tlaidfmgd

fgrd.s.dfu.dlsf,dafylafgdfvldfvisfikas,suhsfl%da

kefkdamsfldaf*fgdawefgda

exa E

peta P

tera Tgiga G

mega M

kilo k

hecto h

deca da

deci d

centi c

milli m

micro

nano npico p

femto f

atto a

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35

f wkqj kq WmlrKhlskauek m%ldY lrk w.hlawdikak w.hlai ksYa; w.hlafkd jk nj meyeos,s f'by; oS m

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36

wKql iQ;%h } ^wdkqNl iQ;%h&n

ksoiqk (ldnksl ixfhda.hl ialkaOh wkqj C- 48.12 %lao H - 8.32 %lao N- 21.20 %la o wvx.= f'b;sh Tlaiscka f'

^I& ixfhda.fha wdkqNl iq;%h ksKh lrkak'^II&idfmalaI wKql ialkaOh 155 k ixfhda.fha wKql iQ;%h ksKh lrkak' H = 1.01, C = 12.00, N = 14.00, O = 16.00

C, Hiy N ialkaO m%;sY;j, tl;=j = 48.12+ 8.32+21.20 = 77.64%t nekaO ys ialkaO m%;sY;h = 100 - 77.64

= 22.36%

wdkqNl iQ;%h C3H

6NO

idfmalaI wdkqNl iQ;% ialkaOh = 3(C) + 6(H) + 1(N) + 1(O)= 3(12) + 6(1) + 1(14) + 1(16)

= 72

ixfhda.fhaidfmalaI wKql ialkaOh = 155 tu ksid n = 155/72

= 2.15

nhkq mQK ixLHdjla jk neka n} 2tu ksid wKql iQ;%h = (C

3

H6

NO)n= (C

3H

6NO)

2

= C6H

12N

2O

2

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( fN!;sl rdYs hkql=ula oe hs ykajd fokak' kq jYfhka,nd .kakd" w:

olajk ,o" .Kka lr ,nd .kakd yd w.h mjrk ,o fN!;sl rdYs jYfhkatajd ia;r lrkak'

O .Ks; luj, oSid:dxl yiqrejk wdldrh W; ir, WodyrK weiqkamyod fokak'

m%;sY; ixhq;s,nd oS we;sfgl ixfhda.j, wdkqNl iQ;% yd wKql iQ;%

ksjeros j ,nd .ekSug fhduq lrkak'

idfmalaI wKql ialkaOh

idfmalaI wdkqNl iQ;% ialkaOh} n

ixfhda.h 100 gie,lSfuka

C H N OialkaO wkqmd;h 48'12 8'32 21'20 22'36ujq, wkqmd;h 48'12 8'32 21'20 22'36

12'00 1'01 14'00 16'004'01 8'32 1'51 1'40

ujq, w;r ir, 4'01 8'32 1'51 1'40wkqmd;h 1'40 1'40 1'40 1'40^l=vd u ixLHdfjkafnoSfuka&

2'9 5'9 1'1 1ujq, w;r ir,

mQK ixLHd;aul 3 6 1 1wkqmd;h

( ( (

(

(

(

( (

( (

( (

( ( (

( ( (

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37

ksmqK;dj 2'0 ( ridhksl .Kkh ksje/os j is lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 2'2 ( Y%Kj, ixhq;sO wdldrj,ska m%ldY lrhs'

ld,fo ( 04 hs'

bf.kq M, ( ixhq;sh hkak w: olajhs' ialkaO Nd.h" mud Nd.h yd ujq, Nd.h w: olajhs' ialkaO Nd." mud Nd. yd ujq, Nd. wdY%s; .eg i|hs'

Ih lreKqmeyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( Y%Khl ixhq;sh Nd.hla f,i m%ldY l< yels h'

A yd BY%Khl oS A j, ialkaO Nd.h }

ksoiqk ( Zn, Mg ydCu wvx.= Y% f,dayhl 5'00 gialkaOhl Mg1'00 gwvx.= f k

MgialkaOh Nd.h }

A yd B Y%Khl oS A j, mud Nd.h }

ksoiqk ( t;fkda,a20.00 cm3mudjlg uq`M mudj 100.00 cm3jk f;la c,h tl;= lrkq ,ef'

t;fkda,aysmud Nd.h }

Ayd BY%Khl oS Aujq, Nd.h }

KCl ujq, 5la NaCl ujq, 3la Y% we;s moaO;shl

KClys ujq, Nd.h }

fldgia,shkhlskafldgia.Kkla(ppm)f,i m%ldYs; ixhq;sh } Nd.h106

fldgia,shkhlskafldgia .Kkla(ppb)f,i m%ldYs; ixhq;sh } Nd.h109

ksoiqk ( h djKhl 20'000 gla ;=< A k djHh 0'020 g la wvx.= f'

^I& A djHfha ialkaO Nd.h }

A ialkaOhA ialkaOh + B ialkaOh

1.00g5.00g

1

5}

A mudjA yd B Y%KfhauqM mudj

Aujq, .Kkuq`M ujq, .Kk

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38

ÎI& djKfha A ixhq;sh fldgia ishhlg fldgia .Kkla (pph)f,i

ÎII& djKfha A ixhq;sh fldgia odylg fldgia.Kkla (ppt)f,i

ÎV& djKfha A ixhq;sh fldgia ,shkhlg fldgia .Kkla (ppm)f,i

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( moaO;sj, wvx.= oE ms

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39


ksmqK;d ugu 2'3 ( wod< ksh; fhdod .kskaridhksl .Kkh lsj, fhfohs'

ld,fo ( 07 hs'

bf.kq M, ( wej.dfrda ksh;h L&" jdhq ksh;h R& yd *erf ksh;h ^F& w.h yd tall

iys;j m%ldY lrhs' wej.dfrda ksh;h" jdhqksh;h iy *erf ksh;h inkaO .Kkhkaa is

lrhs'


wej.dfrdaksh;h L&

hk ilrKh u`.ska fokq ,ef'

fuys N - wxY= ixLHdj

n - jH ^ujq,& m%udKh wej.dfrdaksh;h L& } 6'0221023mol-1

jdhqksh;h R&jdhqms

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40

ksmqK;dj 2 ( ridhksl .Kkh lsj, fhfohs'

ksmqK;dj ugu 2'4 ( ;=,s; ridhksl ilrK wdYs%; .Kkh lsj, fhfohs'

ld,fo ( 08 hs'

bf.kq M, ( ialkaO iy wdfrdamK ixia;s:sh ie,ls,a,g .kska" ridhksl ilrKhl

;=,s;;dj mlaId lrhs' fidais l%uh" .Ks;uh l%uh ^ix.=Kl ieie|Sf l%uh& iy TlaislrK$

TlaisyrK yd wO m%;sl%shd weiqka ilrK ;=,kh lrhs'


ridhksl ilrKhlau.skam%udKd;aul f;dr;=re ,nd.ekSu i|yd th ;=glj,

oelaf'C tl m%;sls%hlhl yd M,hl wvx.= f'H tl m%;sl%shl yd M,hl wvx.= f'O tl m%;sls%hl yd M, foll wvx.= f'

C ;=,kh C5H

10(g) + O

2(g) 5CO

2(g)

+ H

2O

(l)

H ;=,kh C5H

10(g) + O

2(g) 5CO

2(g)

+ 5H

2O

(l)

O ;=,kh C5H

10(g) + 15/2O

2(g) 5CO

2(g)

+ 5H

2O

(l)

15/2 hkak 15 hk mQK ixLHdjg mj;kh lsu i|yd 2 ka.=K l< hq;=

h';=,s; ilrK 2C

5H

10(g) + 15O

2(g) 10CO

2(g)

+ 10H

2O

(l)

.Ks;uh l%uhm%;sls%hl yd M, okakd g ix.=Kl ieief l%uh u.skailrK ;=,khlsrSu .Ks;uh l%uh f,i oelah yel'ksoiqk ( a Cu + b HNO

3 c Cu(NO

3)

2+ d NO + e H

2O

ix.=Kl ieie gCu mrudKq ie,l+ g a = cH mrudKq ie,l+g b = 2e

N mrudKq ie,l+g b = 2c + dO mrudKq ie,l+g 3b = 6c + d + e

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a = 1 k c = 1wdfoaY l< g

b = 2 + d ...... (1)

3b = 6 + d +e .....(2)

b = 2e w.h ms

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(1) 2 + (2) 3

fhda; bf.kq b.eka ls%hdldr ( p- f.dkqj yd d- f.dkqj wdYs%; b.eka ldhhfha yuq jk ilrK

;=,kh i|yd bm;alrkak' isiqkag fidais l%uh" .Ks;uh l%uh yd TlaislrK- TlaisyrK l%uh wdYs%; j

ilrK ;=,kh lsu i|yd lKavdh mejreula fokak'

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ksmqK;d ugu 2'5 ( O tall weiqkam%ldYs; ixhq;s w;r in|;d u;= lrhs'

ld,fo ( 08 hs'

bf.kq M, ( ujq,$mud weiqka m%ldYs; ixhq;sh idkaKh jYfhkaykajhs' ialkaO$mud" ujq,$ialkaO yd ujq,$mud weiqkam%ldYs; ixhq;s w;r in|;d

u;=lrhs' ixhq;sh ialkaO$mud" ujq,$mud yd ujq,$ialkaO weiqka.Kkh lr m%ldY

lrhs'

Ih lreKqmeyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( ixhq;sh m%ldY l< yels O wdldr we;' tajd k

ialkaO Nd.hmud Nd.hujq, Nd.hialkaO$mudujq,$mudujq,$ialkaO

ujq,$mud weiqfrka m%ldYs; ixhq;sh idkaKh f,i ykajkq,ef' b;d l=vd m%udKj,skawvx.=ix>glj, ixhq;shppmfydappbu`.skafndfydag

m%ldY lrkq,ef'ppm } ialkaO Nd.h 106 yd ppb } ialkaO Nd.h 109 f,i oppm } mrsud Nd.h 106 yd ppb } mrsud Nd.h 109f,i bosrsm;a l< yels h'

c,fha >k;ajh } 1000 g dm-3 f'

;kql c,Sh djKhl >k;ajh

1000 g dm-3f,i ie,lsh yelsh' t nekadjK 1 dm3 ialkaOh } 1 kg }1000 g } 1000000 mgt jeks gl ialkaO$mud wkqmd;hla jqj oppm f,i m%ldY l< yels h'ialkaO Nd.hlaf,i1ppm hkq fldgia1000000 mg l fldgia 1 mg wvx.= f hkakhs' t neka;kql djK i|yd

1ppm =1 mg kg -1 = 1 mg dm-3=1 g g -1 = 1 g cm-3

ksoiqk ( djKhl Fe3+ixhq;sh 1'5 ppm f,i m%ldY lr we;' tu ixhq;sh>k fvis grhg ujq,j,skam%ldY lrkak'1'5ppm = 1'5 mg dm-3

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wdfrdamK >k;ajh

wdfrdamK >k;ajh f,i w: oelaf'

ksoiqk (djKhl Fe3+whk idkaKh 1 mol dm-3 f' djKfha +wdfrdamK >k;ajhfidhkak'

+ wdfrdamK >k;ajh

mudj fjkqjg ialkaOh fhdod we;sg

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( ixhq;s fiug wod< .eg lKavdhj,g bosm;alr tajd .Kkh lsu

Wmfoia fokak'

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ksmqK;dj 3'0 ( mod:fha m%Odk wjia:dj, yeis uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 3'1 ( mod:j,g wdfKsl ,dlaIKsl ia;r lsu i|yd mod:fha

m%Odk wjia:d ;=fkys wxY= ieliS we;s wdldrh fhdod .kshs'

ld,fo ( 03 hs'

bf.kq M, ( mod:fha m%Odk wjia:d jk >k" j yd jdhqj, wxY= ieleiau ia;r lrhs' wxY=ieleiau weiqka>k" j yd jdhqj, mudj" >k;ajh" yevh iy imSvH;dj

hk .=K ixikaokh lrhs'


fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( W; ksoiqka weiqfrka mod:fha wika;;sl iajNdjh msk" j yd jdhqj, yevh" mudj" imSvkhg ,lalsf yelshdj

yd idfmalaI >k;aj ms

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ksmqK;dj 3 ( mod:fha m%Odk wjia:dj, yeis uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 3'2 ( ;d;al jdhqj, yeis rgd ia;r lsu i|yd mmQK jdhqms

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mmQK jdhqilrKh weiqfrka wej.dfrda kshuh jHq;amkak lsu'

fuys Nyd Lhkq ms

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ksmqK;d ugu 3'3 ( ;d;a;al jdhqj, yeisrSu ia;r lrkq msKsi jdhq ms

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yhsrcka" yS,sh jeksieye,a jdhqj, uOHkH m%f.h" mDfha fhda.m%f.h blaujd hk neka tajd mD jdhqf.da,fhkabj;a j f.diawe;'

h j.hl wKq fjk;a j.hl wKq wka;.; wjldYhlamqrd jHdma; u

irKh f,i ye|skaf'ksoiqka( .kaOhlskahq;a jHhlaldurhl ;enQ g tu >kaOh ldurh mqrd

tldldr j jHdma; jk f;lairKh u is f'irKh f YS>%;dj - >k < j %;dj,skairKh jk nj mlaIKd;aul j fidhd f.kwe;' wefudakshd iy yhsv%laf,dala wKq jd;h ;=%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl

j. M,h" idkaK wkql%uKh iy WIaK;ajh muKlai|yka lsu m%udKj;ah' jdhqjl uOHk m%f.h WIaK;ajh iu`. p,kh jk wkaou my; uelaiafj,a

fnda,aiaudka jl%j,ska oelaf'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( wKql pd,l ilrKh ykajd oS wKql pd,l jdofha Wml,amk ms

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ksmqK;d ugu 3'4 ( jdhq Y%Khl yeisu .%y lsug fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl

mSvk kshuh Nd; lrhs'

ld,fo ( 02 hs'

bf.kq M, ( wdxYsl mSvkh hkak ykajd" fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh m%ldY lrhs' mmQK jdhqilrKh weiqfrkafvda,agkaf.awdxYsl mSvk kshuh jHq;amkak

lrhs' fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh wdY%s; .eg i|hs'

Ih lreKqmeyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( jdhqY%Khl uq`M mSvkh flfrysix>gl jdhqu`.ska odhl jk m%udKh

tajdfha wdxYsl mSvk f,i ye|skaf' jdhqY%Khl ix>gl jdhqjla Y%Kh wka;.; nfkys;ks j wvx.= lr

;sfnk g we;s lrkq ,nk mSvkh tu ix>gl jdhqf wdxYsl mSvkh f' fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh

jdhqY%Khl uq`M mSvkh tla tla ix>gl jdhqf wdxYsl mSvkj, tl;=jgiudk f'

A, Byd Cjdhq wka;.; Y%Khl oS tlatla jdhqf wdxYsl mSvk ms

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=

= +

= +

total A B

total A B

total A B

n n n

P V P V P V

RT RT RT

P P P

+

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( jdhqf.da,h O jdhQkaf.aY%Khlanj isysm;alr jdhqf.da,Sh mSvkh flfrys

tla tlaix>gl jdhqf odhl;ajh fln o hkak msgl jdhqf wdxYsl mSvk oSwe;sg jdhqY%Kfha

ixhq;sh yd uq`M mSvkh ksKh lsu jdhq Y%Khl uq`M mSvkh yd ixhq;sh oSwe;s g tla tla jdhqf wdxYslmSvk ksKh lsu

jdhq Y%Khl uq`M mSvkh yd wdxYsl mSvk oS we;s g ixhq;sh ksKh

lsu'

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ksmqK;d ugu 3'5 ( ;d;a;al jdhq i|yd fhh yelsjk fia mmQK jdhq

ilrKh i|yd ixfYdaOk fhdackd lrhs'

ld,fo ( 03 hs'

bf.kq M, ( imSvH;d idOlh w: olajd ;d;al yd mmQK jdhq inkaO j tu w.h

p,kh jk wkaou m%ia;dl j bosm;a lrhs' ;d;a;al jdhq" mmQK jdhq yeisfuka wm.ukh ug fya;=pd,l wKql

jdofha Wml,amk Wmqgd olajka ia;r lrhs' ;d;a;al jdhq mmQK yeisfuka olajk wm.uk i|yd ixfYdaOk we;=

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O WIaK;ajhka oS yhsrcka jdhqujq,hla i|yd PV/RTw.hg tos j Pysm%ia;drh

by< WIaK;ajhka ys oS;d;a;al jdhq mmQK yeisug

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ksmqK;dj 4'0 ( tka;e,ams fjkia yd wyUq;df fjkia uYkhlrka ridhksl moaO;sj, ia:dhS;dj yd mhdi is ug

we;syelshdj ms

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wjia:d Y%s;hl is jk fjkia f m%udKh tys wdrNl wjia:dj yd wjidkwjia:dj u; muKlar|hs' fjki is lrkq ,nk ud.fhka iajdh;a; f'

mudj" WIaK;ajh" >k;ajh" j;kdxlh wdosh wjia:d Y%s; i|yd ksoiqka f' ksh; mSvk ;;a;aj hgf;a oS" moaO;shlg imhkq,nk fyda moaO;shlska msg

lrkq ,nk fyda;dm m%udKh tka;e,amsfjki H& jYfhka ye|skaf' fuh;dm .;sl .=Khls' wjia:df Y%s;hls'

m%;sl%shdjlawdY%s; tka;e,ams mhdi ^H&" M,j, yd m%;sl%shlj, tka;e,amsfjkiska ,ef'

H=HM,-Hm%;sl%shl m%;sl%shdjlawdY%s; tka;e,ams mhdih

H< 0 k m%;sl%shdj ;dmodhl f'H> 0 k m%;sl%shdj ;dmjfYdaIl f'

m%;sl%shdj is we;s m%udKh Extent of Reaction- & ms

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we;syelshdj msglj, djK tka;e,ams mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lr jd;d lrhs' w,j, yd Niauj, WodiskSlrK tka;e,amsmlaIKd;aul j ksKh lr

jd;d lrhs' m%;sia:dmk m%;sl%shdjl tka;e,amsmhdi mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lr jd;d

lrhs' fyia kshufha j,x.=;dj iqiqm%dfhda.sl mlaIKhla weiqfrka mlaId lr

jd;d lrhs'


iu; W;amdok tka;e,amsh ^ &

iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a we;s ixfhda. ujq, tlla iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a we;stysix>gl uQ,jHj,skaW;amdokh lsf oSis jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'ksoiqka ( H

2O(l)ys W;amdokfha iu; tka;e,amsh -286 kJ mol-1f'

th fufia oelah yel'

iu; oyk tka;e,amsh ^

CH

&

iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a oS uQ,jHhl fyda ixfhda.hl fyda ujq,hla jeuk;aTlaiscka ;=< uq`Mukska u oykh lsf oS isjk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'

iu; nkaOk >gk tka;e,amsh ^DH

&

iu; ;;a;aj hgf;aoSjdhquh m%fNaohl nkaOk ujq,hla| jdhquh ;;a;ajfhaix>gl njg m;alsf oSis jk tka;e,amsmhdih hs' ^fuh fYaIs; lk wjia:dfwe;swhksl ixfhda.hl ujq, tllaiEoSf oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'

+ - -1Na (g) + Cl (g) NaCl(s) = -780 kJ molLH

fndaka - ydn pl%h

whksl ixfhda.hl W;amdok tka;e,amsh fiu i|yd f.dvk`.k ;dm ridhkslpl%h fndaka - ydn pl%h f,i ykajhs'

>k NaClW;amdokh i|yd fndaka-ydn pl%h

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( wod< tka;e,amsmhdi w: olajkak' O whksl ixfhda. isiq lKavdhj,g mjrd tajdfhaW;amdok tka;e,ams

fiug wod< tka;e,ams w.hka imhkak' fndaka- ydn pl%h weiqfrkamjrk ,o whksl ixfhda.fhaW;amdok tka;e,amsh

.Kkh lsug isiqkag mjrkak'

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we;syelshdj ms

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fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( m%;sl%shdjl iajhxisoaO;dj fydaoSwe;s;;a;ajhlahgf;ath is fkdu ;SrKh

flfrk idOlh tka;e,amsfjki muKla fkdjk nj fmkah yelsWodyrKimhkak'

ksoiqka (m%;sl%shdjl H > 0g oS bf is jk wjia:dm%;sl%shdjl H < 0g oS bf is fkdjk wjia:d

l%shdjla u$fkdu tawdY%s; moaO;sfhyswyUq;d fjkiau u; o r|d mj;akdnj m%ldY lrkak'

wyUq;dj iy th m%udKd;aul j oelaug Nd; lrk 'tkafg%dmsh'.=Kd;aulj meyeos,slrkak'

H > 0 kuq;a iajhxisoaO j is jk ridhksl m%;sl%shd i|yd ksoiqka olajdwyUq;dj tys oS je we;s wdldrh fmkajkak'

uQ,jHj, iy ixfhda.j, wyUq;dj m%udKd;aul j ksKh lr j.=.; lr

we;s nj fmkajkak' S, H yd G w.hka imhd oS" we;s m%;sl%shdjla iajhxisoaOj is f o fkd

f o hk j. ;SrKh lsug isiqka fhduqlrkak'wjYH gl oS G= H- TS ilrKh Nd;hg o fhduq lrkak'

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ksmqK;dj 5'0 ( s,p yd d f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jHj, yd ixfhd a.j,.=K ykd .ekSu i|yd tajd uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 5'1 ( sydpf.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jHj, .=K yd tajdfha p,krgd uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 08 hs'

bf.kq M, ( s iypf.dkqj, uQ,jHj, fN!;sl .=K ia;r lrhs' s iypf.dkqj, uQ,jH" wdj;hla Tiafiaboshg fmkakq lrk m%jK;d

m%ldY lrhs' s iypf.dkqj, uQ,jH" ldKavhla Tiafiamy

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f,dayl wrh f,day oe,sfia we;shd no legdhk kHIa folla w;r we;s ka y wvla

f,dayl wrh f'

kHIal wdfrdamKh iy ksjdrl wdprKh mrudKql wrh flfrys n,mdhs' ldKavhlaosf.a my

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fo jk yd f; jk wdj;j,g wh;a uQ,jHj, m

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ksmqK;d ugu 5'2 ( s,p yd d f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jHj, ridhksl .=KuYkh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 06 hs'

bf.kq M, ( s f.dkqf uQ,jH jd;h" c,h yd ;kql w, iu`. is lrk m%;sl%shd

ikaikaokd;aul j kslaIK lr jd;d lrhs' m

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*afjdka c,fha we;s Tlaiscka ia:dmkh lrhs'

2F2(g) + 2H

2O(l) 4HF(aq) + O

2(g)

il%shk Yla;sh by< neka Cl2c,h iu`. fika m%;sl%shd lrhs'

Cl2(g) + 2H2O(l)

HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)0 (-1) (+1)*afjdka yer wfkl=;a ye,ck c,h iu`. by; i|ykamos oaOdlrKm%;sl%shdjla olajhs'

jd;h iu`. m

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S jd;fha oykh SO2idohs'

S(s)+O2(g) SO

2(g)

w, iu`. s f.dkqf f,day kHIahg ,sys,a j nekq bf,lafg%dak msg lrka Wp

jdhq kHdih iys; ia:dhs legdhk idoka Tlaisydrl f,i l%shd lrhs' m

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ksmqK;d ugu 5'3 ( syd p f.dkqj,g wh;a ixfhda.j, .=K yd tajdfha p,krgd uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 12 hs'

bf.kq M, ( wod< ;dm.;sl o;a; Wmfhda.Slr .kskasf.dkqf ,jKj, c,fhadjH;dj

ixikaokh lrhs' wod< ;dm.;sl o;a; Wmfhda.Slr .kskasf.dkqf khsfgj, ldnfkagj,

yd nhsldnfkagj, ;dmia:dhS;dj ksKh lrhs' s yd p f.dkqj, fya,hsv" Tlaihsv" yhsrhsv yd yhsfrdlaihsvj,wd,sl$Ndial$WNh.=KS iajNdjh wdj; Tiafia boshg yd ldKav Tiafia

my

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by; wjia:d folg wod< .sia Yla;sfjkiau iei|Su u`.ska tajdfha djH;diei|sh yels h' .siaYla;s fjki fuysoS MgSO

4i|yd >K w.hla jk w;r

BaSO4i|yd Ok w.hhla f' ta wkqj .sia Yla;s fjki jvd;a RK jkBaSO4ys djH;dj MgSO4j,g idfmalaIj by< nj ks.ukh l< yel'

ii|kq ,nk .sia Yla;s w.h hq.,u >K w.hka k ixLHd;aul j jvdYd, w.h iys; jHfha djH;dj by< nj ks.ukh l< yel'

ii|kq ,nk .sia Yla;s w.h hq.,u Ok w.hhkak ixLHd;aul j l=vd

Ok w.h iys; jHfhadjH;dj by< nj ks.ukh l< yel'

fok ,o ixfhda. hq.,l ;dm ia:dhS;dj iei|Sf oS o by; l%ufoh u W;f'

by; yd iei|sf oS jvd l=vd Ok w.h iys; ldnfkagh jkMgCO3myiqfjka;dm fhdackhg ,la jk nj mqfrdal:kh l< yel' i;HjYfhka u MgCO3ys fhdack WIaK;ajh 540

0CoS muK jk w;r CaCO3fhdackh jkqfha 900 0CoSmuK h'

s f.dkqf m

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3 jk wdj;fha uQ,jH idok Tlaihsvj, wd,sl$Ndial$WNh.=KSiajNdjh

Na2O MgO Al

2O

3SiO

2P

2O

5SO

2Cl

2O

7

m%n, n, WNh.=KS b;d n, n, wd,sl b;d m%n,

Ndial Ndial wd,sl wd,sl wd,sl

3 jk wdj;fhauQ,jHj, yhsfv%dlaihsvj, wd,sl$Ndial$WNh.=KS iajNdjh

NaOH Mg(OH)2

Al(OH)3

Si(OH)4

P(OH)5

S(OH)6

Cl(OH)7

7 7 7 7

NaOH Mg(OH)2

Al(OH)3

H4SiO

4H

3PO

4H

2SO

4HClO

4

m%n, n, WNh.=KS b;d n, n, m%n, b;d m%n,

Ndial Ndial wd,sl wd,sl wd,sl wd,sl

3 jk wdj;fha yhsv%hsvj, wd,sl$Ndial$WNh.=KS iajNdjh

NaH MgH2

AlH3

SiH4

PH3

H2S HCl

m%n, n, WNh.=KS b;d n, n, wd,sl b;d m%n,

Ndial Ndial wd,sl wd,sl wd,sl

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( s f.dkqf uQ,jH idok ,jKj, djH;d mlaId lsug isiq lKavdhj,g

wjia:dj fokak' s f.dkqf uQ,jH idok khsfg" nhsldnfkag yd ldnfkagj, ;dmia:dhS;dj

mlaId lsug fhduq lrkak' j.=.; l< .siaYla;sw.hhka isiqka g ,nd oS ,jKj, djH;d yd ;dm

ia:dhS;d iei|Sug isiqka fj; mjrkak'

Cl- Br- I- OH- djHh djHh djHh wdjHh wdjHh djHh djHh djHh djHh djHh djHh

djHh djHh djHh wdjHh wdjHh djHh djHh djHh djHh djHh djHh

djHh djHh djHh h; wdjHh djHh djHh djHh djHh h; h;

djHh osh f osh f

djHh djHh djHh h; wdjHh djHh djHh djHh djHh wdjHh wdjHh

djHh

djHh djHh djHh fyd|ska wdjHh djHh djHh djHh djHh osh oshdjHh fkd f fkd f

Be2+

Mg2+

Ca2+

Sr2+

Ba2+

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ksmqK;d ugu 5'4 ( s yd pf.dkqj,g wh;auQ,jHj, yd ixfhda.j, O;ajhykd .ekSu msKsi tajd ms

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Tlaiscka ys nyqrEmS wdldr

Tlaiscka O2

fidakaO

3

i,a*ysnyqrEmS wdldr i,a*j, nyqrEmSwdldr iaMlrEmS iy wiaMlrEmS hkqfjka m%Odk wdldr

folls' ish u iaMlrEmS i,a* S

8wKqj,ska iuka; f'

iaMlrEmS i,a*

frdniSh i,a* taldk;s i,a*kso fmfkk ly meye;s iaMl f' Uqre meye;s b|slgq jeks iaMl f'

Tm= 113 0C T

m= 119 0C

wiaMlrEmS i,a*

iqldh i,a* yd l,s, i,a* f i|yd ksoiqka h' i,a*j, Tlaisw,

OO

O

HO O

OH

S

HO O

OH

S

O

S OH

OH

H2SO4 H2SO3 H2S2O3

S

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H

yhsrcka fmfrdlaihs (H2O

2)

H2O

2Tlaisydrhla f,i

H2O

2Tlaisldrhla f,i

i,a* vfhdlaihs^SO2&&&&&

wjK jdhqjls' jd;hg jvd >k;ajhlska hqla; jk w;r lgql .kaOhla we;'c,fha fyd|ska osh f'

SO2c,fha osh i,amshqla^IV& w,h idohs' th n, w,hls'

SO2(g) + H

2O(l) H

2SO

3(aq)

SO2Tlaisldrlhla f,i

2Mg(s) + SO2(g) 2MgO(s) + S(s)

3Mg(s) + SO2(g) 2MgO(s) + MgS(s)

SO2Tlaisydrlhla f,i

SO2(g) + 2H2O (l) 4H+

(aq)

+2-

4SO (aq)

+2e(i) H+/KMnO

4iu`.

5SO2(g) + 2H

2O(l) + 2KMnO

4(aq)K

2SO

4(aq)+2MnSO

4(aq)+2H

2SO

4(aq)

(ii) H+/K2Cr

2O

7iu`.

K2Cr

2O

7(aq) + H

2SO

4(aq) + 3SO

2(g)K

2SO

4(aq)

+ Cr

2(SO

4)

3(aq)

+ H

2O(l)

(iii) FeCl3(aq)

iu`.

FeCl3(aq)

+ SO

2(g)+ 2H

2O(l)H

2SO

4(aq) + FeCl

2(aq) +2HCl(aq)

H

O

1040O O1110

H

H

H2O

2H

2O

980

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(iv) ye,ck iu`.SO

2(g)+Cl

2(g)+2H

2O(l)H

2SO

4(aq) + 2HCl(aq)

(v) H2O

2iu`.

H2O

2(aq)

+ SO

2(g)H

2SO

4(aq)

rxck ldrlhla f,iSO

2(g)

+2H

2O(l)H

2SO

4(aq)+2H+(aq) + 2e

X + 2H+ + 2e XH2

jKj;a wjK ixfhda.h

idhu

yhsrcka i,a*hs (H2S)

wjK jdhqjla jk w;r" c,fha uo jYfhka osh f' l=Kq;a;r .kaOhlawe;'

H2S c,Sh djKhla ;rulawd,sl f'H

2S(aq) H+(aq) + HS-(aq)

HS

-

(aq) H

+

(aq) + S

2-

(aq) wd,sl iajNdjh i|yd idlaIH

(i) fidah iu`. m%;sl%shdj

jemqr2H2S(g) + 2Na(s)2NaHS(s) +H

2(g)

2Na(s) + H2S(g)Na

2S(s) +H

2(g)

(ii) fidah yhsfv%dlaihs iu`. m%;sl%shdj

jemqr2NaOH(aq) + H2S(g)Na

2S(s) +2H

2O(l)

jemqr H2S(g) + NaOH(aq)NaHS(s) +H

2O(l)

H2S fndfydaf,day whk iu`. m%;sl%shd lr i,a*hsv ,nd foa' fuh f,day whk

ykd .ekSf mlaIdjla f,i fhdod .efka'

Pb2+(aq) + H2S(g)PbS(s) +2H+(aq)

Cu2+(aq) + H2S(g)CuS(s) +2H+(aq)

H2S Tlaisydrlhla f,i

(i) 2KMnO4(aq)+3H

2SO

4(aq)+5H

2S(g)K

2SO

4(aq)+5S(s)+2MnSO

4(aq)+8H

2O(l)

(ii) K2Cr

2O

7(aq)+4H

2SO

4(aq)+3H

2S(g)K

2SO

4(aq)+Cr

2(SO

4)

3(aq)+3S(s)+7H

2O(l)

(iii) 2 (aq) + 12H+(aq) + 2H2S(g)2S(s) +2As3+(aq) + 8H

2O(l)

g wu;rj c,ShS2-whk iu`. As3+m%;sl%shd wjlafIamhla idohs'

2As3+(aq) +3S2-(aq)As2S3(s) H

2S Tlaisldrlhla f,i

Cu(s)+H2S(g) CuS(s)+H

2(g)

SO2yd H

2Sjdhq fjkalr y|qkd .ekSu

^1& c,Sh H+/K2Cr

2O

7;=

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^3& c,Sh H+/KMnO4;=

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77

Wpjdhq iy tajdfha ixfhda.

HeNeArKrXeRn - lsrKYS,S h

;dmdxl b;d wvq h' ldKavh Tiafia my< u mrudKql l%udxlh jej;a u ;dmdxlh jef' mrudKql wrh jej;au O%elrKh f yelshdj jef'

oHq;a RK;dj je uQ,jH iu`. Xe ixfhda. idok nj 1962 oSmuK jkg fidhd f.k ;sf'

ksoiqka( XeF2, XeF

4, XeF

6, XeO

3

14 yd 15 ldKavj, laf,darhsvj, c,fokhCCl

4c, fokh fkdf'

SiCl4(l)+2H

2O(l)4HCl

(aq)+SiO

2(s)

SiCl4(l)+4H

2O(l)4HCl

(aq)+Si(OH)

4(aq)

NCl3(g)+3H

2O(l)NH

3(aq)+3HOCl(aq)

PCl3(g)+3H

2O(l)H

3PO

3(aq)+3HCl(aq)

PCl5(g)+H

2O(l)POCl

3(aq)+2HCl(aq)

PCl5(g)+4H

2O(l)H

3PO

4(aq)+5HCl(aq)

AsCl3(aq)+3H

2O(l)H

3AsO

3(aq)+3HCl(aq)

SbCl3(aq)+H

2O(l)SbO+(aq)+3Cl-(aq)+2H+(aq)

BiCl3(aq)+H2O(l)

BiO+

(aq)+3Cl-

(aq)+2H+

(aq)

c,Sh udOHfhaoSyhsv%cka fya,hsvj, wd,sl;djh

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laf,dakays oaOdlrKh

^i& ;kql NaOHiu`.Cl

2(g) +2NaOH(aq)NaCl(aq) + NaOCl(aq) + H

2O(l)

(0) (-1) (+1)^ii& idka NaOHiu`.

Cl2(g) +6NaOH(aq) 5NaCl(aq) + NaClO

3(aq) + 3H

2O(l)

(0) (-1) (+v)

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( fmd*riaj, Tlais w,j, jHQy we| tajd k lsug isiqkag u`. fmkajhs' yhsrcka f*frdlaihs" i,a* vfhdlaihs yd yhsrcka i,a*hs"

Tlaisydrlhla iy Tlaisldrlhla f,i l%shd lrk m%;sl%shd i|yd WodyrKimhkak'

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ksmqK;dj 5'0 ( s, p yddf.dkqj, uQ,jHj, yd ixfhda.j, .=K ykd.ekSug tajd uYkh lr n,hs'

ksmqK;d ugu 5'5 ( df.dkqf uQ,jHj, .=K wdj;hla Tiafia p,kh jkwkaou ykd .ekSu i|yd tajdfha .=K uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 05 hs'

bf.kq M, ( f; jk wdj;fha msys d f.dkqf uQ,jH fmkajk p,H TlaislrK

wjia:d i|yka lrka p,H TlaislrK wjia:d mej;Sf .=Kh s yd pf.dkqj, uQ,jH iu`. ii|hs'

f; jk wdj;hg wh;ad f.dkqf uQ,jHj, oHq;aRK;dj" m%:u whkSlrKYla;sh yd whksl wrh wdj; Tiafia bhg p,kh jk rgdj syd pf.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jH iu`. ii|hs'

W; WodyrK bm;alrka d f.dkqf uQ,jH yd ixfhda.j, W;afm%arlf,i lghq;= lsf yelshdj yd jKj;a ixfhda. iEf .=Kh ia;r lrhs'


Hisg Csolajd uQ,jHj, m

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80

uQ,jH

mrudKql

wrh/nm

jdxlh/0C

;dmdxlh/0C

>k;ajh/gcm

whkslwrh/nm

s-f.dkqfuQ,jH

wka;l

uQ,jH

K

isgZ

nolajduQ,jHj,fN!;sl.=K

f,dayl^mrudKql&w

rh/nm

oHq;aR

K;dj

mgl uQ,jHh f,i wka;.; iajdNdl yd lD;%su ixfhda.

Yd, ixLHdjla mj;sk nj m%ldY lrhs' wod< lreKq f.k yer olajka Yd, ixfhda. ixLHdjla iEoSug ldnka i;=

yelshdj ia;r lrhs' O lafIa;%j,ska ksoiqka f.k yer olajka ffoksl ;fha oS ldnksl

ridhkh jeo.;a jk wkaou fmkajd fohs'


ldnksl ixfhda. rdYshla we;s ug odhl jk ldnkai;= .=Kdx. lsysmhlamy; oelaf'

ldnka mrudKq folla w;r m%n, tal nkaOk" oa;aj nkaOk yd ;%s;aj nkaOkiEosh yelsh' ldnka wh;ay;r jk ldKavfha mj;sk is,slkaj,g idfmalaIjldnkaidok C - C, C = C,CCyd C - HnkaOk" jvd by< nkaOk Yla;Skaf.kahqla; jk nj kslaIKh lr we;' wod< f;dr;=re my; j.=f oelaf'

ldnka mrudKqjlg iyixhqc nkaOk y;rla iEosh yels h' f wkqj fmkShkafka ldnka oduhlg O ldKav rdYshla inkaO h yels nj;a" Yd,O;ajhlskahq;=ixfhda. mej;Sug tu .=Kh odhl jk nj;a h'

ldnksl ixfhda. Yd, ixLHdjla mej;Sug odhl jk ;j;a fya;=jlajkafkaldur WIaK;ajfha oS yd idudkH jdhq f.da,Sh ;;a;aj yuqf tajd olajkia:dhS;dj hs' ldnksl ixfhda. Tlaiscka iu`. is lrk m%;sl%shd Yd,jYfhka;dmodhl f'

nkaOkh

C - C 346C = C 610C

C 835C - H 413Si - Si 226Si - H 318

nkaOk Yla;sh

$kJ mol-1

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C3H

8(g) + 5O

2(g) 3CO

2(g) + 4H

2O(l)

ta wkqj ldnksl ixfhda. ;dm.;sl j wia:dhS f' kuq;a ldnksl ixfhda.Tlaiscka iu`. is lrk m%;sl%shd wdY%s; il%shk Yla;s w.hhkaYd, f' t

neka ldnksl ixfhda. pd,l ridhksl j ia:dhS jk w;r Yd, ixLHdjlaiajNdl j mj;S'


bkaOk" T!IO" ;Ska;" ma,diala" frosms

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95

ksmqK;dj 6'0 ( ldnksl ixfhda.j, O;ajh uid n,hs'

ksmqK;d ugu 6'2 ( l%shdld ldKav weiqfrka ldnksl ixfhda.j, O;ajhuYkh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 04 hs'

bf.kq M, ( Ih ksfoaYhg we;=

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96

ldfndlais,sla w, CH3COOH

Ethanoic acid

Carboxylic acid

w, laf,darhsv CH3COCl Ethanoyl chloride

Acid chloride

tiagr CH3COOCH

3Methyl ethanoate

Ester

weuhsk CH3CH

2NH

2Ethylamine

Amine

weuhsv CH3CONH2 Ethanamide Amide

weuhsfkda w, CH3CHNH

2COOH

2-Aminopropanoic acid

we,als,a fya,hsv* CH3CH

2Cl Chloroethane

* IUPAC kdulrKfha oS ye,ck ldKavh l%shdldrS ldKavhla f,i fkd ie,fla'


O l%shdld ldKav wvx.=ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQy iQ;% isiqkag bm;a lr tajdykd .ekSug fhduq lrkak'

ridhksl ixfhda. ,ehsia;=jlaisiqlKavdhj,g oStajd w;=ka tlaioDY fY%aKshlgwh;a jk ixfhda. f;dard j.= .; lsug yd wod< ioDY fY%aKs f.dv kexug

wjia:dj ,nd fokak'

O

OHC

O

ClC

O R

OC

NH2

ONH

2

C

C NH2

COOH

x

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ksmqK;dj 6'0 ( ldnksl ixfhda.j, O;ajh uid n,hs'

ksmqK;d ugu 6'3 ( uYk myiq lrkq msKsi we,s*el ldnksl ixfhda.kdulrKh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 07 hs'

bf.kq M, ( iq,n ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHjydl k iy iu; kdulrKhl wjYH;dj

m%ldY lrhs' IUPACkS;s fhdod .kskaIh ksfoaYfha i|ykajHQyuh iSudjg we;=

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ldKavh m%Odk l%shdld wdfoaY ldKavh ldKavh jYfhka ku jYfhka ku

- Thsla w,h

oic acid - Tta

oate

- weuhs

amide ihfkd

cyano - we,a f*dauhs,a

al formyl

ka Tlafidone oxo

- ,a yhsfrdlais

ol hydroxy

- weuhska weuhsfkd

amine amino----------------------------------------------------------------------------

whska whska

yne yne

Bka Bkaene ene- fyaf,da

halo

-NO2

- khsfrd

nitro

1 j.=j - l%shdld ldKavj, m%uqL;dj wvqfjk ms

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ldnka mrudKq kdu uQ,h wkqrEm yhsfrdldnkfha.Kk ku

1 meth Methane2 eth Ethane

3 prop Propane

4 but Butane

5 pent Pentane

6 hex Hexane

m%Odk odufha mj;sk ldnka mrudKq ixLHdj wkqj ixfhda.fha

kug fhfok kdu uQ,h yd wkqrEm yhsffrdldnkfha ku

IUPACkdulrKhg wkql+, j ixfhda.fha jHQy iQ;%h we|Su'

IUPACkdulrKhg wkql+, j ixfhda.hl jHQy iQ;%h we|Su my; oelafjkmshjrj,a wkq.ukh lsfukal< yels f'

1. iels,a, ykdf.k tu kduh wkqj iels,a, we|Su

2. iels,a, wxlkh lsu

3. oS we;s IUPACku wkqj m%Odk l%shdld ldKavh yd wjfYaI ldKavykdf.k tu ldKavj, kug fmr ;sfnk wxlh wkqj tu ldKav iels,af,a

ksjeros ia:dkj,g inkaO lsu'

4. ieu ldnka mrudKqjl u ixhqc;dj y;r jk mos yhsrcka mrudKq

iels,af,a jHQyhg fhoSu'


Ih ksfoaYfhai|yka iSudjkag hg;aj ixfhda. lsysmhl jHQy tajd IUPACl%uhg k lsug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

Ih ksfoaYfha i|ykaiSudjkag hg;a j h ixfhda.hl IUPACkduh ka g thgwod< jHQyh ,sug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

Wla; mejre lKavdh ls%hdldrl f,i bm;a lrkak'

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ksmqK;dj 6 ( ldnksl ixfhda.j, O;ajh uid n,hs'

ksmqK;d ugu 6'4 ( tl u wKql iQ;%h iys; wKqj, mrudKq ilia meje;sh yelsO wdldr uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 05 hs'

bf.kq M, ( fok ,o wKql iQ;%hlai|yd mej;sh yels ish u jHQy iQ;% w|shs' fok ,o wKql iQ;%hlai|yd w|sk ,o ish u jHQy iQ;%" jHQy iudjhl yd

;%sudk iudjhl f,i j. lrhs' fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd mej;sh yels iudhl w;=kafYaIs; lk;ajh ksidbf,lafg%d*hs, wdlIKh f' bf,lafg%d*hs,h iu`. wka;l%shd lsfukamiq ldfndlegdhkhlaiEfoa' fuhska fnkaiSkaj,fha bf,lafg%dak W!k;djlawe;s f' pl%Sh j ia:dk.; jQ bf,lafg%dak j,dj ,nd .ekSug we;s m%jK;djksid H+bj;a wdfoaY m%;sl%shdjla is f'

fnkaiSkaj, bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd(

khsfrdalrKh -id'HNO

3iy id' H

2SO

4j,skaieoskhsfrdalrK Y%Kh yuqf oSfnkaiSkaj,g

khsfrda ldKavhla wdfoaY khsfrdafnkaiSka ksmo f'

fnkaiSkaj,g wod< hka;%K ,sf oS im%hqla; jHqy foflkatlla f.khka;%K ,sug fhdod .efka'

NO2id'HNO

3/ id' H

2SO

4

50 0C

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jryka ;=< we;sim%hqla; jHqy ;=< we;s jl% B;, rys; j ksrEmKh lsugfhduq lrkak' ^B;, Nd; jkafka tlaim%hqla; jHQhlska wfkl ,efnkwdldrh wjfndaO lr .ekSug muKS'&

*S%,a l%d*a we,als,alrKhksc,Sh AlCl

3jeks iaw,hla yuqf oS fnkaiSka" we,als,a fya,hsv iu.

m%;sl%shdf' fuys oS thg we,als,aldKavhla wdfoaaY f'

ye,ckSlrKh

ye,ck jdylhlawe;s g fnkaiSkaye,ck iu. ^Cl2fyda Br

2& m%;sl%shd

lsfuka fnkaiSka j,hg ye,ck ldKavhla wdfoaY f' fuys oS ye,ckjdylh u.ska ye,ck wKqj O%elrKh lrk neka ye,ck wKqjg

bf,lafg%d*hs,hla f,ig l%shd l< yelsf'

R

ksc,Sh'AlCl3/R-Cl

ksc, Shk sc, Shk sc, Shk sc, Shk sc, Sh

Br

ksc,ShFeBr3/Br2

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TlaislrKh

+4H /KMnO

jeks idudkH Tlaisldrl u.skafnkaiSkaTlaislrKh fkdf'

tfia jqj;a fnkaiSka j,hg we,als,a ldKavhla wdfoaYs; fnkaiSka ixfhda.

+4H /KMnO

u.ska TlaislrKh fnkafidhslaw,h idohs' ^fuu l%shdjg

K2Cr

2O

7Nd;d l< yel'

m%d:l iy oa;shsl we,alhs,aldKav TlaislrKh jk ;;a;aj hgf;a;D;shslwe,alhs,a ldKav TlaislrKh fkdf'by< m%;sl%shd ;;a;aj hgf;a ;D;shsl we,alhs,a ldKav TlaislrKh fnkafidhsla w,h muKlafkdj fjk;a ydhk M, ,nd osh yel'bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdl,k m%;sl%shd

we,alSk myiqfjka bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdl,k m%;sl%shdj,g Ndckh jQj;a"

fnkaiSkaj,fhaiqfYaISia:dhs;dj fya;=fjkabf,lafg%d*s,sl wdl,k m%;sl%shd

flfrys t;r keUqre;djla fkdolajhs' kuq;a fks ksl,aW;afma%rlh yuqf150 0C ys muK fnkaiSka yhsv%cka jdhqj iu. m%;sls%hd lr ihslaf,dafylafiaka idohs'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( fnkaiSkaj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sls%hd fln f oehs fya;= iys;j m%ldY lsug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

isiqka lKavdh ;=klg fnod my; i|ykatlahka;%Khla ms

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ksmqK;dj 7'0 ( yhsfv%dldnkj, jHqyh yd .=K w;r inkaO;d uYkhlrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 7'5 ( tal wdfoaYs; fnkaiSkaj, wdfoaYs; ldKavfha osYdNsuqLlsrSf yelshdj Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 02 hs'

bf.kq M, ( tal wdfoaYs; fnkaiSkaj, wdfoaYs; ldKav f;d" merd fyda fugd YdNsuqL

ldKav f,i ykd .kshs' tal wdfoaYs; fnkaiSkaj,g fojk wdfoaYs; ldKavhla inkaO jk ia:dkh

m

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Wod (


mka;sfha isiqka lKavdh follg fnokak'

wdfoaY ldKav ,ehsia;=jlaoStla lKavdhulg f;da" merd fhduqldrl ldKavj,g;a"wfkla lKavdhugfugd fhduqldrl ldKavj,g;a iqfYaIS jQ ,CIK u;= lr.ekSug fhduq lrkak'

NO2

CH3Cl $ ksc,Sh AlCl

3

NO2

CH3

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ksmqK;dj 8'0 ( we,als,afya,hsvj, jHQyh yd .=K w;r inkaO;d uYkhlrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 8'1 ( we,als,a fya,hsvj, jHQyh" C - XnkaOkfha O%eh iajNdjhiy m%;sls%hd uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 11 hs'bf.kq M, ( we,als,afya,hsv" m%d:l" oa;Shsl yd ;D;Shsl f,i j.

lrhs' ksoiqka olajka C - X nkaOkfha O%eh iajNdjh iu.

we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hdflfrys olajk keUqre;dj inkaO lr olajhs'

we,als,afya,hsv kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd is lrk;;a;aj hgf;a oS laf,dafrdfnkaiSka yd sks,a laf,darhstu m%;sl%shd fkd oelaug fya;= meyeos,s lrhs'

.S%kd m%;sldrlh ms

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kEu kshqla,sfhd*hs,hlg Niauhla f,i o l%shd l< yels h' t neka

wd,sl yhsrcka mrudKqjla bj;a lrka we,als,a fya,hsvh bj;a f

m%;sl%shdjlg ,lalsf yelshdjlao mj;shs' ye,ckamrudKqj inkaO ldnka

u; msys yhsrcka mrudKq wd,sl nkaje jqj;a tajd bj;a fuka ia:dhS

M,hla,nd fkd foa' t neka hdno ldnka mrudKqu; msys u| jYfhkawd,sl yhsrcka mrudKq bj;af m%;sl%shd i|yd iyNd.s f'

laf,dafrdfnkaiSka yd ks,a laf,darhs" we,als,a fya,hsv kshqla,fhd*s,sl

wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj,g iyNd.s jk ;;a;aj hgf;a tu m%;sl%shd is fkd lrhs' ta

i|yd fya;= f,i fuu ixfhda.j, oS C - XnkaOkh oa;aj nkaOk iajrEmhla

we;slr .ekSu;a" ldnkamrudKqj sp2

uqyqlrK wjia:df mj;sk nekankaOk os. wvqu;a i|yka lrkak'

we,als,afya,hsv h,sB; udOHfha Mg iu`. m%;sl%shd lr .S%skd m%;sldrlh

idohs' RX + Mg RMgX

RMgXj, nkaOk O%elrKh fya;=fjka ue.akSish yd nekq ldnkam%n,

kshqla,sfhd*hs,hla f,i yd b;d m%n, Niauhla f,i l%shdlrhs' tneka

c,h u`.ska fm%dfgdak odhl lr we,aflak iEoSu je

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ksmqK;dj 8'0 ( we,als,afya,hsvj, jHQyh yd .=K w;r inkaO;d uYkhlrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 8'2 ( nkaOk we;su yd nkaOk u is jk ld,dka;rh weiqfrka

we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hdYaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 04 hs'

bf.kq M, ( nkaOk u yd iEoSu tla jr is jk ;ks mshjr m%;sls%hdjlaf,i we,als,a

fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hdj ia;r lrhs' nkaOkh fuka wk;=re j kj nkaOkh iEoSu mshjr follska is jk

m%;sls%hdjlaf,i we,als,afya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhda*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hdj ia;rlrhs'

;ks mshjrlska fyda mshjr follska is u flfrys we,als,a fya,hsvfhaiajNdjh n,mdk wkaou ia;r lrhs'


we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd meyeos,s lsug nkaOk|Sf yd nkaOk ieoSf mshjr i|yd .;jk ld,dka;rh ie,ls,a,g .;yelsh'

nkaOkh |Su yd kj nkaOkh iEoSu tl jr is jk fgl we,als,afya,hsvj,

kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj ;ksmshjr m%;sl%shdjlaf,i i,lkq ,ef' f wkqj ;ksmshjr m%;sl%shdj my; wdldrhg bosm;a l< yelsh'

nkaOkh |Sfuka wk;=re j kj nkaOkh iEoSu is jk fgl we,als,a

fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj mshjr follskais jk m%;sl%shdjlaf,i i,lkq ,ef'

f wkqj mshjr folska isjk m%;sl%shdj my; wdldrhg bosm;a l< yels h'

1 mshjr

OH-

OH

Br Br-

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2 mshjr

mshjr follskais jk m%;sl%shdj w;rueosldfndlegdhkhla yryd is f' fuysoS we;s jk ldfndlegdhkfha ia:dhS;dj ie,lSf oS" jvd;a ia:dhS ;D;Sshslldfndlegdhkhla iEoSug yelshdj we;s;D;Shsl we,als,a fya,hsv mshjr follskakshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY is lrhs' m%d:l we,als,a fya,hsv ia:dhS w;rueosldfndlegdhkhlaiEoSug wiu;a neka kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaYh ;ksmshjram%;sl%shdjla f,i is lrhs'

oa;shl we,als,afya,hsv l=uk ms

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ksmqK;dj 9 ( Tlaisckawvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQyh yd .=K w;rinkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 9'1 ( we,afldfyd,j, jHQyh" tys ldnka-TlaisckankaOkfhaO%eh iajNdjh" Tlaiscka-yhsrcka nkaOkfhaO%eh

iajNdjh iy m%;sl%shd uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 08 hs'

bf.kq M, ( we,afldfyd, m%d:l" oa;Sshsl yd ;D;Sshsl we,afldfyd, f,i j.SlrKh

lrhs' oHq;aRK;d fjki inkaO lr .kskawe,afldfyd,j, O - H nkaOkfha

O%eh iajNdjh ia;r lrhs' we,afldfyd,j, we;swka;-wKql n, iu`. tajdfhafN!;sl .=K inkaO

lrhs' we,afldfyd,j, O - H nkaOkh u" C - O nkaOkh u" bj;au iy

TlaislrK m%;sls%hd jHQyh iu`. inkaO lr olajhs' we,afldfyd,j, .=K mlaId lr jd;d lrhs'

Ih lreKqmeyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( fudfkdyhsl we,afldfyd," m%d:l" oa;Sshsl yd ;D;Sshsl jYfhkawdldr

;=klg j.SlrKh l< yels h' ^we,als,a fya,hsvj, oS fuks&

fN!;sl .=K

we,afldfyd,j, -OH nkaOkh -R - O -H + f,i O%elrKh f' tawkqj

we,afldfyd, wKqw;r we;sjk wka;- wKql yhsrckankaOk ksid tajdfha;dmdxl wkqrEm idfmaCI wKql ialkaOh iys; we,aflak yd B;rj,g idfmaCIj by< w.hka .kshs' we,afldfyd, fYa%Ksfha my

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we,afldfyd, c,fhadjH f' O%eh djlhlajk c,fhyswe,afldfyd,j,jH;djg bjy,a jkafka -OHldKavh hs' we,afldfyd, wKqf ksO%ehwe,als,a lKavh c,fha jH;djg ndOdjls' we,afldfyd, ioDY fYa%Ksfhamy

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(ii) we,als,afya,hsv iu`. m%;sls%hdj kso -

R-OH R-Br + H2O

we,afldfyd, HBr iu`. m%;sls%hd lr wkqrEm we,als,afn%dauhsvh ,nd fohs'

HBrj,ska ,efnk Br-whkh fuys kshqla,sfhda*s,sl m%;sldrlh hs'

R-OH R-I + H2O

^iii& ZnCl2yd idka HCl w,h iu. m%;sls%hdj ^lia mCIdj&

fuys oS ZnCl2W;afm%arlhlaf,i l%shd lrhs' M,h f,i ,efnk we,als,a

fya,hsvh ksid m%;sl%shd udOHfha wd,;djla we;sf' wd,;dj we;sug

.; jk ld,h weiqfrka m%d:l" oa;Shsl yd ;D;Shsl we,als,a fya,hsvliam%;sldrlh iu`. is lrk m%;sl%shdf YS>%;dj iei|sh yels h'c,fha djH m%d:l" oa;Shsl yd ;D;Shsl we,afldfyd,j,g muKla fuumlaIdj iSud f'

lia m%;sldrh iu. we,afldfyd,j, m%;sl%shd YSs>%;dj my; oelaf'

;D;Sshsl oa;Shsl m%d:lwe,afldfyd, we,afldfyd, we,afldfyd,

imhk ,o ;;a;aj hgf;aby; m%;sl%shdj is jkafka mshjr follsks' tys oS;D;Shsl we,afldfyd,h jvd;a ia:dhS w;rueoshla idok neka ;D;Shslwe,afldy,h liam%;sldrlh yuqf b;d u fl ld,hl oS wd,;djlawe;slrhs' we,afldfyd, idka H

2SO

4w,h iu`. bj;af m%;sls%hdj;g Ndck

f' ^we,afldfyd, c,kh&we,afldfyd,hlska c, wKqjla bj;a f m%;s%ls%hdj we,afldfyd,j,

c,kh hs' fuysoSm%;sls%hdf M,h f,i we,alSkhla ,ef'

we,afldfyd, we,alSk

HI

> >

HBr

ksc,Sh ZnCl2/

idka HClR - C - OH + R - C - Cl + H

2O

R/

R//

R/

R//

ksc,Sh Al2O

3$

fydaidka H2SO

4$

C C C C

H OH

=

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we,afldfyd, TlaislrKTlaislrKfhka ,efnk M,h we,afldfyd,fha m%d:l fyda oa;Sshsl fyda;D;Sshsl fyda iajNdjh u; r|d mj;S'

i)m%d:l we,afldfyd,

ii)oa;Shsl we,afldfyd,

m%d:l yd oa;Sshsl we,afldfyd, TlaislrKh jk ;;a;aj yuqf idudkHfhka;D;Sshsl we,afldfyd, TlaislrKh fkd f' thg fya;=j jkqfha ;D;Shslwe,afldfyd,j, Tlaiscka inkaO ldnka u; yhsrckafkdue;s ksidldnka-ldnka nkaOkh |sh hq;=u hs'

we,afldfyd, TlaislrKh H+/KMnO4fyda H+/K

2Cr

2O

7 fyda H+/CrO

3fyda

iu`. islrkq,ef' we,ayhsv jvd;a myiqfjkaby; m%;sldrl yuqf;jrg;a TlaislrKh f' t nekatu m%;sldrl fhdod we,ayhsv ,nd.ekSu myiq ke;' we,ayhsv ,nd .ekSug wjYH fgl ta i|yd mskshlaf,dafrdfl%daf [C

5

H5

NH+CrO3

Cl- ]fhdod .; yels h'

m%d:l we,afldfyd, msksh laf,dafrdfl%daf yuqf TlaislrKhlsf M,h f,i wkqrEm we,ayhsvh ,ef' tys oS th ;j rg;aldfndlais,sla w,h olajd TlaislrKh fkd f'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( C

4H

9OH wKql iQ;%hg ,sh yels ish u we,afldfyd,j, jHQy bm;a lr

tajd m%d:l" oa;Sshsl yd ;D;Sshsl we,afldfyd, f,i j.SlrKh lsugisiqkag Wmfoia fokak'

we,afldfyd,j, mj;akd wka;-wKql wdlIKj, iajNdjh ykdf.k tawkqj ys jk fN!;sl .=K ms

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ksmqK;dj 9 ( Tlaisckawvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQyh yd .=K w;rinkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 9'2 ( ldnka-Tlaiscka nkaOkh yd Tlaiscka-yhsrckankaOkh weiqfrka *Sfkda,aj, .=K yd m%;sl%shdj,

iajNdjh msgkh f'

ROH + H2O F RO-+ H

3O+

C6H

5OH + H

2O F C

6H

5O-+ H

3O+

*Sfkda, we,afldfyd,j,g idfmalaI j wd,sl nka je h' bka woyiajkafkaby; olajd we;s *Sfkda,ays iu;=,s; ,laIHh jvd;a ol=Kq mig nr jmsysgk nj hs' fuhg fya;=j jkafka *Sfkda,aj,g idfmalaI j *Sfkdlaiaihswhkfha ia:dhS;dj" we,afldfyd,hg idfmalaI j we,afldlaihs whkfhaia:dhS;djg jvd je u hs' *Sfkdlaihs whkh jvd;a ia:dhS jkqfha tys we;sRK wdfrdamKh im%hqla;;dj u`.ska iqrejd yeu fya;=fjks' t jekswdfrdamK iqrejd yeula we,afldlaihs whkfhais fkd f'

*Sfkda,aj, by< wd,sl;dj my; ksoiqkau`.skao ;yjqre f' we,afldfyd,hlafidah iu. m%;sl%shd l

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my; mCIKj,g isiqkafhduq lrjkak' *Sfkda,a iaj,amh ne.skamCId k

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128

ksmqK;dj 9 ( Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQyh yd .=K w;rinkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 9'3 ( *Sfkda,aj, -OHldKavh Bg inkaO fnkaiSka j,fhysm%;sl%sh;dj flfryswe;slrk n,mEu uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 02 hs'

bf.kq M, ( *Sfkda,aj, wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj, oS OH ldKavhg idfmalaI j wdfoaYlh f;d

^2"6& yd merd ^4& ia:dkj,g inkaO jk nj m%ldY lrhs' *Ssfkd,aySfnkaiSka j,h" fnkaiSkaj,g idfmalaI j bf,lafg%d*hs, flfrys

jvd;ail%sh nj meyeos,ss lrhs'

Ih lreKqmeyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( *Sfkda,aj, Tlaiscka mrudKqj u; jQtlir bf,lafg%dk hq.,a fnkaiSka

j,fha ia:dk.; u ksid tys j,h b,lafg%d*s,sl m%;sldrl flfrysfnfyka il%sh we;' *Sfkda,aj, -OHldKavh f;da" merd fhduqldrlf' ÔHldKavh f;da" merd fhduqldrl jkafka ukaoe hs meyeos,ss lsuwkjYH h'&

*Sfkda,aj, bf,lafg%da*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hd fnkaiSkays wkqrEm m%;sl%shdj,gwdod< ;;a;aj iu`. iei|Sfuka *Sfkda,ays fnkaiSka j,h bf,lafg%d*hs,flfrys jvd;ail%sh we;snj meyeos,s f' my; ksoiqka i,lkak'

î& fn%daka hr iu`. laIKsl j m%;sl%shd lr 2"4"6-g%hsfn%dafuda*Sfkda,a iqwjlafIamh ,nd foa'

2"4"6-g%hsfn%dafud*Sfkda,a

îi& *Sfkda,a khsfrdlrKh i|yd ;kql HNO3muKla jqjo m%udKj;a f'

fhda; bf.kq - b.eka ls%hdldrl ( *Sfkda,aiu. my; mrSlaId is lr ksCIK ,nd.ekSug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

fn%daka hr 1 cm3 la muK mCId k,hlg f.k thg *Sfkda,a iaMlhla^fyda x folla muK& tl;= lsu'

+ 3 Br2 + 3HBr

OH OHBr Br

Br

;kqlHNO3

+

OH OH

NO2

OH

NO220 0C

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ksmqK;dj ugu 9'4 ( we,ayhsv iy lSfgdakj, m%;sl%shd u.ska fmkakq flfrk>C=O nkaOkfha O%eh iajNdjh iy wix;Dma; iajNdjhuYkh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 08 hs'

bf.kq M, ( ldnks,aldKavfhaO%eh iajNdjh iy wix;Dma; iajNdjh ksid we,ayhsvj,g

iy lSfgdakj,g ,dlaIKsl jkafka kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdl,k m%;sl%shd njmeyeos,s lrhs'

kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdl,k m%;sl%shdj,g ksoiqkajk m%;sl%shd lsysmhl hka;%Kbosm;alrhs'

lSfgdakj,g idfmalaI j we,ayhsv b;d myiqfjka TlaislrKh f .=Kh

tajd tlsfkl fjka lr ykd .ekSug fhdod .kshs'

we,ayhsv iy lSfgdakj, .=K mCId lr jd;d lrhs'

Ih lreKqmeyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( we,ayhsv yd lSfgdakj,g HCN wdl,kfhahka;%Kh

fuu m%;sl%shdj is lrkq ,nkafka ldnks,a ixfhda.h yd c,Sh fidah

ihkh djK Y%Khlg ;kql Lksc w,hlatl;= lsfuks'

fuys CN-whkh kshqla,sfhd*hs,h f,i m%;sls%hd lrhs'

.S%kd m%;sldrlh ^RMgX& iu. m%;sls%hdf hka;%Kh

R C R C CN

O OH

RR

H

H

O

-CN

H

H

OH

CNihfkdyhs%kaCyanohydrin

H C CH

H C C

O

CH

CN

-

H+CH3 H

HCN

CH3

C CH3 C CH

3

OH

R

(i) RMgBr h

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f% m%;sldrlh 2"4-DNP) iu`. m%;sl%shdf hka;%Kh(i) kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdl,kh

(ii) c,kh by; w;rueos M,h iEKq .i u c,kh wjika M,h jk 2"4-vhskhsfrd*Skhs,ayhsrfidak ,ef'

fuu m%;s%ls%hdj we,ayhsv iy lSfgdak fjk;a ixfhda.j,ska fjka lr ykd.ekSf mlaIdjla f,i fhdod .efka'

TlaisyrKh(i) LiAlH

4fyda NaBH

4u.ska TlaisyrKh

fuysoS we,ayhsv yd lSfgdak we,afldfyd, njg TlaisyrKh f'

(ii) Zn(Hg) $id'HCl u.ska TlaisyrKh laf,ukaika TlaisyrKh&fuys we,ayhsv iy lSfgdak wkqrEm yhsfrdldnk njg TlaisyrKhl< yels h'

H

OR

R

C = OHR

R

C (i) LiAlH

4/h

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131

we,ayhsv TlaislrKh^i& fgd,ka m%;sldrlh u.ska TlaislrKh c,Sh is,aj khsf djKhlg ;kql fidah yhsfrdlaihs x lsysmhla

tla lsfuka ,efnk is,aj yhsfrdlaihs wjlafCIamhg ;kql wefudaksh

yhsfrdlaihs tla lsfuka fgd,ka m%;sldrlh- [ Ag (NH3) 2]+idokq ,nhs'

fgd,ka m%;sldrlh u.skaTlaislrKh fyj;a legm;amlaIdj we,ayhsvyd lSfgdak tlsfklska fjka lr ykd .ekSu i|yd fhdod .efka'

^ii& f*a,sx djKh u`.skaTlaislrKh Ndial lshqmala gdgf djKhla f*a,sx m%;sldrlh f,i ye|skaf' fuh

;o ks,ameye;sc,Sh djKhls' we,ayhsvhlskaka lsysmhlafuu m%;sldrlhgtl;= lr r;a lsf oS djKfha ks,a meyeh l%ufhka ke;s .fvd,a r;= mdglshqmaria Tlaihs wjfCIamh we;s f'

f*a,sx djKh u`.skao we,ayhsv yd lSfgdak tlsfkl fjkalr ykd.; yelsh'

(iii) wd,sl fmdgeish vhsfl%df ke;fyd;awd,sl fydaNdial fmdgEishm'uex.fka hk Tlaisldrl u`.ska we,ayhsv ldfndlais,sla w, njgTlaislrKh f'

we,ayhsv yuqf H+/KMnO4 djKfhao meyeh wjK f' H+/K2Cr2O7 jKfha;e,s meyeh fld< meyehg yef' fuu m%;sldrl u`.ska o we,ayhsv ydlSfgdak tlsfklska fjka lr ykd.; yels h'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( O we,ayhsv yd lSfgdak isiq lKavdhj,g mjrd tajd Ih ksfoaYfha

i|yka m%;sldrl iu. m%;sl%shd lr idok ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQy ,shd

oelaug fhduqlrkak'

we,ayhsv TlaislrKh jk ;;a;aj yuqf lSfgdak TlaislrKh fkdjk njixikaokd;aul j fmkajd fokak'

we,ayhsv iy lSfgdak tlsfkl fjka lr ykd .ekSf mCId is lrkak'

O-2[ Ag (NH

3)

2]++ 3OH- R + 2Ag

oS legm;

C

O

+ 4NH3+ 2H

2O+O

H

RC =

+ f*a,sx djKh + R CO

O-+ 3H2OCu2O

.fvd,ar;=wjfCIamh

O

H

RC =

H+/K2Cr

2O

7O

H

RC =

OHR C

O+ Cr3+

H+/KMnO

4O

H

RC =

OHR C

O+ Mn2+

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ksmqK;d ugu 9'5 ( iajhx ix>kk m%;sls%shd u.ska fmkakq flfrk mrswe,ayhsv yd lSfgdakj, ia:dkfhys m%;sls%h;dj ykd.kshs'

ld,fo ( 04 hs'

bf.kq M, ( ldnks,a ixfhda.j, ia:dkfham%;sls%hdYS,s;ajh W; WodyrK weiqfrka

fmkajd fohs' fidah yhsfrdlaihs" weisge,ayhs yd weisfgdaka islrk ix>kk

m%;sls%hd bm;a lrhs'

Ih lreKqmeyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( we,ayhsv yd lSfgdakj, C = O ldKavfha O%elrKh ksid thg hdno

ldnka mrudKqj, we;s C - H nkaOk n, f,i O%elrKh fjhs' tksid tuyhsrckamrudKqn, wd,sl iajNdjhlaw;alr .kshs' tawkqj laIdr yuqf

we,a*d yhsrcka bj; ldwekdhk iEug keUqre f'

by; ldwekdhkh" whkSlrKh fkdjQ we,ayhsv wKqjl ldnks,a ldnkamrudKqjg kshqla,sfhd*hs,hla f,i myr fohs' tawkqj yhsrckaiys;we,ayhsv yd lSfgdak iajhx ix>kk m%;sl%shdjg Ndck f'

ksoiqk-weisge,ayhs c,Sh NaOHyuqf m%;sls%hdj

+ OH-

H

R C

H H

> R C

H H

>

>

>

+ H2O

H C = O + H2O

H H

H

H C C = O

H H

''HO..

..

C

O

H

CH3 C + C = O

H

CH2 CH3 CH CH2 C = O

O- H

+ H2OCH3 CH CH2 C = O

O- H

we,afvda,a

+ OH-CH3 CH CH2 C = O

OH H

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weisfgdaka ix>kkh

by; oS ,o wdl,k M, myiqfjka c,khg ,la f'ksoiqka (-

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ( yhsrcka we;swe,ayhsv iy lSfgdak my; tajdhska f;aug isiqka fhduq

lrkak' tawkqj iajhx ix>kkhg iyNd.sjk we,ayhsv iy lSfgdak fudkjd

oehsf;aug;a" ix>kk M, ,shd oelaug;aisiqkafhduq lrkak'

H C = O ,

H

CH3 C

H CH

3CH

2C = O,H

CH3

C

CH3

CH3

C = O ,H

C = O ,H

CH3

by; oS ,enqKqwdl,k M, myiqf

H+$

CH3 CH CH2 C = O

OH H

CH3 CH CH C = O

H

+ H2O

2CH3 C= O

CH3

CH3

C CH2

C = O

OH

CH3

CH3

NaOH(aq)

C = O ,

H

C = O,

O

CH3CH

2C

CH3 C CH2 C = O

OH

CH3

CH3

H+$CH3 C CH C = O + H2O

CH3

CH3

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134


ksmqK;d ugu 9'6 ( Tlaisckawvx.=fjk;aldnksl ixfhda. iu`. ldfndlais,slaw,j, jHQyh iy .=K ixikaokh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 06 hs'

bf.kq M, ( ldfndlais,slaw,j, jHQyh wkqj mj;sk wka;-wKql nkaOk yd tajdfha

fN!;sl .=K w;r we;s inkaO;d bm;alrhs' ldfndlais,sla ldKavfha^-COOH& m%;sls%shd rgdj ldfndks,aixfhda.j, iy *Ssfkda,a iy we,afldfyd,j, -OHldKavh iu`. ixikaokh lrhs'

Na, NaOH, NaHCO3iy Na2CO3iu`. olajk m%;sl%shd weiqfrka ldfndlais,slaw," we,afldfyd, iy *sfkda,aj, wd,sl .=K ixikaokh lrhs'"

O-HnkaOkh iy C-O nkaOkh u is jk m%;sls%hd i|yd WodyrK bm;alrhs'

ldfndlais,sla w,j, .=K yd m%;sl%shd mlaId lr jd;d lrhs'

Ih lreKqmeyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( ldfndlais,slaw,j, ls%hdld ldKavh ldfndlais,aldKavh f' ldfndlais,a

ldKavfhysldnks,aldKavhl=;atu ldnkamrudKqjg inkaO jQyhsfrdlais,aldKavhl=;awe;'

ldfndlais,a ldKavh O%eh ls%hdld ldKavhla f'C = Oyd O - H ldKavj,O%elrKh fya;=fjka wka;-wKql yhsrcka nkaOk idohs' iudk idfmaCIwKql ialkaO iys; we,ayhsvj,g yd lSfgdakj,g idfmaCI j ldfndlais,slaw,j, ;dmdxl by< f'

ldfndlais,sla w, wKq hq.,af,i yhsrcka nkaOkj,ska ne oawjhjliEf yelshdj o ldfndlais,sla w,j, ;dmdxl by< w.hla.ekSug fya;=f' ldfndlais,sla w, oawjhjl jHQy f,i yhsrcka nkaOkj,ska nemj;sk wdldrh my; rEmfha oelaf'

R

C O

R CO

O H

H O

OC R

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ldfndlais,sla w,j, m%;sl%shd

O - H nkaOkh fuka isjk m%;sls%hd

RCOOH + Na R - COO-Na

+

+ 1/2H2RCOOH + NaOH RCOO-Na++ H2ORCOOH + NaHCO

3 RCOO-Na++ CO

2+ H

2O

we,afldfyd," *Sfkda, yd ldfndlais,sla w, fidah" fidahyhsfrdlaihs yd fidah nhsldnfka iu`. olajk m%;sl%shdixikaokd;aul j my; j.=f oelaf'

by; ixfhda. NaHCO3 iu`. m%;sl%shd lrk wdldrhgu Na2CO3 iu`. om%;sls%shd lrhs'we,afldfyd," *Sfkda, yd ldfndlais,slaw,j, wd,sl m%n,;d my; i|ykam p,kh f'

we,afldfyd,

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136

ldfndlais,sla whkh jvd;a ia:dhS jkqfha tys im%hqla; jHQy *Sfka whkfhaim%hqla;j,g jvd ia:dhS jk neks' fuu ia:dhS;djg fya;=jkqfha ldfndlaisf,awhkfha im%hqla; jHqyj, RK wdfrdamKh by< oHq;a RK;djlska hq;= TlaisckamrudKq u; mej;Suhs'

C - O nkaOkh fuka isjk m%;sls%hd PCl3/ PCl5 iu`.

we,afldfyd, iu`.

ldfndlais,sla w, LiAlH4u`.ska TlaisyrKh ldfndlais,slaw, b;d m%n, Tlaisydrlhla jk LiAlH4u.ska TlaisyrKfhka we,afldfyd, ,nd fok w;r NaBH

4u`.ska TlaisyrKh fkdf'


ldfndlais,sla ldKavfha nkaOk iajNdjh meye,slr t u.skaldfndlais,slaw,j, fN!;sl .=K wkdjrKh lsu i|yd idlPdjla fufyhjkak'

3 + H3PO

3

Cl

PCl3

OHC

OC

O

3 + POCl3+ HCl

O

PCl5

OHCO C Cl

CH3 CH

2 CH

2OH CH3 CH2 C

O

O - H

LiAlH4

+H

2O + C

2H

5OH

H+ CH3 C

O

OH CH

3 C

O

O-C2H5

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137

ksmqK;dj 9 ( Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHqyh yd .=K w;rinkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 9'7 ( w, jHq;amkakj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 03 hs'

bf.kq M, ( w, jHq;amkakj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd jkafkakshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd

nj m%ldY lrhs' w, laf,darhsvj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sls%hd i|yd ksoiqka ,shd olajhs' tiagrj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sls%hd i|yd ksoiqka,shd olajhs' tauhsvj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd i|yd ksoiqka ,shd olajhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la w, laf,darhsj, m%;sls%hd

^i& fidah yhsfrdlaihs iu`. m%;sls%hdjw, laf,darhs NaOHiu`. m%;sl%shd jQ g wkqrEm ldfndlais,sla w,hiEfoa' fuh m%;sl%shd udOHfhaoS ldfndlaisf,a ,jkh jYfhka mj;S'

m%;sl%shdf hka;%Kh

^ii& c,h iu`. m%;sls%hdjw, laf,darhs c,h iu`. m%;sl%shdlr wkqrEm ldfndlais,sla w,h idohs'

iii& m%d:l wek iu. m%;sls%hdj

H

R C

O

ClR C R

O

+ H N R N

H

ONaOHR C

ClR C

OH

ONaOH R C

O

Na+O-

O H2O

R CCl

R COH

O

R CO

Cl

NaOHR C

OH

O-

-OH

OH-

R COH

O+ Cl-

R CO-

O

Cl

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138

îv&we,afldfyd, iu`. m%;sl%shdjw, laf,darhsv" we,afldfyd, iu`. m%;sl%shd lr tiagr idohs'

^v& *Sfkda,a iu`. m%;sl%shdj

^vi & NH3iu`. m%;sl%shdjw, laf,darhsv" wefudakshd iu`. m%;sls%hdlr tauhsv idohs'

tauhsv tiagrj, m%;sls%shd

î& tiagr ;kql w, u.ska c,fokh wkqrEm ldfndlais,sla w,h iywe,afldfyd,h ,nd fohs'

îi&tiagr c,ShNaOH iu`. m%;sls%hd jQg we,afldfyd,h iy wkqrEm ldfndlais,slaw,fhafidah ,jKh idohs'

tauhsvj, m%;sls%shdjî& NaOHiu`.

tauhsv c,Sh NaOHdjKhla iu`. WKqiq l

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139

ksmqK;dj 10 ( khsrckawvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQyh yd .=K w;rinkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;dj ugu 10'1 ( ,dlaIKsl m%;sls%hd iy .=K weiqrskawek iy weks,Skams

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140

by; oelafjk m%;sl%shdj f% m%;sldrlh iu`. we,ayhsv yd lSfgdakolajk m%;sl%shdjg wkqrEm f'

(iii& we,alhs,a fya,hsv iu`.

fufiaiEfok oa;Shsl wek we,als,afya,hsv iu`. m%;sl%shd lrka;D;Shsl wek yd pd;=:; we,als,a wefudaksh ,jK ,nd fohs'

f wkqj by; m%;sl%shdf oS M, Y%Khla ,ef'

(iv) ^khsria w,& iu`.

R-NH2

we,als,a vhfidaksh

laf,darhs

we,als,avhfidaksh laf,darhs wia:dhSneka we,afldfyd,h

njg myiqfjka m;af'


fok ,o wKql iQ;%hlai|yd mej;sh yelswe,als,a wekj, jHQy bm;alsug isiqkag mjrkak'

m%d:l wekj, m%;sls%hd idlPd lrkak'

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141


ksmqK;d ugu 10'2 ( fjk;a ldnksl ixfhda. iu`. wekj, Ndial;dj ii|hs'

ld,fo ( 05 hs'

bf.kq M, (

we,s*el wekj, iy weks,Skaj, Ndial;dj ii|hs' tauhsvj, iy wekj, Ndial;dj ii|hs'


;kql LKsc w, u`.skawek tajdfha ,jK njg mj;kh lrhs' fuu,jK c,Sh yhsfrdlais,awhk iu`. m%;sl%shd lr kej;;a wekh ksoyia f'

t neka wek c,hg jvd Ndial jk w;r" yhsfrdlais,a whkhg jvd wvqNdial;djlska hqla; nj meyeos,sf'

+ +2 3 3 2

+ -

3 2 2

RNH +H O RNH +H O

RNH +OH RNH +H O

wek" we,afldfyd,j,g jvd Ndial f'

R-OH + H+ROH2+ we,als,a Tlafidaksh whkh

R-NH2+ H+RNH

3+ we,als,a wefudaksh whkh

Tlaisckaj,g jvd khsrckays oHq;aRK;dj wvq neka tlir bf,lafg%dakhq.,la m%odkh lsug je keUqrejla olajhs' t k wekhlg idfmalaI jwe,als,awefudaksh whkfhaia:dhS;dj" we,afldfyd,hlg idfmalaI j we,als,aTlafidaksh whkfha ia:dhS;djg jvd je h' fuhg fya;=j jkqfhaoHq;aRK;dfjkawvq mrudKqjlg Ok wdfrdamKhla jvd myiqfjka oehyelsu hs'

weks,Skaj,g jvd m%d:l we,s*el wekj, Ndial;dj je h'

weks,Skayskhsrckau; jQ tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,h im%hqla;;dj u`.skawefrdauel j,h iu`. ia:dk.; we;s neka fm%dafgdakhlg ,nd oSumyiqfjkais fkdu weks,Skaj, wvq Ndial;djg fya;=f'

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142

wekj,g jvd weuhsvj, Ndial;dj wvq h' ukaoh;a" weuhsv ldKavfhakhsrckau; we;sbf,lafg%dak hq., im%hqla;;dj u`.skaldfndkhs,aldKavhiu`. ia:dk.; mej;Suhs'

Tlaisckaj, wl oHq;aRK;dj ksid wefrdauel wekj,g o jvd weuhsvj,Ndial;dj wvq h'


we,afldfyd," wek" weks,Skayd weuhsvj, Tlaiscka yd khsrcka mrudKqj, u;we;stlir bf,lafg%dak hq.au odhl lsug we;syelshdj wkqidrfhkatu ixfhda.j,

Ndial;dj ixikaokd;aul j meyeos,s lrkak'

R CO

NH2

R C

O-

N+H2

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ksmqK;d ugu 10'3 ( vhfidaksh ,jKj, m%;sl%shd uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo ( 05 hs'

bf.kq M, ( vhfidaksh ,jKh ksmojd .kakd wdldrh ia;r lrhs' vhfidaksh ldKavh c,h" H3PO2, CuCl, CuCN, CuBr ydKIiu`. islrk

m%;sia:dmk m%;sls%hd ,shd olajhs' vhfidaksh ,jKh bf,lafrd*hs,hlaf,i yeisfrk m%;sls%hd i|yd

ksoiqka,shd olajhs'

Ih lreKqmeyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la ( weks,Ska khsria w,h iu`. m%;sl%shd lr *Sfkda,a ,nd foa'

wefrdauel vhfidaksh ,jKh we,s*el vhfidaksh ,jKhg jvd ia:dhSf'

t nekafuu m%;sl%shdj my< WIaK;ajhkaysoSis l< g wefrdauel vhfidaksh,jKh *Sfkda,h njg m;au j

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144

- KI iu`.

- CuCN iu`.

- yhsfmdfmdiamria w,h iu`.

vhfidaksh ,jKh bf,lafg%d*hs,hla f,i m%;ssls%hd lrkq,nkm%;sls%hd

vhfidaksh ,jKh *Sfkda,a iu`. r;= jKhlska hqla; jk ixfhda.hlao -kemaf;da,a iu`. ;e,s jKhlskahqla; ixfhda.hla o ,nd foa'


wek" we,afldfyd," weks,Skayd weuhsvj, ir, jHQy we|Sug isiqkag Wmfoiafokak'

tu ixfhda.j, khsrcka mrudKqi;= tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.au odhl lsug we;s

yelshdj wkqidrfhkaf ixfhda.j, Ndial;dj ixikaokd;aul j meyeos,sslrkak'

KI

I

+ N2

H3

PO2

H

2O + N2 + H3PO3+ H

+

OH

/ NaOHHO N = N

r;=

OH

/ NaOH

;e,s

HO

N = N

CuCN/KCN

CN

+ N2

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x

mdi, mok lr.;a;lafiarelrKh - ye|skau

bf.kqu-b.ekau iy we.hSu wOHdmk l%shdj,sfhajeo.;aixrpl ;=klanj;abf.kqfuys

iy b.ekafuysm%.;sh oek.ekSu msKsi we.hSu fhdod .;hq;=nj;aiEu .=rejrhl=iskau o; hq;= meyeos,slreKls' tajd wfkHdakH n,mEfuka hq;= j l%shd lrk nj;a tfiau

tlsfkflys ixjOkh flfrystu ixrpl n,mdk nj;a tfia u tlsfkflys ixjOkh

flfrystu ixrpl n,mdk nj;a.=rejre oks;s' ika;;sl ksrka;rfhka isjk& we.hS

uq,Ou wkqj we.hSu ish hq;af;abf.kSu yd b.ekau flfrk w;r;=r oSh' fuh

bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sh wdrNfhaoS fydaueo oSfyda w. oSfyda hk kEu wjia:djl

oSish yelsnj f;are .ekSu .=rejrhl=g wjYH h' tf,i ;u isiqkaf.abf.kq m%.;sh

we.hSug wfmalaId lrk .=rejrhl=bf.kqu" b.ekau iy we.hSu ms

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xi

bf.kq l%shdj,sh;a jvd;a ldhlaIu lsu msKsi jvd fyd| ldhlaIu;dfjka hqla;

bf.kq" b.ekakq iy we.hS l%u fhdod .; hq;= fjhs' f inkaOfhkaisiqkag iy

.=rejrekag fhdod .; yels m%fY ms

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147

bf.kq b.eka ls%hdj,sh > lsu

1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 1" WmlrKh 01

2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug ( 1'1 isg 1'5 olajd

3'0 wdjrKh lrk ikaOdrh ( Wm mrudKql wxY=wkdjrKh lr .ekSf

fyda uQ,jH j.SlrKfha fyda b;sydih

4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh ( idys;H uYkh

5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq ( O ikaksfok udOH Nd;fhka bf.kq

b.ekau i|yd yqrej ,nd u'

oHd{hskaf.a ldh Ndrh meiiqug,lalsug fhduq lsu'

1'0 we.hS wjia:dj ( jdrh 1" WmlrKh 02

2'0 w

s12tim18

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