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CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

A. Background

Indonesia is an archipelago country containing more than 17,000 islands.

Approximately only 35% of the islands are inhabited. There are five big islands

which are Kalimantan, Sumatra, Papua, Sulawesi and Java, but almost 60% of the

population of 237 million people are concentrated on Java island which accounts

for only 7% of the national land (Badan Pusat Statistik, 2014).

Figure 1. 1 Map of Indonesia (Dwiatmoko, 2010)

Rail transport in Indonesia is the second oldest in Asia after India. The

first railway construction was built on 17thJune 1864 by Naamlooze Venootschap

Nederlandsch Indische Spoorweg Maatschappij (NV NISM). The first

inauguration was on 10thAugust 1867 connecting Semarang and Tanggoeng along

25 km (PT. KAI (PERSERO), 2010). After the Independence Day of Indonesia,

on 28th September 1945, the Indonesian Railways Institution was established

(DKARI / Djawatan Kereta Api Repoeblik Indonesia). When all railway lines in

Indonesia were nationalized in 1958, DKARI became PNKA (Perusahaan Negara

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Kereta Api / State Railway Corporation). After 13 years (on 15th September 1971)

PNKA was reorganized into PJKA (Perusahaan Jawatan Kereta Api / Railway

Bureau Corporation) and on 2nd January 1991 PJKA was transformed into

PERUMKA (Perusahaan Umum Kereta Api / Public Railway Corporation). The

last change was on 1st June 1999 it became PT. KAI (PT. Kereta Api Indonesia)

which remains (PT. KAI (PERSERO), 2014).Unfortunately, after the colonial

period, railway transport in the country was not significantly improved. As we can

see countries such as China, Japan, and Korea, now have a very large and

sophisticated railway system, even though railway development on those

countries started later than Indonesia. The total length of railway system in

Indonesia is 4,130.4 km, but only 3,861.5 km is used and 268.9 km are

temporarily closed. In addition the railway system is only available on Java and

Sumatra islands.

Figure 1. 2 Railway Network in Java and Sumatra Island (PT. KAI (PERSERO), 2012)

Recently, Indonesia has four unconnected railway systems, one in Java

island and three in Sumatra island (Medan / North Sumatra, West Sumatra and

South Sumatra & Lampung) which is shown in Table 1 below. Most of the track

gauge is 1,067 mm, with only small part of the network (such as in Aceh) with

1,435 mm gauge.

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Table 1. 1 Existing Railway Network in Indonesia

Region Operated

(km) Not Operated

(km) Total (km)

Java 2,710 125.2 2,835.2

Sumatra 1,151.5 143.7 1,295.2

Total 3,861.5 268.9 4,130.4

Source :(PT. KAI (PERSERO), 2012)

Improvements are certainly needed to increase market share and the level

of service of rail transport in Indonesia. Java island is the most populous island in

the world. The number of people on this island is around 136 million - roughly

equal to Russia. Almost 60% of the population of Indonesia are concentrated on

this island. In addition, the capital city of Indonesia is located on this island,

making Java island the most developed island in Indonesia. Java consists of four

provinces (Banten, West Java, Central Java and East Java), one special region

(Yogyakarta), and one special capital region (Jakarta). The total area of Java is

127,569 km2 with a population of 136,610,590, making Java the densest area in

Indonesia ( 1,071 people/km2). Table 1.2 below presents the population

distribution in Java.

Table 1. 2 Population Density in Java Island

Province Population Area (km2)

Density (people/km2)

Jakarta 9,607,787 664 14,470

Banten 10,632,166 8,651 1,229

West Java 43,053,732 34,597 1,245

Central Java 32,382,657 32,549 995

East Java 37,476,757 47,922 782

Yogyakarta 3,457,491 3,186 1,085

TOTAL 136,610,590 127,569 1,071

Source :(Badan Pusat Statistik, 2010), (Statistic Indonesia, 2005), and Author

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The population is expected to continually increase by 1.4% each year,

based on the recent population growth rate of Java (Badan Pusat Statistik, 2010).

With constant area, population densities will clearly rise (Table 1.2). The number

of population and the number of travels have a positive relation. In addition the

number of travels have a positive relation to the transport demand for mechanised

modes such as rail.

1. Railway in Java Island

Almost all the major cities in Java are already connected by rail. As

mentioned before, about 69% (2,835.2 km) of railway network in Indonesia is

located in this area. The railway network extends from the West (Banten) to the

East (Banyuwangi, East Java) divided into two major line; north and south line.

The track gauge which is implemented here is 1,067 mm, with a 15- ton

maximum axle load and a design speed of 120 km/hour. More than 50% of the

signalling system which is used in this network is mechanical, rather than

electrical systems. Only 20% (577 km) of the network is electrified, whilst the rest

(2,258 km) are still using diesel locomotives. The electrified network is located in

Jabodetabek (Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tanggerang and Bekasi) for the commuter

line service. The existing railway network in Java contains a lot of curves due to

all the railway networks being over-ground and avoiding hills/mountains

(Appendix 1).

a) North Line

The North line railway network in Java connects four big cities in north

Java such as Jakarta, Cirebon, Semarang, and Surabaya. There are 14 big stations

(Jakarta/Gambir, Jatinegara, Bekasi, Kerawang, Cikampek, Cirebon, Pemalang,

Pekalongan, Semarang Poncol, Semarang Tawang, Semarang Gudang, Cepu,

Bojonegoro, and PasarTuri/Surabaya) and more than 100 small stations along the

route (Jakarta to Surabaya).

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b) South Line

The South line railway network in Java connects Jakarta to Surabaya via

Yogyakarta and Solo in the south. There are 19 big stations (Jakarta/PasarSenen,

Jatinegara, Bekasi, Kerawang, Cikampek, Cirebon, Prupuk, Purwokerto, Kroya,

Gombong, Kutoarjo, Yogyakarta, Klaten, Solo, Sragen, Madiun, Nganjuk,

Kertosono, Jomabang, Mojokerto, and Gubeng/Surabaya) and more than 100

small stations along the route (Jakarta to Surabaya).

2. Express Trains

There is no single standard for both definition and usage of the term of

express trains. The definitions vary, depending on the criteria used. The same is

true for the usage of the term, sometimes it is called fast train and sometimes

express train. Express train here means, train which has faster speed than existing

train, but not as fast as high speed train (in case of Indonesia). Express train more

or less have a similar characteristics with high speed train, in order to facilitate the

train travelling at more than 200 km/hour . Like a high speed trains, express trains

also have a small number of stops to maintain the operational speed. In developed

countries such as, United Kingdom (UK), France, Spain and Germany, express

train has the same meaning with high speed train. The International Union of

Railways Organization (UIC), considers the term high speed from all the

standpoints: infrastructure, rolling stock and operation. In addition the European

Union also defines the definition of high speed based on DIRECTIVE 96/48/EC

APPENDIX 1 as follows.

a) Infrastructure

Infrastructure are specially built or upgraded for High Speed operation,

including connecting lines and (particularly) junctions. Specially built high speed

lines should be able to serve speeds equal to or greater than 250 km/h. Meanwhile,

specially upgraded high speed lines should be equipped for speeds of the order of

200 km/h. Otherwise if upgraded lines have special features as a result of

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topography, relief or town-planning constraints, the speed must be adapted to each

case.

b) Rolling Stock

The High Speed Train should have a very safe design and uninterrupted

travel at three circumstances. First, on specially built lines for high speed, the train

should be able to reach the maximum operation speed (i.e. accelerate from 250

km/h to 300 km/h) in appropriate situations. Secondly on existing lines upgraded

for high speed the train should be able to reach the speed of the order 200 km/h.

Thirdly, at other lines the train should be able to reach the highest possible speed.

c) Compatibility of Infrastructure and Rolling Stock

Infrastructure and rolling stock should have an excellent characteristic

compatibility each other. This issue will affect and influence the performance

levels, safety, quality of service, and cost of high speed train services.

(UIC, 2013)

There is several simple ways to recognise express train service. Express

train absolutely has a higher speed operation than traditional rail. It normally

operates on standard gauge tracks with or without grade separated junctions, and

has a large turning radius design. Express train is also usually designed for

passenger service; only a few of them serve freight as well.

Railway operational speed has been increasing dramatically since rail was first

established in the 1830s, when 30 mph or 50 km/h was considered fast at that

time. The top ten fastest trains currently in service have an average speed of

around 350 km/h. High speed rail network are growing around the world. Detail

information about both history and networks are given in Appendix 2.

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B. Problem Issues

Jakarta, the capital of Indonesia, is located on the northwest coast of Java

island, meanwhile Surabaya is the second largest city and is located at the eastern

end of Java island. As large cities both Jakarta and Surabaya play an important

role leading Indonesian economic growth. They already have the highest gross

domestic product (20% and 6% respectively). The two cities are connected by a

685-km long railway, of which 67% is single track (459 km) and the rest (226 km,

33%) double track. Journey time between the two cities is approximately 10 14

hours (average speed 60 km/h) (Dwiatmoko, 2010).

A project to make all the North line double track has been under

construction and was due to complete in April 2014. The high speed train project

would provide a separate route parallel to this line, but with greater radius and

fewer curves. Details of this project are given in Appendix 3. Otherwise

implementation of a new high speed rail service in Indonesia need a huge amount

of investment, so authors try to provide another solution such as express train.

Figure 1. 3 High Speed Rail Planning in Java Indonesia (Dwiatmoko, 2010)

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1. Why is Express Train needed in Java

There are several reasons why Express train is needed in Java:

1) Java is the most densely populated island in Indonesia, with a high rate of average population growth (1.4% p.a.) (BPS, 2010). Mass public transport is not developing very well, and the number of cars and motorcycles is much greater than the number of vehicles of any other mode of transport. Road congestion has become the biggest issue recently in Java, mainly in the big cities such as Jakarta, Bandung, Serang, Cirebon, Yogyakarta, Semarang and Surabaya. This will affect the economy in Java and more widely in Indonesia, owing to high proportion of national GDP in Java.

2) The international airport (Soekarno-Hatta) and other big airports in Java are predicted to reach their capacity limits in 2015 due to increasing passenger demand numbers (Ministry of Transportation of Indonesia in (Dwiatmoko, 2010).

3) Pollution needs to be reduced.

According data from ITF 2005 in (UIC, 2011), rail transport generates very few CO2 gas emissions if we compare it with other modes of transport such as road, sea and air.

Railway sector only contributes 2% emission of CO2 while road transport has the biggest contribution of 73%. According to data from Alstom and calculations by Systra in (UIC, 2011) the average emissions per km of railway sector in Europe is only 17 g.

(Hartono, 2012) calculates that, CO2 emission will be reduced around 848 X 106 kg in 2020 if the high speed railway between Jakarta and Surabaya were to operate. Detailed information is shown in Tables 1.3 and 1.4 below.

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Table 1. 3 Jakarta Surabaya CO2 Emission without Introducing HSR

Without Introducing High Speed Rail (2020) Corridor Mode CO2 (106 kg) Total(106 kg)

Jakarta - Cirebon Bus 307

456 Conv. Rail 149

Airplane -

Cirebon - Semarang Bus 66

1,329 Conv. Rail 94

Airplane 1,169

Semarang - Surabaya Bus 59

758 Conv. Rail 60

Airplane 638

Total Emission CO2in 2020 2,542 Source: (Hartono, 2012)

Table 1. 4 Jakarta Surabaya CO2 Emission after Introducing HSR

Introducing High Speed Rail (2020) Corridor Mode CO2 (106 kg) Total(106 kg)

Jakarta - Cirebon Bus 270

539 Conv. Rail 123

Airplane -

HSR 146

Cirebon - Semarang Bus 58

694 Conv. Rail 77

Airplane 454

HSR 105

Semarang - Surabaya Bus 53

461 Conv. Rail 49

Airplane 249

HSR 109

Total Emission CO2 in 2020 1,694

Saving Emission 848 Source: (Hartono, 2012)

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Existing railway network operation on the North line (JKT-SBY) is too slow (10-14 hours journey time) as we know the North line is important to business and industrial (this line connects a lot of central business and industrial cities).

2. Market Share Mode of Transport

Road traffic in Indonesia is worsening every year, mainly in the big cities

such as Jakarta and Surabaya. As the main centres of GDP in Indonesia, these two

cities have to prepare a good alternative transportation mode besides road

transport to prevent degradation of GDP due to traffic congestion.

Table 1. 5 Transportation Volume and Share for Each Mode in Indonesia

Mode Passenger Transport Freight Transport

Volume (106 People)

Share (%)

Volume (106 ton)

Share (%)

1. Road 2,021.1 85.05 2,514.1 91.24

2. Railway 150.3 6.32 17.4 0.63

3. Ferry 116 4.88 27.4 0.99

4. Sea 42.3 1.78 194.8 7.07

5. Air 36.5 1.54 1.4 0.05

6. River 10.3 0.43 0.3 0.01

TOTAL 2,376.5 100 2,755.4 100 Source: Ministry of Transportation of Indonesia in (Dwiatmoko, 2010)

Dependence on road transport should be reduced by providing an

alternative transport with the same or better quality. As we know air and sea

transport have a limited area to cover (as they cannot reach destinations as close

as road transport can). So an improvement in railway transport is the best solution

with a lot benefits for both government and people.

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3. Benefit and Drawback of EXPRESS TRAIN

Benefits

1) Increased economic growth because of faster journey time and reliability. 2) Reduced pollution if majority of private vehicles (cars) or air plane user,

switch to rail transport. Concentrations of NOx, CO and SO2 will reduce significantly.

3) Reduced consumption of fossil fuels. Energy consumption per passenger in Shinkansen accounts for 60% of that per passenger of a bus; 30%, an air plane; and 20%, a car (case study Shinkansen) (Dwiatmoko, 2010). The figure below shows a comparison of TGV energy consumption with other modes of transport.

Figure 1. 4 TGV Energy Consumption Comparison (Razi Nalim, 2010)

4) Population will not only be concentrated in Jakarta (JABODETABEK) and Surabaya but also spread near stations along the route. Majority of people want to live near the city centre to reduce their journey times. Poor service of existing public transport modes (including trains) is encouraging people to use private cars or motorcycles in their daily activity. This situation triggers other problems such as congestion which is bad for economic growth and efficiency.

5) Reduced land acquisition needs compared to highways/road and airports.

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Table 1. 6 Land Use Comparison between Road Vs Rail

Road / Highways Rail

Lines 2 x 3 2 x 1

Direct land take by infrastructure 2.5 ha/km 1.3 ha/km

Indirect + direct land take by infrastructure 9.3 ha/km 3.2 ha/km

Source: (UIC, 2011)

6) Reduced congestion in other modes of transport (road and air transport).

Drawbacks

1) Abstraction from another alternative route. The number of passengers on

South line Java network will be reduced owing to significant journey time

differences, although this situation could be mitigated by applying

appropriate ticket prices.

2) There would be enormous construction cost and special materials to

construct the system. For example, HS1 project in the UK spent 5.8

billion to construct a 108 km length of the network ( 54 million/km)

(railway-technology.com);the first high speed rail project in Japan

(Tokaido Shinkansen, 1964) cost 380 billion at that time ( 738

million/km) (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of

Japan, 2010).

3) Staff and the labour who work on the system and construction respectively

would need to have special skills (several critical positions in the project

would be filled by experts from foreign countries), which would be

expensive. Government should train several people in advance in order to

meet the skills requirement, which is needed in time for completion.

4) There would be incompatibility with the existing infrastructure (platform,

station, track gauge, signalling etc.) so a new dedicated track (and hence

more land) would be required.

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4. Track Betterment

As every country has a different socio economic background, the best

solution to implement an express train system will also be slightly different. As

we know, money is an enabler. Indonesia is one of Asias developing countries,

and a limited budget has always been an insuperable issue in order to implement

something with a huge budget (such as an express train project). The Indonesian

Ministry of Transportation has been working with the Japanese Government to

estimate the budget to construct a new line high speed rail from Jakarta to

Surabaya (Table 1.7). Due to very high costs, Indonesia will not be able to

undertake this project alone. The Indonesian Government will have a long period

loan (40 years) from the Japanese Government to realize this project and adopt the

Shinkansen System. However, many people and communities are against this

policy due to the high rate and long period of loan. Furthermore, constructing an

express train system also needs similar investment as well owing to the

characteristics similarities both of them.

Track betterment along Jakarta and Surabaya could be a good alternative

to the express train system. The budget could be reduced significantly in several

elements. A detailed budget estimation for the new high speed line is shown in

Table 1.7 below.

Table 1. 7 Construction and Project Cost Estimation HSR in Java

ITEM AMOUNT

(million, USD)

CONSTRUCTION

Civil and Architect Work 12,096

Depot Equipment 325

Power 1,451

Signal and Telecom 1,135

Rolling Stock 650

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ITEM AMOUNT

(million, USD)

PROJECT

Consultancy Services 1,566

Tax and Duty 1,722

General Administration 157

Land Acquisition 835

Price Escalation 414

Contingencies 1,018

TOTAL COST 21,369 Source: Ministry of Transportation of Indonesia in (Dwiatmoko, 2010)

A policy of track improvement would obviously eliminate land acquisition costs, and in general will reduce cost in several sectors such as power supply installation, signalling systems, and earthworks (cuttings, embankments, tunnelling, etc.).

Table 1. 8 Track Betterment Vs New Line Comparison

No Sector New Line Track Betterment

TECHNICAL

1 Land Acquisition At least 3.2 ha/km are needed to construct EXPRESS TRAIN 2x1 line.

In general do not really need additional land acquisition, except there is special condition such as, small curve and high elevation.

2 Budget Full budget from the pre-construction (consultancy, architect work, land acquisition), until construction process.

Cost in several sector can be eliminated (land acquisition) or reduced (consultancy).

3 Geology Structure

Possible to choose appropriate contour (elevation), topography, and geology structure which the best for express train implementation.

Maximise and improve the existing condition to be able accommodate express train requirements.

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No Sector New Line Track Betterment

4 Space Availability

Space is needed to construct the new line where still available, but it will be need some time to acquire all the space along the route.

It is not a big issue.

5 Performance Definitely will be appropriate to accommodate express train service.

Need to conduct the test run and feasibility to make sure the track is already fulfilling all the requirements to accommodate express train service.

6 Track Design Curve radius and elevation will be appropriate to accommodate speed over 200 km/h

Need depth analysis, test, and evaluation to make sure the design is working properly. Maybe changing several piece of track to make sure the radius curve and elevation is appropriate. It will be more difficult than constructing a new line.

7 Remove Utilities along the route

Survey and area mapping are absolutely needed in order to avoid or move utilities along the road.

Do not need.

SOCIAL

8 Local Economy Activity

New express line believed to be a trigger a new economic growth not only for Jakarta and Surabaya but also cities along the route (mainly cities that have a new station).

Jakarta and Surabaya will have the biggest impact rather than any other cities.

9 Human Behaviour

Grade separated junctions will reduce the accident risk between express train and road vehicles, as well as preventing people across the express train track.

There are a lot of at-grade crossings which needs an appropriate solution to reduce and avoid accidents.

10 Squatters Preventing step can be held to avoid it.

It will be difficult to move or eliminate squatters.

Source: (Directorate General of Railways Republic of Indonesia, 2013) & Author

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In contrast to Europe (where this is not an issue), squatters in Indonesia cause

problems for railways, because they live in restricted areas (such as under bridges,

under fly-overs, along the railway line, etc. as shown in Figure 1.5 below.).

Figure 1. 5 Squatters along railway line in Jakarta (Ciputra News, 2014) & (sakgoni.blogspot.com, 2010)

Methods of preventing squatting are needed. In the authors opinion, it is much

easier to prevent it than move them out afterwards. Suggestions to prevent

squatters include:

1) Building a high fence along the railway network.

2) Recruiting a patrol team to look after the land along the railway network.

3) Providing a temporary shelter for the squatters.

4) Policing with substantial penalties and sanctions for the squatters.

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C. Research Question

The research questions arise regarding to problem issues and have to be

answered are:

1. What are the challenges to be faced before constructing express train

network in Indonesia?

2. What are minimum requirements for express train track design and other

infrastructures (signaling system and power supply)?

3. How are Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) and Net Present Value (NPV) for all

investment options?

4. How much environmental impact (green house gas emission) during express

train network construction?

D. Research Purpose

The aim of this thesis is to look in depth into the possible express service

for the North line of Java. The feasibility of track betterment and other facilities

will be studied, in order to facilitate express trains travelling at more than 200

km/hour along the track Jakarta - Surabaya. For the particular objectives of the

thesis are described below:

1) to determine what are the challenges to be faced before constructing

express train network in Indonesia;

2) to investigate what are the minimum requirements for express train track

design and other facilities (signaling systems and power supply);

3) to examine how much the Benefit Cost Ratio (BCR) and Net Present Value

(NPV) of all investment options;

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4) to examine how much environmental impact (green house gas emission)

during express train network construction.

E. Scope

The scope of this master Thesis is limited by the availability both data and

literature study as stated below:

1) Track betterment and infrastructure improvement options are based on

literature study and experience from other countries.

2) Human factors (behavior) are neglected.

3) Only the North Line railway link is considered.

F. Originality

Dwiatmoko (2010) reported the forecasting cost and benefits also

infrastructures for High Speed Train project in Jakarta Surabaya corridor. An

efficient transportation system with high speed train favors many economic

changes and most of them are positive. The investment in high speed train will

impact the growth of national as well regional economic development, due to

reduction of travelling time and more efficient transportation. The total cost of

high speed train project for Jakarta Surabaya corridor including cost of the

consulting service, tax, general administration, land acquisition, price escalation,

and contingency is about 21,369 million US$.

Hartono (2012) investigate the advantages of High Speed Rail on Java

over existing modes of transport (road transport/bus, conventional rails, and air).

Market share of existing modes of transport will reduce after high speed rail has

been operating on Java. The total market share of the high speed rail is predicted

at 25% and becomes the second largest of the market share. The largest market

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share is bus with 52%, while conventional rails and air transport will have 14%

and 9% respectively. This condition was predicted will happen due to high speed

rail is very competitive in term of journey time and cost. In addition high speed

rail development can reduce carbon emissions (CO2) on Java.

In this research determine the key issues likely to arise with the

construction of any option for express train operation in North line Jakarta

Surabaya include land topography and its impact on curvature & gradient, existing

condition of level crossings, poor safety management (high number of accidents

record), and power supply performance. Furthermore, investigation of track

betterment to the existing track on North line of Java will conduct in order to

facilitate express train operation (more than 200 km/h). To achieve the best

suitable investment option which will implement in the North line of Java, BCR

and NPV calculation will examine. Construction of express train not only brings

positive impacts but also negative impacts, therefore this research will examine

the forecasting gas emissions during high speed rail construction on the existing

North line of Java.