sandalwood specialty crop

8/12/2019 Sandalwood Specialty Crop

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Farm and ForestryProduction and Marketing Profile for

Sandalwood(Santalum species)

By Lex A.J. Tomson, John Doran,

Danica Harbaugh, and Mark D. Merlin

Specialty Crops for Pacific Island Agroforestry (http://agroforestry.net/scps)
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Farm and Forestry Production and Marketing Profile for Sandalwood by Lex A.J. Thomson, John Doran, Danica Harbaugh, and Mark D. Merlin 2

USES AND PRODUCTS

Wood rom the Hawaiian and South Pacific sandalwoodstraditionally had a diversity o uses such as carving, medi-cine, insect repellent when burnt (St. John 1947), and uel(Wagner 1986). Te grated wood was used to a limited ex-tent to scent coconut oil (or application to the hair andbody) and cultural artiacts such as tapa cloth (Krauss 1993;Kepler 1985). In Hawaii, sandalwoods were used to make

musical instruments such as the musical bow (kk) andto produce hoe (paddles) as part o traditional canoe con-struction (Buck 1964; Krauss 1993). Te highest-value woodrom the sandalwoods is used or carving (i.e., religious stat-ues and objects, handicrafs, art, and decorative urniture).For most purposes larger basal pieces and main roots arepreerred due to their high oil content and better oil profiles,being generally richer in santalols.

raditional medicinal uses o sandalwood are generally notwell documented. In Samoa, a decoction o sandalwood andHomolanthus leaves is taken to treat elephantiasis or lym-

phatic filariasis. Te ragrant heartwood (laau ala) o Ha-waiian sandalwood trees (collectively known as iliahi) wasused in medicines. A shampoo made rom a lea inusion wasused or curing dandruff and eliminating head lice. A drinkmade rom finely ground, powdered heartwood, mixed withother plants, ollowed by laxative was used in curing diseaseso both male and emale sex organs (Krauss 1993). However,

apart rom carving, sandalwood is rarely used in many othese traditional ways nowadays because o its scarcity andeconomic value.

Commercial exploitation o sandalwood commenced in theHawaiian and some South Pacific islands during the late 18th

and early 19th centuries when the aromatic lower trunks androotstock o native Santalum species were harvested in greaquantity and shipped to China. Tere they were used to

make incense, fine urniture, and other products. Te extensive and ofen exploitative sandalwood trade in Hawaii wasan early economic activity that adversely affected both thenatural environment and human health. Indeed, this activity represented an early shif rom subsistence to commercial economy in Hawaii that was to have ar-reaching andlong-lasting effects in the islands (Shineberg 1967).

Heartwood rom Pacific sandalwoods yields an aromatic essential oil that is widely valued and is second only to carvingwood in economic value per unit weight o wood. Te heartwood oil is extracted by steam distillation and is used or

cosmetics, scenting o soaps, perumery, aromatherapy, andmedicinal purposes. Te oil content o heartwood and oilquality varies considerably among species, individual treesand location within the tree. Oil content is typically in therange o 37% or basal stem and large root sections.

BothSantalum austrocaledonicum(native to New Caledoniaand Vanuatu) and S.yasi (native to Fiji and onga) produce

Lef: Nine-year-old Santalum austrocaledonicumtree on Mangaia, Cook Islands. Middle: Distilled sandalwood oil produced in ac-tory on Mar Island, Loyalty Group, New Caledonia. Right: Carving logs o Santalum austrocaledonicum, ready or shipment rom acommercial venture in Vanuatu.


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Specialty Crops for Pacific Island Agroforestry (http://agroforestry.net/scps) 3

highly prized santalol-rich heartwood oils. Te santalol-richoils within these species are similar in chemical compositionto and, in some individual trees, are equal in quality to thewell knownS. album rom India and Indonesia. Te heart-wood o S. yasiwas a major export during the early 1800s,and the sandalwood trade was one o the first commercialattractions drawing Europeans to the South Pacific. Sandal-wood rom S. yasiis still exported to a limited extent rom

Fiji and onga. Tis trade experiences short-lived boom pe-riods associated with a buildup o sandalwood stocks, suchas during the mid-late 1980s in Fiji when a ban on commer-cial exploitation was lifed, and again in Fiji and onga inthe mid-2000s. Santalum austrocaledonicumwas heavily ex-ploited over about three decades in the middle o the 1800sin New Caledonia and Vanuatu, and has since been utilizedperiodically. Carvings, essential oil, and incense production,listed in order o highest to lowest value, are the three majorpresent-day wood uses o S. austrocaledonicum.

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

Preferred scientific names

Melanesian sandalwoods

Santalum austrocaledonicumViell.var. austrocaledonicumvar. minutum N.Hallvar.pilosulum N.Hall

Santalum yasiSeem.

Hawaiian sandalwoods

Santalum ellipticumGaudich.Santalum freycinetianumGaudich.Santalum haleakalaeHillebr. var. haleakalaeSantalum haleakalaeHillebr. var. lanaiense(Rock) HarbaughSantalum involutumH.St.JohnSantalum paniculatumHook. & Arnott

Santalum pyrulariumA.Gray

Family

Santalaceae

Common names


Santalum austrocaledonicum:sandalwud (Vanuatu: Bislama)Santalum yasi:ahi (onga);yasi (Fiji); asi manogi(Samoa)


Santalum ellipticum: iliahialoe(Hawaii)Santalum freycinetianum, S. haleakalae, S. involutum, S

paniculatum, S. pyrularium: iliahi, aahi, aoa, lau ala

wahie ala(Hawaii)

Other generic common names

bois de santal, santal(French)sndalo(Spanish)sandalwood(English)

Brief botanical description

Santalum austrocaledonicum

Habit and size:A shrub or a small tree typically 512 m(1640 f) tall and 48 m (1326 f) in crown width. Temaximum tree dimension is about 15 m (50 f) tall and 10

m (33 f) in crown width. Maximum bole diameter at breastheight is 4050 cm (1620 in).

Form: Shrub to small tree typically with a short, crookedbole and spreading crown in open situations. In orest andsheltered situations, the bole may be straight or more thanhal the total height. In older specimens the crown is lightstraggly, and with drooping branches. Te bark is smooth torough, slightly longitudinally fissured or reticulated, which

A ships hull template called lua na moku iliahi (sandalwoodmeasuring pit) located adjacent to the Maunahui Forest Reserve

on Molokai, Hawaii. It was used to measure an amount o san-dalwood that would fit in a ships hull. When the template wasfilled, the logs were carried down the mountain to a waiting ship.
http://agroforestry.net/scpshttp://localhost/var/SARE%202007%20PDP/FFPM%20InDesign%20manuscripts/Sandalwood/N.Hall%8ehttp://localhost/var/SARE%202007%20PDP/FFPM%20InDesign%20manuscripts/Sandalwood/N.Hall%8ehttp://localhost/var/SARE%202007%20PDP/FFPM%20InDesign%20manuscripts/Sandalwood/H.St.Johnhttp://localhost/var/SARE%202007%20PDP/FFPM%20InDesign%20manuscripts/Sandalwood/A.Grayhttp://localhost/var/SARE%202007%20PDP/FFPM%20InDesign%20manuscripts/Sandalwood/A.Grayhttp://localhost/var/SARE%202007%20PDP/FFPM%20InDesign%20manuscripts/Sandalwood/H.St.Johnhttp://localhost/var/SARE%202007%20PDP/FFPM%20InDesign%20manuscripts/Sandalwood/N.Hall%8ehttp://localhost/var/SARE%202007%20PDP/FFPM%20InDesign%20manuscripts/Sandalwood/N.Hall%8ehttp://agroforestry.net/scps


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can be more pronounced with age, (greyish or reddishbrown, mottled with patches o lichen).

Leaves:Te oliage shows wide variation. Leaves are oppo-site, usually in one plane, requently decussate on erect newgrowth, simple, entire, glabrous, dark green, and shiny ontop and dull light green to glaucous underneath. Te shapeo the lea is initially long and thin (59 by 0.5 cm [23.5by 0.2 in]) in seedlings and young plants to about 3 years

o age, becoming shorter and broader in older plants. Ma-ture leaves are narrowly elliptic, but maybe ovate, lanceolate,or obovate, (3)46(8) cm (1)1.52.5(4.5) cm ([1.2]1.62.4[3.1] in [0.4]0.61[1.8] in), with 6 to 15 pairso barely visible secondary nerves tapering equally to thebase and blunt tip. Variety minutumhas smaller, more glau-cous, bluish-green leaves, about 2 by 0.8 cm (0.8 by 0.3 in).

Flowers:Te small flowers are clustered in terminal or ax-illary panicles about 4.5 cm (1.8 in) long. Te bell-shapedflowers open to about 5 mm (0.2 in) across and have partstypically in ours. Buds and newly opened flowers have

greenish white to cream-colored corolla lobes, shorter, darkyellow disk lobes alternate with the corolla lobes. Te an-thers are yellow and the style and stigmas are cream/paleyellow.

Fruit: Te ruit is a sub-globose or ellipsoid, one-seededdrupe (720 mm [0.30.8 in] long by 1015 mm [0.40.6in] diameter), green and firm, ripening red, and turningpurplish black and thinly fleshy when mature. Fruits haveour longitudinal ridges and a square calyx scar at the apex.Fruits rom Aniwa (Vanuatu) are much larger (20 15 mm[0.8 0.6 in]) than those rom the Loyalty Islands (15 12mm [0.6 0.5 in]).

Seed: Te kernel consists o a hard (woody), smooth orslightly rough, light-colored endocarp enclosing a singleseed. Within var. austrocaledonicum the seeds rom the Loy-alty Islands are much bigger (2,400 per kg [1,100 seeds/lb])than those rom the Isle o Pines (6,000 per kg [2,700 seeds/lb]), while those rom Vanuatu are intermediate (3,3004,500 per kg [1,500 seeds/lb]). Varietypilosulumhas smallerseeds (8,400 per kg [3,800 seeds/lb]).

Santalum yasi

Habit and size:Mature specimens typically grow to about

810 m (2633 f) tall by 812 m (2640 f) in crown width,maximally reaching 15 m (50 f) tall by 13 m (43 f) in crownwidth. Maximum bole diameter at breast height is 4050 cm(1620 in).

Form: Shrub to small tree typically with a short, crookedbole and spreading crown in open situations. In orest andsheltered situations, the bole may be straight or more thanhal the total height. In older specimens the crown is light,straggly, and with drooping branches. Te bark is smooth torough, slightly longitudinally fissured or reticulated, which

can be more pronounced with age, (greyish or reddishbrown, mottled with patches o lichen).

Leaves: Seedlings have very slender, near-linear leavesLeaves are simple, opposite, narrow to broadly lanceolateshiny, and typically 67 cm 1.52 cm (2.42.8 in 0.60.8in). Tere is considerable variation in oliage size; adjacentplants have been observed to range rom 5 cm 1 cm (2 in 0.4 in) to 8 cm 2.5 cm (3.1 in 1 in). Te oliage is light

to dark green, but plants growing in the open with ew hosttrees available may have a yellowish-green appearance.

Flowers:Te small flowers are clustered in terminal or axillary panicles about 4.5 cm (1.8 in) long. Te bell-shapedflowers open to about 5 mm (0.2 in) across and have partstypically in ours. Buds and newly opened flowers havegreenish white to cream-colored corolla lobes, turning lightpink, through pink to dark red at maturity. Shorter, darkyellow disk lobes alternate with the corolla lobes. Te anthers are yellow and red-tinged and the style and stigmas arecream/pale yellow.

Fruit:Te ruit is a one-seeded, ellipsoid drupe, ca. 12 mm(0.47 in) long by 11 mm (0.43 in) diameter with a smallround calyx scar (about 2 mm [0.08 in] diameter) at theapex, enclosing a rather stout, cone-shaped point. Immatureruits are light green, turning reddish-purple, and finallydark purple or black at ull maturity.

Seed: Te kernel consists o a hard (woody), smooth orslightly rough, light-colored endocarp enclosing a singleseed. Te seeds are 911 mm by 67 mm (0.350.43 inby 0.240.28 in) with approximately 6,0007,000 per kg(2,7003,200 seeds/lb).


Santalum ellipticum

Habit and size: A sprawling shrub to small tree, typically15 m (3.316 f) tall and 13 m (3.310 f) in canopy diameter, maximally reaching 12 m (39 f) tall and 5 m (16f) in canopy diameter, and bole diameter at breast height(dbh) o 30 cm (12 in). Tis species is extremely variable in

vegetative and floral characters (Wagner et al. 1999; Littleand Skolmen 1989).

Leaves: Leaves are 2.56.1 cm (12.4 in) long and 1.74 cm

(0.671.6 in) wide, with petioles up to 15 mm (0.6 in) longTey are elliptic to orbicular, ovate, or obovate in shape andleathery to succulent. Tey have dull, greyish green, requently glaucous upper and lower suraces.

Flowers: Te inflorescence is greenish in bud; afer opening, the corolla remains greenish but is tinged with brownorange, or salmon. Flowers are about as long as wide, produced in terminal or (more or less) axillary, compoundcymes. Pedicels are 01 mm (00.04 in) long, the floral tube


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is campanulate to conical, 47 mm (0.160.28 in) long, andthe ovary is inerior. Flowers produce a sweet ragrance.

Fruit: Mature ruits are purple to black drupes, ofen glau-cous, 912 mm (0.40.5 in) long, with a distinctive apicalreceptacular ring.

Seed: Te kernel consists o a hard, woody, smooth or slight-ly rough, light-colored endocarp enclosing a single seed.Data is lacking or seed size or the Hawaiian species. Birdsare the principal means o seed dispersal. However, in many

habitats the ruits and seeds are consumed by rats (Rattusexulans, which were introduced by Polynesians beore 1778,and more recently, R. rattus).

Santalum freycinetianum

(adapted rom Harbaugh et al. 2010)

Habit and size: A small shrub to tree typically 410 m(1333 f) tall and 37 m (1023 f) in canopy diameter. Temaximum tree dimension is 20 m (66 f) tall and 10 m (33 f)in canopy diameter, and bole diameter at breast height is 80

cm (31.5 in) (Wagner et al. 1999; Little and Skolmen 1989Harbaugh et al. 2010).

Leaves: Leaves are opposite, 410 cm (1.63.9 in) in lengthand 1.24.4 cm (0.51.7 in) wide, with an acute to roundedapex. Petioles are 7.720.7 mm (0.30.8 in) long. Te leavesare light to dark green, occasionally slightly glaucous, moreor less wilted in appearance, and tinged with purple whenimmature.

Flowers: Flowers are longer than wide, and produced in ter

minal or (more or less) axillary, relatively open, compoundcymes. Pedicels are normally 12 mm (0.040.08 in) longwith bracts that are rapidly deciduous. Te floral tube is yellowish white to white but turns pink to dark pink as it ages;it is campanulate to cylindrical, usually 36 mm (0.10.2 in)long and 23.4 mm (0.080.13 in) wide. Te ovary is partlyinerior. Flowers produce a weak ragrance.

Fruit: Mature ruits are reddish purple to almost blackdrupes at maturity, 914 mm (0.350.55 in) long, with adistinctive sub-apical receptacular ring.

op lef: Santalum austrocaledonicum flowers. op right: Santalum yasi flowers. Bottom lef: Santalum yasi tree growing in homegarden, Hihio, onga. Bottom middle: Lea variation in Santalum austrocaledonicum, anna, Vanuatu.Bottom right: Santalum austrocaledonicumruit, Santo, Vanuatu.
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Seed: Te kernel consists o a hard, woody, smooth or slight-ly rough, light-colored endocarp enclosing a single seed thathas a rough surace and is pointed at one end. Data is lack-ing or seed size or the Hawaiian species. Birds are the prin-cipal means o seed dispersal. However, in many habitatsthe ruits and seeds are consumed by rats (Rattus exulans,which were introduced by Polynesians beore 1778, andmore recently, R. rattus).

Santalum haleakalae Hillebr. var.haleakalaeSantalum haleakalae Hillebr. var.lanaiense(Rock)

Harbaugh


Habit and size: A small to medium, single or multi-stemmed shrub or tree, typically 18 m (3.326 f) tall and24 m (6.613.2 f) canopy diameter. Maximum bole dbh is20 cm (8 in) (Wagner et al. 1999; Little and Skolmen 1989;Harbaugh et al. 2010).

Leaves: Leaves are opposite, 2.28.4 cm (0.93.3 in) longand 1.24.9 cm (0.93.3 in) wide with 1.221.7 mm (0.05

0.85 in) long petioles. Lea shape is ovate, elliptic to orbicu-lar, and rom wilted to stiff . Te leaves are light olive to darkgreen, requently tinged purple, and normally glaucous.

Flowers: Flowers are longer than wide, deep pink to redthroughout or with white to pink interiors, and producedin sparse or congested, terminal, compound cymes, veryoccasionally with a ew extra axillary flower clusters. Tepedicels are 0.74.4 mm (0.030.17 in) long. Te bracts arepersistent afer flowering in var. haleakalaeand not persis-tent in var. lanaiense, and the campanulate to cylindricalfloral tube, 2.011.2 mm (0.080.44 in) long and 1.94.0

mm (0.070.16 in) wide, is white, turning dark red as it agesPedicels are 0.74.4 mm long (0.030.17 in). Corolla lobesare 2.07.1 mm (0.080.28 in) long; their outer suraces aredark red and glaucous externally, turning to the same coloron the inner surace afer opening. Te ovary is partly inerior. Flowers produce a weak ragrance.

Fruit: Mature ruits are black or purplish black drupes 916mm (0.350.63 in) long, with a distinctive sub-apical recep

tacular ringSeed: Te kernel consists o a hard, woody, smooth, orslightly rough, light-colored endocarp enclosing a singleseed with rough surace and pointed at one end. Data islacking or seed size or the Hawaiian species. Birds arethe principal means o seed dispersal. However, in manyhabitats the ruits and seeds are consumed by rats (Rattusexulans, which were introduced by Polynesians beore 1778and more recently, R. rattus).

In act, rats have all but eliminated reproduction o the endangered Lnai variety o S. haleakalaein the wild by eating

the ruits beore they all (Ziegler 2003).

Santalum involutum


Habit and size:Small, evergreen tree typically 27 m (6.623 f) tall

Leaves: Leaves are opposite, yellowish-green to grayishgreen, thin and papery (ofen translucent) ofen droopingmore glaucous and slightly lighter on lower surace, linearelliptic (rarely conduplicate-alcate), sides rolled upwards(rarely flat), 4.68.2 cm (1.83.2 in) long and 1.41.8 cm

(0.60.7 in) wide, margins flat, apices acute, bases cuneate

Lef: A shrubby Santalum haleakalae tree about 1.5 m (5 f) tall growing on cliff in Haleakal National Park, Maui, Hawaii. Right:Santalum haleakalae flowers and leaves, Haleakal National Park, Maui.


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petioles yellowish to pinkish, 7.017.0 mm (0.280.67 in)long.

Flowers: Flowers are greenish-white throughout (some-times turning red with age) carried on a sparse terminal oraxillary cyme. Floral tubes campanulate to cylindrical 511mm (0.20.43 in) long and 23 mm (0.080.12 in) wide,without vertical keel below each corolla lobe; corolla lobes4, concave with thickened margins, 35 mm (0.120.2 in)

long and 1.53.0 mm (0.060.12 in) wide; disk lobes lingu-

late, apices acute or round; stigma lobes 3; stamens 4; ovaryinerior.

Fruit: A drupe, elliptic with apical ring, 1320 mm (0.510.79 in) long.

Seed: Te kernel consists o a hard, woody, smooth or slightly rough, light-colored endocarp enclosing a single seedthat has a rough surace and is pointed at one end. Birdsare the principal means o seed dispersal. However, in many

habitats the ruits and seeds are consumed by rats (Rattus

op lef: A 1518 m (5060 f) tall Santalum freycinetianumtree o in Honouliuli Preserve, Oahu. op middle: Santalum pyrulariumflowers, Npali Kona Forest Reserve, Kauai, Hawaii. op right: A Santalum paniculatumtree, Mauna Kea, Hawaii. Bottom lef: Santalum paniculatumflowers. Bottom right: Santalum paniculatumruit and leaves.


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exulans, which were introduced by Polynesians beore 1778,and more recently, R. rattus).

Santalum paniculatum

Habit and size: A shrub or tree 310 m (1033 f) tall and37 m (1023 f) canopy diameter. In some relatively pro-tected situations, S. paniculatum will grow to heights o1520 m (4966 f).Te maximum canopy diameter is 10 m(33 f) with a bole diameter at breast height o 1 m (3.3 f)(Wagner et al. 1999; Little and Skolmen 1989).

Leaves: Leaves are 2.58 cm (13.1 in) long and 24.5 cm(0.81.8 in) wide with 215 mm (0.080.6 in) long petioles.Lea shape is ovate, elliptic, or obovate, and the suraceshave glossy upper sides and dull, sometimes pale, lowersides. Both suraces are ofen glaucous, and usually o differ-ent colors, occasionally yellowish orange to bluish or olivegreen.

Flowers: Flowers are approximately as long as wide, green-ish in bud, and produced in terminal or (more or less) axil-lary, compound cymes. Te pedicels are about 1 mm long.Te floral tube is campanulate to conical. Te corolla is 48mm (0.160.32 in) long and greenish but tinged with brown,orange, or salmon afer opening. Te ovary is inerior. Flow-ers produce a sweet ragrance.

Fruit: Mature ruits are purple to black drupes 1012 mm(0.40.5 in) long, with a distinctive apical receptacular ring.

Seed: Te kernel consists o a hard, woody, smooth or slight-ly rough, light-colored endocarp enclosing a single seed.Data is lacking or seed size or the Hawaiian species. Birdsare the principal means o seed dispersal. However, in many

habitats the ruits and seeds are consumed by rats (Rattusexulans, which were introduced by Polynesians beore 1778,and more recently, R. rattus).

Santalum pyrularium

(adapted rom Harbaugh et al.2010)

Habit and size: A single or multi-stemmed shrub or smalltree, 15 m (3.316.4 f) tall.

Leaves: Leaves are opposite, medium to dark green, thinand papery to leathery, more glaucous and very slightly pal-er on lower surace, narrowly to broadly elliptic, ovate, tooblong (rarely conduplicate-alcate), 3.69.4 cm (1.43.7 in)long and 1.23.8 cm (0.471.5 in) wide, margins flat (rarelywavy), apices acute to obtuse (rarely acuminate), bases cu-neate or rounded, petioles 5.915.7 mm (0.230.62 in) long.

Flowers:Flowers are cream to purple throughout, or green-ish with purple interior borne on a sparse axillary (or rarelyterminal) cyme. Floral tubes campanulate to cyrindrical,3.613.0 mm (0.140.51 in) long and 2.64.4 mm (0.10.17in) wide, with vertical keel below each corolla lobe; pedicels1.03.1 mm (0.040.12 in) long; corolla lobes 4, concave

with thickened margins, papillate, 3.45.8 mm (0.130.23in) long and 2.03.7 mm (0.080.15 in) wide; disk lobeslingulate, apices acute or round; stigma lobes 3; stamens 4ovary inerior.

Fruit:A drupe, elliptic with apical ring, 1522 mm (0.590.87 in) long.

Seed:Te kernel consists o a hard, woody, smooth or slightly rough, light-colored endocarp enclosing a single seed

that has a rough surace and is pointed at one end. Birdsare the principal means o seed dispersal. However, in manyhabitats the ruits and seeds are consumed by rats (Rattusexulans, which were introduced by Polynesians beore 1778and more recently, R. rattus).

Variation within species


Santalum austrocaledonicumand S. yasiboth exhibit considerable morphological variation, and numerous traditiona

varieties are recognized. Tere are three ormally described

varieties o S. austrocaledonicumin New Caledonia.

Santalum austrocaledonicumvar. austrocaledonicum and varpilosulumhave large leaves (about 5 cm 2 cm [2 in 0.8in]) and long petioles (616 mm [0.240.63 in]) and corollalobes (1.3 mm 0.8 mm [0.05 in 0.03 in]). Te flowers andnew shoots o var. austrocaledonicum are glabrous whereasthose o var.pilosulumare villous or hairy.Varietyminutumhas much smaller leaves (about 2 cm 0.8 cm [0.8 in 0.3in]) and corolla lobes (1.3 mm 0.4 mm [0.05 in 0.02 in])


All species exhibit considerable morphological variationand numerous traditional varieties are recognized. Originally there were two species, S. ellipticumand S. freycinetianum, recognized in the Hawaiian Islands, representing thewhite-flowered and red-flowered taxa. Tere have beennumerous subsequent revisions recognizing up to nine dierent Hawaiian Santalum species. Te six species most recently described in a taxonomic revision with the supporto modern DNA research (Harbaugh et al. 2010) appear tohave been derived rom two separate colonizing events romAustralia (Harbaugh and Baldwin 2007; Harbaugh 2008)Tese are represented by two sections o the genus Santalum

Section Solenantha uyama includes Santalum freycinetianum, S. haleakalae,S. involutum,and S. pyrularium, whichare characterized by red or red-tinged petals with flowerslonger than wide that produce much nectar. Te endemicsection Hawaiiensia Skottsb. includes S. ellipticum and S

paniculatum, which are typified by flowers that are approximately as wide as long, producing little or no nectar, withgreen petals that become yellowish brown, orange, or occasionally salmon.


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Known varieties (Wagner et al. 1999; Harbaugh et al.

2010)

S. ellipticum

Tis species is highly variable, both in vegetative and floralcharacters. As many as six taxa have been proposed orindividuals belonging to S. ellipticum. However, there isno single or group o characters that provide a sound basisor an enhanced subdivision o this species. Research by

Stemmermann (1980), based on lea succulence, glaucousruit, and shrubby habit, recognized a coastal type as var.littorale. However, all o the characters used to differentiatethe variety can also be ound in inland plants in S. ellipticum.Furthermore, the coastal orm represents an extreme othe variation pattern. Essentially, this orm represents anecotype and probably does not warrant ormal recognition.

S. freycinetianum

Santalum freycinetianum previously was circumscribed toinclude two varieties (lanaienseandpyrularium) ound on

all o the major Hawaiian Islands (except Hawaii). However,a recent taxonomic revision by Harbaugh et al. (2010),combining analyses based on DNA, microsatellite andmorphological variation, has shown S. freycinetianum tocomprise only one entity that is restricted to upland areas otwo mountain ranges on the island o Oahu.

S. haleakalae

As now circumscribed ollowing the recent taxonomicrevision o Harbaugh et al. (2010), S. haleakalaeis widespreadand occurs in two varieties. Tese are Santalum haleakalaeHillebr. var. haleakalae,which is rare and restricted to the

East Maui volcano and S. haleakalaeHillebr. var. lanaiense(Rock) Harbaugh (syn. S. freycinetianum Gaud. var.lanaienseRock), which is a morphologically variable taxonoccurring on the three islands o Maui, Lnai and Molokai.

S. involutum

Tis Kauai endemic exists as small populations in and aroundKalalau Valley and has not been commonly recognized.Harbaugh et al. (2010) hypothesize that this species wascreated by an ancient hybridization event between the red-and white- flowering Hawaiian sandalwood clades.

S. paniculatumAlthough Fosberg (1962) included this species as a varietyo S. ellipticum, more recent taxonomic research byStemmermann (1980) indicates that based on differences inlea orm and color, and shrub or tree habit, there are twosignificantly intergrading varieties o S. paniculatum; theseare var.paniculatumand var.pilgeri.

S. pyrularium

Once regarded as a Kauai variety o S. freycinetianum(varpyrularium), Harbaugh et al. (2010) have re-raised thisvariety to species rank.

DISTRIBUTION

Native range



Tis species is naturally ound in the island archipelagos oNew Caledonia and Vanuatu in the southwest Pacific.

Var. austrocaledonicum is common in the Loyalty Islandsand the Isle o Pines but is uncommon on the main islando Grande erre. It is also present in the Belep islands. InVanuatu the principal occurrence is around the northwestwest, and southwest portions o Erromango, and on the westcoast o Espiritu Santo; it is also ound on anna, Aniwa

Futuna, Malekula, Eate, and Aneityum.Var.pilosulumis restricted to low elevations on the main island o New Caledonia near Noumea. It also has limited occurrence at high elevation in the Karaka region (northeastslope o Mt. Do between Boulouparis and Tio).

Var. minutumis restricted to the northwest side o the mainisland o New Caledonia.

Santalum yasi

Tis species occurs in lowland, drier, and more open oresttypes in Fiji, Niue, and onga. Te Niuean population may

be an ancient or Polynesian introduction. Tere is one record or Samoa (Savaii), where it appears to be introducedbut not naturalized. Te range extends rom Niue and Euaa southern island in the ongan group, through ongatapuHaapai, and Vavau (onga), west and northwards, throughthe Fiji Islands (Lau group, Kadavu, Nausori Highlands/VitLevu, Bua/Vanua Levu) to the Udu Peninsula, NE VanuaLevu, northern part o Fiji.


Santalum ellipticum

Endemic to Hawaiian Islands, this species can be ound as asprawling to bushy shrub near the ocean shore. It is also occasionally ound as a somewhat larger shrub to small tree indry gulches, on slopes or ridges, and requently in a lava orrocky habitats. Te species also grows in arid shrub land andorest most commonly on the island o Oahu, ofen persisting in areas invaded by non-native species up to elevationso 560 m (1,840 f), and sometimes as high as 950 m (3,120f) elevation on all o the main islands. It is now extinct onKahoolawe and Laysan, rare on Kauai, and on Hawaii it is


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only known to exist in scattered areas, such as in the KohalaMountains, Puuwaawaa in the North Kona District, andPuuppapa and several other o the nearby cinder cones inthe South Kohala District. It may also be ound very rarelyin the lower subalpine area between Mauna Kea and MaunaLoa (Wagner et al. 1999).

Santalum freycinetianum

Tis species has a scattered distribution on slopes or ridgeso both the Waianae and Koolau Mountain Ranges on theisland o Oahu. Altitudinal range is 300800 m (9802,620f) (Harbaugh et al. 2010).

Santalum haleakalae

Santalum haleakalaevar. haleakalaeis endemic to EasternMaui and is restricted to scattered areas in the subalpineshrub land on dry slopes, especially in oggy areas at 1,8002,700 m (5,9008,860 f) on Haleakal (Wagner et al. 1999;Harbaugh et al. 2010).

Santalum haleakalae var. lanaiense, according to a recent

taxonomic revision by Harbaugh et al. (2010), occurs on theislands o Maui, Lnai and Molokai. In Maui, it is oundin the mountains o West Maui in exposed or semi-shadedscrublands rom 8001,300 m (2,6204,260 f) and also onthe southern slopes o Haleakal Crater on East Maui at1,2001,350 m (3,9404,430 f). In Lnai it is scattered inthe eastern mountains at 750950 m (2,4603,120 f) eleva-tion while it is rare within the Knepuu Preserve on westernLnai at 550 m (1,800 f). It is scattered in eastern Molokaiat elevations o 9501,250 m (3,1204,100 f).

Santalum involutum

Tis species is restricted to the island o Kauai where it occursin valleys (Hanakpai, Phakuao, and Kalalau) runningdown to the northwestern Npali coast, Wainiha Valley inthe north and the southern region o Wahiaw. Altitudinalrange is 120750 m (3902,460 f). Harbaugh et al. (2010)state that, although it is observed inMetrosideroswet orest,S. involutum seems to preer Diospyrosmixed mesic orest,which is extremely rare and noted or its floristic diversity.

Santalum paniculatum

Endemic to Hawaii Island only, this species is ound in

dry orest areas on lava substrates or on cinder cones upto higher elevations in more humid orest, or in secondary

Metrosiderosorest rom about 4502,550 m (1,4808,360 f)in elevation (Wagner et al. 1999).

Santalum pyrularium

Harbaugh et al. (2010) describe the range and environmento S. pyrularium as restricted to the island o Kauai where itcan be prevalent around Waimea Canyon and Kkee StatePark at an altitudinal range o 2701,400 m (8904,590 f).

It consistently preers partial to ull shade and is most ofenassociated with mesic (summer dry) orest communitiesbut it occasionally invades wet orest communities and bogmargins.

Current distribution



Outside o its native range this species has been little planted, mainly or trial purposes in Australia, Fiji, and the CookIslands.

Santalum yasi

Tis species has been planted on a small scale outside o itsnatural range, mainly or trial purposes in Australia. Someo its occurrences, e.g., on Niue, may be comprised o naturalized populations ollowing introduction by humans.


Hawaiian species have primarily been planted inside o theirnatural range or economic or conservation purposes. Judd(1926) describes early attempts to cultivate sandalwood inHawaii.

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES AND

TOLERANCES

Climate


Santalum austrocaledonicumand S. yasipreer warm to hot

lowland, subhumid or wet/dry tropics, with an annual rainall o 1,2501,750 mm (5070 in) and a distinct dry seasono at least 35 months. ropical cyclones are a eature o theentire distribution, occurring mainly during the hot, wetseason (DecemberApril).


Hawaiian species are variously adapted to a variety oecological ranges (rom sea level to the subalpine zone) asrepresented by the existing populations.

Other tolerances

Drought

Tey are able to survive a long dry season (up to 56 monthswhen attached hemi-parasitically to suitably drought-tolerant host plants.

Full sun

Tey grow well in ull sun when their roots are attachedhemi-parasitically to suitable host species; otherwise, plantsgrowing in ull sun can become yellow and even die.


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Shade

Tey can tolerate up to 6070% shade, but growthwill be very slow at higher shade levels. Te opti-mum level o shade is up to about 2535%, pre-erably as side shade. Side shade is provided byplanting adjacent rows o bushy but not spreadingplants, which grow up to about the same height assandalwood without overtopping them and cast-

ing overhead shade.Fire

Sandalwoods are sensitive to fire (and grazingrom cattle, goats, and deer) particularly in the firstew years o growth. Individuals o some sandal-wood species will regrow rom coppice ollowingfire, e.g., S. austrocaledonicum and younger speci-mens oS. album.

Frost

All species are rost-sensitive with the possible ex-

ception o S. haleakalae, which is adapted to thesubalpine zone o Haleakal, Maui.

Waterlogging

Tey preer good drainage and will die or die backollowing any prolonged period o waterlogging(greater than 12 weeks).

Salt spray

Plants growing in near-coastal situations may su-er severe scorching by salt-laden winds and totaldeoliation ollowing cyclonic storms, but usually

they recover ully. A coastal ecotype o S. ellipti-cumis an exception; it is adapted to growing nearor along the coast, usually as a sprawling or smallshrub.

Wind

Mature plants are typically o low stature and aresomewhat resistant to strong winds associated withcyclonic storms, except in open areas. Youngerplants in open areas, especially i they have grownquickly and have a heavy canopy, may be blownover or suffer breakage o stems and branches dur-

ing high winds. Older trees growing among estab-lished orests can also suffer rom limb damageduring cyclone events. Te most susceptible treesare those with heavy canopies and orked trunks,

which can easily split.

Table 1. Elevation, rainfall, and temperature

Elevation range (m)

Melanesian sandalwoodsSantalum austrocaledonicumSantalum yasi

Hawaiian sandalwoodsSantalum ellipticumSantalum freycinetianumSantalum haleakalae var. haleakalae

Santalum haleakalae var. lanaienseSantalum involutumSantalum paniculatumSantalum pyrularium

lower

5 m (16 f)1 m (3 f)

1 m (3 f)300 m (980 f)1,800 m (5,900 f)

550 m (1,800 f)120 m (390 f)450 m (1,480 f)270 m (890 f)

upper

800 m (2,400 f)600 m (2,000 f)

950 m (3,120 f)800 m (2,620 f)2,700 m (8,860 f)

1,350 m (4,430 f)750 m (2,460 f)2,550 m (8,360 f)1,400 m (4,590 f)

Mean annual rainall

Melanesian sandalwoodsSantalum austrocaledonicumSantalum yasi

lower

800 mm (30 in)1,400 mm (55 in)

upper

2,500 mm (100 in)2,500 mm (100 in)

Hawaiian sandalwoodsDirect rainall data is lacking. General inormation on moisture regime is:

Santalum ellipticumXeric landsSantalum freycinetianumMesic to wet orestSantalum haleakalaevar. haleakalaeXeric subalpineSantalum haleakalaevar. lanaienseMesic to wet orestSantalum involutumMesic to wet orestSantalum paniculatumXeric to wet orestSantalum pyrulariumMesic to wet orest

Dry season duration(consecutive months with


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Soils


Both species

Both S. austrocaledonicumand S. yasioccur on a range osoil texture types. Tey are generally ound on light to me-dium sandy loams but can be ound growing on corallinesoils through to basaltic errosols. Both species require ree-

ly draining soils.Both species may grow on acid to alkaline soils (pH 4.08.0), but preer neutral soils (pH 6.17.4). Development andspread o the pathogenic brown root rot (Phellinus noxius)may be reduced in alkaline soils. Both species can tolerateshallow and inertile soils.


In the Poya region o New Caledonia, var. austrocaledoni-cum grows in errallitic/ultramafic soils with a limestonesubstrate. Tese soils have high levels o exchangeable cal-cium and potassium and are rich in nickel and chrome. Fur-ther north, around Pouembout, it grows in a highly acidic toneutral, magnesium-rich black clay derived rom basalt. Var.minutum occurs on immature colluvial soil on serpentineperidotite/metamorphic and ultramafic gravels. Such soilsare inertile with very low levels o phosphorus, potassium,and calcium, but are relatively high in magnesium, nickel,chrome, and manganese. In Vanuatu, the species grows wellon pure coralline soil, volcanic ash, schist or sedimentarysubstrates. Te species preers well drained acidic to alka-line conditions and does not grow well on waterlogged soilsand strongly acidic clayey soils.

Santalum yasi

In Fiji the soils are mainly well drained, humic and erru-ginous latosols. In onga, its best development is on soilsderived rom volcanic ash overlying coralline rock.


Hawaiian sandalwoods preer light and medium, welldrained soils (sands, sandy loams, loams, and sandy clayloams). All species require reely draining soils. Acid to neu-tral soils (pH 4.07.4) are acceptable, but they preer neutralsoils (pH 6.17.4).Te species tolerate shallow and inertile

soils. S. ellipticumthrives in sandy soils, including those de-rived rom raised limestone, but also does well in clay soilsand can regenerate on lava beds. Additional soil data or theother five Hawaiian sandalwood species are lacking

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT



In New Caledonia in young plantations up to 5 years oldindividuals show mainly an increase in height with a meanannual growth increment in trunk diameter o about 6 mm(0.24 in). Te average diameter growth rate in older plants is

3.84.8 mm/yr (0.1519 in/yr). In Vanuatu young plants (upto 3 years old) can grow at moderately ast rates, e.g., 11.5m (35 f) height per annum and 1 cm (0.4 in) diameter increment (measured at 20 cm [8 in] above ground level) perannum. Diameter growth averaged 610 mm/yr (0.240.4in/yr) at 1826 years, and 67 mm/yr (0.240.27 in/yr) afe2833 years. rees can grow at moderate rate over the projected rotation period o about 2040 years.

Santalum yasi

Early height growth is slow to moderate, e.g., 0.50.7 myr (1.62.3 f/yr), but is variable depending upon environ

mental conditions and host species. Under suitable growingconditions it may attain harvestable size in about 25 yearse.g., 2025 cm (810 in) diameter near ground level, withsubstantial heartwood development.


Afer exhausting energy stored in the seed, seedlings maystop growing or a number o weeks during what may betermed a waiting period. When necessary root contactsare established with host species, a rapid increase in growtho the plant begins. Frequently, the new growth in S. ellipti

cumand S. paniculatummaniests as a distinct alteration olea color rom an initial red or pink to a bluish green. Rapidaddition o new oliage is a strong indication that the planthas established good water and nutrient uptake by its ownroots in the soil and through its unions with roots o hostplants. Development regimes and longevity records orHawaiian sandalwood species are lacking.

Rooting habit

Sandalwoods have a widely spreading surace root systemand roots are rarely ound more than 50100 cm (2040 inbelow the soil surace. Spreading root structure ensures the

grafing (via haustoria) onto many other plant species andtapping into the host plants water and mineral nutrients.

Reaction to competition

Sandalwoods, especially as young plants, react poorly tocompetition rom monocotyledons (including grasses andpalms such as coconut) and to overshading by aster growing plants. Being hemi-parasitic, they grow best in closeproximity to suitable host species.


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Regeneration

Natural regeneration o wild sandalwood stands typicallyoccurs very slowly ollowing harvesting due to the removalo most o the larger ruiting specimens.

Self-prune

Sel pruning is variable; in open situations, sandalwoodplants ofen retain branches to near ground level. In shadier

situations, especially where the shade is cast rom overhead,the plants exhibit reasonably good sel-pruning characteris-tics. For S. yasisuitable shade regimes to keep plants grow-ing straight and to avoid a bushy habit include strong lateralshade with no overhead shade or a high canopy producingintermediate shade.

Coppice

Plants requently resprout rom basal coppices or by rootsuckering off lateral roots (ollowing removal o the stumpand major roots). Many species are capable o root sucker-

ing as long as not too much o the root system is removedduring harvest. Such coppice regrowth is likely to die out inheavily shaded situations.

Pollard

Plants can be pollarded, but this is not an appropriate regime or sandalwood where the economic value is concentrated in the heartwood in the lower bole and large woodyroots and regrowth is slow.

Flowering and fruiting


Under avorable conditions plants begin flowering and ruiting rom an early age, typically about 18 months to 3 years inS. austrocaledonicumand 34 years in S. yasi. Tere is considerable variation in seasonality o flowering and ruiting.

In S. austrocaledonicum trees flower and ruit throughoutthe year, usually with two peaks. In Vanuatu, flowering occurs in JanuaryApril, July, and October. In New Caledonia

flowering occurs throughout the year, but there are flowering peaks in February and October, and flowering is rarelyobserved in June and July. Mature ruits have been reportedalmost throughout the year, but the main ruiting season isNovemberJanuary. In New Caledonia, two ruiting seasonsare observed: the main ruiting season is rom December toFebruary and with a light ruiting season rom July to August. Fruits mature about 34 months afer flowering.

InS. yasitrees flower and ruit throughout the year, usuallywith two peaks. Te two main flowering periods or S. yasin Fiji are OctoberNovember and February. In the southern islands o onga (Eua and ongatapu), the main flowering period is (June) JulyAugust (September). Furthernorth in the Haapai and Vavau groups the peak floweringperiod is NovemberDecember. Te main ruiting seasoncorresponds to the wet season, DecemberMarch, with lightruiting in the cooler, dry season (JuneAugust). Fruits mature about 34 months afer flowering.


Under good conditions the Hawaiian sandalwoods beginflowering rom an early age, typically about 34 years, butheavy flowering and ruiting may take 710 years. Tere is

considerable variation in seasonality o flowering and ruiting.rees flower and ruit throughout the year, usually withtwo peaks. Most species have a ruiting season throughoutthe year except or winter.

Santalum austrocaledonicumroots grafed to Sesbania formosaroot via haustoria. Te necessity to root-graf to other speciesmakes Santalumspecies partially dependent upon neighboringplants or nutrients and water or their survival.

Haustoria

Santalum

root

Sesbania

root


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AGROFORESTRY AND ENVIRONMENTAL

SERVICES

Alley cropping

Sandalwoods are suitable or inclusion in alley cropping sys-tems, especially where the other alley species include goodhosts, e.g., Calliandra and Casuarina spp.

Homegardens

Te trees are very suitable or planting in homegardens,which have the advantages o a mixture o host species,intermediate/variable light levels, and high security. Forexample, sandalwoods are ofen planted in Fijian villagehomegardens with ornamentals and cultural species (e.g.,Pandanus tectorius, Polyscias, Croton, Cordyline, andEuodiahortensis) and ruit trees (e.g.,Artocarpus altilis, Citrusspp.,

Musaspp., and Pometia pinnata).

Improved fallows

Sandalwood could be included in improved allows o nitro-

gen-fixing trees, with a allow rotation o 20 or more years toensure that sandalwoods attain commercial maturity.

Woodlots

Sandalwoods are suitable or inclusion in woodlots, espe-cially when planted along sun-exposed edges o the wood-lot and in combination with compatible species, e.g., withPinus caribaea, as has been done in onga and Cook Islands,or withAcacia koain Hawaii.

Advantages and disadvantages of growing in

polycultures

As sandalwoods are obligate root hemi-parasites, it is nec-essary to grow them in an environment with several otherplant species to act as hosts. Obligate root hemi-parasitesneed a host to provide water and certain nutrients to growwell. It has been shown that nitrogen-fixing species gener-ally make the best hosts or sandalwood.

Over the lie o a sandalwood tree and throughout the sea-sons, its nutrient and water requirements will change. Byproviding a range o host species, including both long- andshort-lived species, this will ensure that the needs o the san-dalwood tree will be met throughout its lie.

I only one or two host plant species are used, there is ahigh risk that the sandalwood trees could become severelystressed at some point, with risk o plant death or early se-nescence associated with poor water and nutrient supply,and insect or ungal attack. For example, Calliandra calo-thyrsusand Citrus are excellent hosts in terms o promotingsandalwood growth, but are easily stressed and i mortalityis associated with a root rot ungus, such as Phellinus nox-ious, then this can easily spread to sandalwood through in-terconnected root systems.

op: Tese 3-year-old S. austrocaledonicum treesin Vanuatu willloose vigour due to the dense planting and lack o permanenhosts. Middle: A promising system with S. austrocaledonicum(2years old) planted within Casuarina equisetifoliawoodland onMangaia, Cook Islands. Bottom: S. austrocaledonicumplantation (about 10 years old) with Casuarina equisetifoliaas windbreak and permanent hosts in Eate, Vanuatu.


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op lef: wo-year-old smallholder agroorestry system incorporating planted ground cover legumes and grasses with S. austrocaledonicum in Eate, Vanuatu. op middle: One-year-old system incorporating S. austrocaledonicum, papaya (Carica papaya), tannia(Xanthosomasp.), Gliricidia sepium, and Flueggea flexuosain Eate. op right: Home garden incorporating S. austrocaledonicumandcoffee in anna, Vanuatu. Middle lef: Smallholder system with S. austrocaledonicum, papaya, Pacific spinach (Hibiscus manihot), tannia, and sweetpotato (Ipomoeabatatas) in Eate. Bottom lef: S. austrocaledonicumplanted with kava (Piper methysticum) in SantoVanuatu. Bottom right: S. austrocaledonicumplanted with various ruits in Malekula, Vanuatu.


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Furthermore, the sandalwood root structure is not necessar-ily strong enough to support a large tree without wind pro-tection rom neighboring host trees. However, sandalwoodscan lose vigor and produce less ragrant heartwood i tooheavily shaded (more than about 50% shade). Furthermore,they should not be grown under trees and palms prone todropping branches or large ronds which can damage andbreak the main leader.

Environmental services

Windbreaks

Sandalwoods are suitable or inclusion in windbreaks, espe-cially where the main windbreak species are also good hostspecies, e.g., Casuarinaspp.

Native animal/bird food

Te ruits o sandalwood are consumed by various bird spe-cies, including pigeons. For sof-beaked species the seedsmay pass through the digestive system intact and be widelydisseminated.

Host plant trellising

Tere is minor potential to trellis slow-growing vines thatwould not interere with ull sun reaching the canopy, suchas maile(Alyxia stellata andA. oliviformis).

Bee forage

When in flower, the trees are attended my many pollinators,including honeybees.

Coastal protection

Sandalwoods can ofen grow near (within a ew meters)

o the sea, but they provide limited protection due to theirshallow surace rooting habit and their leaves are burnt bystrong salt winds.

Ornamental

All species are quite attractive, especially when in flower,and suitable or home and village gardens. Tey could havea place in urban environments, but they require proper careand protection (e.g., no herbicide, no nearby oot or vehicletraffic, etc.), which may mean significant alterations in regu-lar landscaping practices.

Beore planting sandalwood, a plan should be made to en-sure it has the company o other plants that will act as hoststhroughout its lietime. When planting short-lived hostssuch as Dodonaea (hop bush), Sesbania (Dragon tree), orCajanus(pigeon pea), a long-term host such as Acacia orCasuarina should also be planted nearby well beore theshort-term host dies. It is best to think o sandalwood as amember o a plant community, rather than a lone specimen.Because o the slow rate o growth and relatively small size

o the tree, growing too large or the home garden is usuallynot an issue.

Rate of growth in a landscape

Under optimum conditions, the growth rate can be 0.71 myr (2.53.3 f/yr) in height, although it is usually slower. Aswith most trees, the rate o growth in height decreases as thetree gets older.

PROPAGATION AND PLANTING

All Santalum species are readily propagated by seed in thenursery. Te use o gibberellic acid can dramatically speedup the sometimes very slow germination process, as canscoring or cracking the endocarp. Tey may also be propagated through encouraging seedling development underneath selected heavy-ruit-bearing plants, then transplanting recently geminated wildlings (


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RECOMMENDED HOSTS

For Melanesian species

Acacia species, Alternanthera spp., Arachis pintoi, Calliandracalothyrsus,and Casuarinaspp. may be used as pot hosts butsome varieties o Alternanthera,Calliandra,andCasuarinaneed requent cutting back to prevent them rom overtop-ping the sandalwood.

S. austrocaledonicum

Acacia spirorbis makes a good long-term host plant underboth natural conditions and in plantations. For ultramaficsoils in New Caledonia, other good nitrogen-fixing host spe-cies are Casuarina collinaand Gymnostoma deplancheana.

S. yasi

Good long-term hosts includeAcacia richii, Calliandracalo-thyrsus, Casuarina equisetifolia, Citrus spp., Dalbergia sppand Flueggea flexuosa.

For Hawaiian species

Koa (Acacia koa), koaia (Acacia koaia), aalii (Dodonaea vis-cosa) and kookoolau (Bidens spp.) are thought to be good

native Hawaiian host plants. Exotics such as amaranth (Am-aranthus sp.), strawberry (Fragaria sp.) and beggars tick(non-native Bidens spp.) are reputed to be good short-termhosts. Other exotics that are used outside Hawaii as long-term hosts (but not recommended in Hawaii unless alreadypresent on site) include Calliandraspp., Casuarinaspp., andPinus caribaea.

op lef: Approximately 4-month-old S. austrocaledonicumseedlings with the pot hostAlternanthera, ready or field planting in PorVila, Vanuatu. op right: S. austrocaledonicumplanting in Eate. Bottom lef: S. austrocaledonicumplanted with the living groundcover and hostArachis pintoi. Bottom right: S. austrocaledonicumtogether with redAlternanthera(nursery container host) and pigeon pea, both intermediate-term hosts in the field.


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Propagation by vegetative cuttings

Te propagation o the Pacific sandalwoods by vegetativecutting has been tested in a number o research trials. Tetrials have shown that the rooting o cuttings varies consid-erably between species and hal-sibling amilies, and rootingsuccess declines rapidly with stock plant age. Successul rootinitiation and development greater than 40% is rare and canonly be obtained using shoot material collected rom seed-

lings and struck under intermittent misting in suitable me-dia (e.g., 1:1 sand/peat or 1:1 sand/coconut coir). Althoughtests have shown that S. yasicuttings root more easily thanthose o S. austrocaledonicum, it is still difficult to consis-tently obtain high rooting levels greater than 40%. Tere isa need or urther work to identiy appropriate stock planttreatments and environmental conditions to optimize root-ing success or each species. Data on success with propagat-ing the Hawaiian sandalwood species by vegetative cuttingis lacking.

Propagation by root segments

Root segments (about 510 cm [24 in] long and greaterthan 1 cm [0.4 in] in diameter) may be collected rom largerspecimens o S. yasi (and probably other sandalwood spe-cies) and used to strike cuttings. Te root segments aretreated with rooting powder (e.g., Seradix B

2) and placed

horizontally at a depth o 1 cm [0.4 in] in a reely drain-ing medium (e.g., 50:50 coarse washed river sand and peatmoss) that is kept moist (but not saturated) in a glasshouse(or alike). Te time or sprouting is about 1 to 3 months.Te percentage o root segments orming shoots and roots istypically low (e.g., 1050%) and dependent on seasonal ac-

tors. On older specimens, near-surace lateral roots may besevered (12 cm [0.40.8 in] diameter) or partially severed(4.55 cm [1.82 in] diameter), and root suckers allowed todevelop over 34 months and be used as a source o vegeta-tive propagation material (Maloni Havea, pers. comm.).

Recommended outplanting techniques

Sandalwoods need to be either planted out among estab-lished long-term host plants, or else together with interme-diate hosts (relatively short-lived woody perennials) whilelonger-term hosts are established.

Survival rates are high (ofen above 80%) or larger, healthy

seedlings planted at the onset o the rainy season and keptwell weeded in the first 2 years. Survival and growth will below or plants established:

with poorly developed root systems

in more shady orest situations

in grassy, sunny situations

underneath coconut plantations.

CULTIVATION

Basic crop management

Te main management objective should be to establish andmanage a good mixture o host plant species that provide asuitable light/shelter regime.

Host tree species may need to be pruned or progressivelythinned to maintain good levels o sunlight to maturing san

dalwood plants.For S. yasi, careul pruning o side branches, removing nomore than 25% o canopy at any one time, has been advocated to encourage development o a main bole. Regular removal o competing leaders (breaking by hand) in youngerspecimens may be a more satisactory approach or creatinga single main bole.

For soils o lower ertility, periodic ertilizing with 100 g (3oz) o multi-elemental ertilizer (N-P-K) per tree, well distributed up to 50 cm (20 in) rom stem (rather than heapedadjacent to stem), could promote more rapid growth. I trees

are showing signs o nutrient deficiency such as yellowingor slow growth, an application o multi-elemental ertilizercould reduce symptoms. As the sandalwood is obtainingmuch o its nutrients rom host trees, it will sometimes be

just as important to apply any ertilizer to the host trees aswell, but ertilizer should not be applied onto already vigorously growing host plants.

Sandalwood seedlings will react quite quickly, althoughtemporarily, to applications o oliar ertilizers. For seedlings that are showing signs o nutrient deficiencies, this is ashort-term solution.

Weed growth, especially long, flammable grasses, needsto be well controlled in the early years. Weeds should bemanually removed to avoid the risk o herbicide drif andor translocation through weeds to sandalwood plants viaroot system connections. Another option is to spread a 3 cm(1.2 in) deep layer o compost around the tree, and cover itwith 510 cm (24 in) o woody mulch such as chipped treelimbs. Tis mulch slowly adds nutrients and organic matterto the soil, protects the trees surace roots, and helps conserve soil moisture. Be sure to keep the mulch 10 cm (4 in)away rom the trunk o the tree to avoid rotting the bark andgirdling the tree.

PESTS AND DISEASES

Susceptibility to pests/pathogens

Sandalwood species are hemi-parasitic, with the potential toroot-graf onto many species and link together plant communities. Tey are thereore at particular risk o pathogenicungi such as Phellinus noxius that can also spread rom treeto tree through root grafs.


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In New Caledonia plants are sometimes attacked by insects(Ceroplastesand Coccus), but damage is rather minor. Fun-gal damage has been observed on leaves o nursery seedlings.Plants are susceptible to brown root rot (Phellinus noxius).

Santalum yasi

Yasi is susceptible to brown root rot,and mature specimensmay quickly succumb to it. Tis disease is potentially serious,as it can spread rapidly to adjacent trees through root graf-ing. In cool, wet, cloudy weather, seedlings can be attackedby a ungus (anthracnose type) that can cause severe leaspotting (hypersensitive reaction) ollowed by deoliation.Seedlings are susceptible to root rot-ungi in poorly drain-ing and unsterilized media. Yasi may be attacked by scale in-sects with lower leaves blackened by associated sooty mould,especially on the underside. Tis can become a problem orslow-growing plants in shadier situations.

Te native sandalwood in India (S. album) is affected bySpike disease, which is spread by mycoplasma that causesdieback o branches and eventually can be atal. It is thoughtthat most Santalumspecies are susceptible to Spike diseaseHowever, currently Spike disease mycoplasma are not present in the Pacific region.


Hawaiian sandalwood species generally appear to resistmost insect attack, although small inestations o whiteflyor scale insects sometimes do occur. Insecticidal soap maybe used to treat whitefly or scale insect inestations. Inrequently, a small grey weevil eeds on the young leaves, butusually does not cause significant damage. Some insectssuch as cockroaches, sow bugs, crickets, and a variety ocutworms may nibble at ground-level stem parts. Slugs andsnails may also eed on newly sprouted plants and may needto be manually or chemically controlled. o avoid lethal girdling o seedlings by cutworms and other similar pests, a

Lef: Tis mature Santalum haleakalaetree growing in pasture in Maui, Hawaii is 3 m (10 f) tall, with a trunk 30 cm (12 in) in diameter. Right: Demonstration o correct method or pruning young sandalwood in Eate, Vanuatu.


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protective barrier such as a plastic container should be usedto protect each newly planted seedling.

DISADVANTAGES

Some actors holding back sandalwood cultivation are:

lack o seed and planting materials

lack o varieties or cultivars with known oil qualitiesand yields

relatively complex silviculture and need to be grownwith suitable host plant species

susceptibility to root and butt rot ungi and rapid deatho plants when grown in higher rainall zones

risk o thef o trees when nearing maturity

Potential decline in world market price or sandalwoodoil due to establishment o large plantations in Austra-lia and Asia, and/or potential production o santalum-type oils (santalols) by genetically modified yeasts.

Potential for invasiveness

Sandalwoods have a good regeneration potential and ability to colonize/invade nearby suitable sites. Birds spread theruit rom mature, ruit-bearing trees. Teir invasive potential, however, is seldom considered a drawback due to theexceptionally high value o their heartwood. Furthermoretheir small stature and susceptibility to being shaded outmeans they never become dominant and/or substantially

modiy or replace existing plant communities.Tere is a risk that some planted host species, especially exotic leguminous trees, might become invasive. Accordinglyit is recommended that local plant species are screened firstor suitability as hosts and used preerentially, especially inand around areas o high conservation value.

COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION

Postharvest handling and processing

Te principal commercial products rom sandalwood are

the heartwood and the essential oil distilled rom the heartwood. One o the key advantages o growing sandalwoods istheir high-value, non-perishable product (heartwood) thacan provide cash income even when grown on a small scaleand in outer island locations remote rom markets.

Preparing the heartwood or market begins with whole treeharvesting, including collection o major roots and largerbranches that contain heartwood. Te main on-arm processing consists o careul removal o the bark and most othe sapwood, using an adze or sharp knie, but preerablyleaving a thin covering o lighter coloured sapwood. Tesawdust created rom cutting the bole and branches into billets should be collected, as it is also marketable.

It is anecdotally reported that sandalwood logs stored in dryconditions or several months may exhibit small increasesin oil content and improvement in quality, but this is at leastpartly off-set by a lower weight due to water loss.

Value-added processing

Essential oil

Sandalwood essential oils are extracted by the technologically simple process o steam distillation. In some cases it

might be economically easible to establish a communityacility or distillation o oil and thus add to community income generation compared to sales o heartwood alone. Depending on sandalwood species the value o the extractedheartwood oil is typically 2050 times the value o the heartwood (but which may only contain 23% oil content). Economic analyses o the estimated returns in Fiji rom severalscenarios in the production o S. yasiheartwood and oilsshowed that community oil production in conjunction withintercrops provide the greatest returns. While these scenar

Brown root rot (Phellinus noxius) symptoms on a S. austrocale-donicum trees. Tis serious disease can quickly spread to other

trees through root grafs.


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ios are hypothetical, a practical, working example o whatcan be achieved through community collaboration in san-dalwood oil production can be ound on Mare Island andon Isle o Pines, New Caledonia. Here community distilla-tion plants run by village cooperatives have been success-ully producing and marketing oil o S. austrocaledonicumor several years(See Example Successes below).

Te main requirements or establishing a successul collabo-

ration in sandalwood oil production are: adequate and sustainable supply o raw material

(heartwood) with due consideration o the long rota-tion lengths (minimum o 1720 years) and average oilyields and oil qualities

a village social structure that acilitates collaborationand is capable o organizing and controlling the op-eration including ensuring that adequate labour will beavailable or harvest, wood processing, and distillation(continuous distillation durations o 48 to 72 hours arestandard and require shif workers)

adequate financial resources

equipment available to finely chip the heartwood tothe size o coarse sawdust, ca. 1 mm thick and 45 mmlong (recommended)

an appropriate distillation apparatus including watersupply or condensation and uel (ideally a sustainablesupply o biomass) or distillation

appropriate containers and apparatus or packagingthe oil

an assured market offering an economically viable

price or the oil produced.A simple distillation apparatus is made entirely o stainlesssteel, as the oil interacts with mild steel affecting oil colourand quality. Te apparatus consists o a pot (usually 0.51.0m3[132264 gal] capacity) either placed above a water bathheated rom below by a locally produced and sustainableuel (e.g., wood, coconut husks, spent charge), or receivingsteam at the bottom o the charge rom a separate steamboiler. An apparatus employing hydro-distillation, as in thefirst case above, is not pressurized, while steam rom a boilercan be injected at slight pressure (1.42.8 kg/cm2) to speedup oil extraction. Te oil is separated rom the distillatethrough a stainless steel condenser receiving a steady flowo cool water (gravity-ed or mechanically pumped) rom anearby stream or tank. Te resulting lighter-than-water san-dalwood oil will be tapped rom a stainless steel collectordesigned or this purpose. Te oil thus produced should beree o impurities and can usually be packaged at the still ortransport and sale to the broker or end-user that is respon-sible or any urther processing o the oil.

Design o an appropriate distillation apparatus, giving dueconsideration to the local circumstances, is a specialist fieldand expert help should be sought beore embarking on construction or procuring off-the-shel stills.

Wood

Sandalwood heartwood is highly regarded by wood carversand high prices are paid or the largest and relatively deectree sections o tree trunks. Te roots, larger branches andparts o the tree trunk unusable by wood carvers are usedor oil production.

Heartwood sawdust, branches with a mere hint o heartwood ormation and spent charge (heartwood chips aferdistillation) are all marketable. Tese can be ground to afine powder used in the manuacture o incense sticks (josssticks) and or other religious or non-religious purposes inAsia (Weiss 1997).

Product quality standards

Oil composition o any sandalwood o international com

merce is invariably judged by its comparison with that othe oils o S. album (Indian sandalwood), the benchmarkspecies rom India and Indonesia. Indian sandalwood oil isdescribed by Weiss (1997) as a pale yellow (aging to goldenyellow) viscous liquid o great tenacity, which gives off asof, sweet-woody animal balsamic odour. It is widely usedin the ragrance and cosmetic industries, especially in themanuacture o fine perumes, where it displays excellentblending and fixative properties or other ragrances, e.g., inthe manuacture o rose attar in India (Coppen 1995, Weiss1997). Indian sandalwood oil is classed as a non-toxic, nonirritating, non-sensitizing oil (isserand and Balacs 1995)and also finds use in olk medicines and aromatherapy(Weiss 1997).

Oil quality o Indian sandalwood is defined by an International Standard (ISO/FDIS 3518 2002). Te two main desirable oil constitutes are alpha () and beta () santalols witha combined total content o santalols up to 90%. Te ISOstandard range or alpha () is between 4155% and beta() is 1624%. Tis standard has been set due to the great

variation in the occurrence and concentration o santalolsamong sandalwoods (Doran et al. 2005a).

Oil concentration in sandalwood heartwoods varies withinand between species and is greatest in older trees. Within aparticular species, both oil concentration and quality (santalol content) is highest usually in the main woody rootsnear the base o the stem (up to 10% or S. album) and lowest in chips o a mixture o heartwood and sapwood (1.52%or S. album). Tere are ew published estimates o oil concentration or the Pacific sandalwoods. Te mean oil concentration o commercially distilled S. austrocaledonicumin Vanuatu ranges rom 3.0% to 4.6% (Peter Murphy, pers


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comm. 2005, cited in Page et al. 2007). Tese yields are con-sistent with those reported or S. album in India (Coppen1995, Weiss 1997). Page et al. (2007) reported large differ-ences in S. austrocaledonicumoil concentration (0.05%8%)within and between island populations o Vanuatu (rom3.5% on Malekula).

Variation in oil composition ollows similar trends. Doranet al. (2005a), in a review o knowledge on commercial

sandalwoods, reported thatS. yasicommonly produce oilswith 6070% total santalols while S. austrocaledonicumalsoproduced oils with high levels o santalols (60%) along withlow santalol-yielding orms with substantial proportions oZ-nucierol (725%) and/or Z-lanceol (1541%) were alsopresent ofen in the same population. Page et al. (2007), in asystematic study o the oils o Vanuatu S. austrocaledonicumpopulations, ound continuous variation in all the majoressential oil constituents in the species and concluded thatchemotypes are not present as had been previously beensuggested (Ehrhart and Raharivelomanana 1998).

Hawaiian sandalwoodsTere is no contemporary literature describing the oil quali-ties o the Hawaiian sandalwoods. Ball (1916) gave the ol-lowing account o oil steam distilled rom the heartwoodo S. freycinetianumand assayed by wet chemistry methods,

Te resulting oil amounting to 0.751% o the weight o thewood taken, was a clear yellow, somewhat thick liquid oa characteristic aromatic odour, but much milder and lesspungent than the sandalwood oil o commerceTe oil wasassayed or santalol according to the method outlined inthe U.S. Pharmacopeia VIII, and the percentage o santalol

ound to be 9697%it is readily seen that the oil o thisspecies o sandalwood compared avorably with the bettergrade o oil o Santalum album, which assays rom 9098%santalol. Te oil o Santalum freycinetianummeets the re-

quirements o sandalwood oil according to the U.S. Pharmacopeia VIII.

Product storage requirements and shelf life

Sandalwood oil is a high value product and should be storedin appropriate containers and under conditions that do notcause any change in the composition o the oil even aferlong storage periods. In order to minimize degradationand oxidation, containment o the oil should be in nearlyull, tightly sealed (avoid plastic or rubber seals), dark glassstainless steel or perumery industry alloy containers storedin a cool, dark and dry place.

Recommended labeling

Sandalwood oil producers and brokers need to amiliarizethemselves with the requirements or labeling, packagingand the regulations governing air, land, and postal shipmento their oils to particular countries. Ideally, labels on puresandalwood oils should give the botanical name o the species, country o origin and method o distillation. A Materi

als Saety Data Sheet or the particular sandalwood oil willmost likely be required (the oil is still classified as hazardousin some countries such as Australia, even though it is a nonflammable liquid).

SMALL SCALE PRODUCTION

Sandalwood trees are ideal or home gardens and can be easily grown together with a mixture o ornamental and productive plants. Tey grow very well next to walls/ences andwith low growing ornamentals (which provide the benefito being host plants but do not overshade the sandalwood)

Due to the high value and demand or even a single maturetree, there is effectively no minimum area or number o treesrequired or commercial production. Tey are well suited tocommercial production on small urban lots to supplement

Steam distillery apparatus or sandalwood oil at ropical Rainorest Aromatics, Vanuatu.


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incomes. Tey are also suitable or planting on small arms,through incorporating into windbreaks and/or boundaryplantings. Whilst mature sandalwood ruits are edible andhave good nutrient values, they are generally consideredtoo small or sour/bitter to be consumed. Te crop has localmedicinal and other uses, but is generally sold to provideincome. Rather than acting as an import substitute, sandal-woods have high potential to provide cash income that canbe used to buy needed products.

As discussed above, sandalwood can be converted into avaluable essential oil, but usually this activity would needto be undertaken on a village or more highly aggregatedlevel to ensure supply o enough raw material. On a smallamily arm, the most appropriate value adding is to removesapwood. A single bole should be encouraged through early,regular pruning and removal o competing leaders in orderto maximize potential or development o carving-gradelogs (>1015 cm [46 in] diameter heartwood).

YIELDS

Expected range of yields per plant

Te yield o heartwood typically varies by species, location,age o the tree and individual phenotype. Annual increasesin girth o 56 cm/yr (22.2 in/yr) have been recorded orirrigated plantations o S. albumin the Kimberley region oWestern Australia, with heartwood produced as early as 3years o age and rotation lengths o 13 years proposed ora heartwood oil concentration approaching 3%. Similargrowth and heartwood yields are possible or native PacificIsland sandalwoods, including S. austrocaledonicum and

S. yasi, grown in well managed and maintained plantings.Even higher rates o growth and heartwood sequestrationare expected with good F

1hybrids (S. yasi S. albumand S.

austrocaledonicum S. album).

However, afer a study o the heartwoods o young plantedor naturally regenerating S. yasi, S. album,and their hybridin Fiji, onga and Niue, Doran et al. (2005b) concluded thatrotation lengths o 2530 years may be required to ensurethat most trees give high yields o heartwood.

Te plantation area required to provide raw material or asmall- to medium-scale oil distillation operation o S. aus-

trocaledonicumis estimated to be about 60120 ha (150300ac), based on a 30-year rotation. Such an operation can pro-duce 800 liters per annum (845 qt/yr) rom 2040 M (2244 t) o heartwood.

Recommended planting density

Spacing or commercial production varies considerably de-pending on the type o planting. A final crop stocking oaround 100 mature sandalwood trees per hectare (10 10m [33 33 f]) is recommended or smallholder plantings in

Pacific islands due, in part, or the need to include host treeshrub species at a rate o 24 host plants or each sandalwood, depending on host species. Planting o sandalwoodat too high a stocking and with too ew hosts is a commonmistake in cultivation o sandalwoods throughout the Pacific and one that inevitably results in disappointing resultsor crop ailure.

Commercial producers o Indian sandalwood in Australia

grow sandalwood on a 15-year rotation under intensive silviculture including irrigation. Tey aim or a final stockingo 400 sandalwood stems/ha. Long-term hosts are plantedat 660 stems/ha (260 stems/ac). Short-term or intermediate hosts are included and are planted at 500 stems/ha (190stems/ac). Te host stem to sandalwood stem ratio is about3:1, at least or the early growing period o the plantation.

MARKETS

Local markets are generally not important or relevant orsandalwoods grown in Pacific islands. Tere are three dis

tinct markets or sandalwood: 1) sapwood (white chips) andspent powder or incense manuacture and other religiouspurposes; 2) heartwood or handicrafs; and 3) sandalwoodoil or cosmetics and ragrances. Te first two markets account or only 20% o the annual sandalwood harvest in India, the worlds major sandalwood producer, while 80% isused in oil production.

Te difficulties o providing accurate statistics or the sandalwood industry arise rom producer secrecy. Furtive activities include the substantial level o undocumented illegalharvesting and smuggling in India and the widespread useo substitutes (e.g., Osyris lanceolataHochst. and Steud. oilrom anzania, and known as East Arican sandalwood oil)and adulterants (e.g., polyethylene glycols, castor oil, andcoconut oil) as reported in Chawla (2008).

Annual global demand or sandalwood heartwood hasbeen generally estimated to be approximately 5,0006,000M, however, production has declined markedly over thepast 2030 years. China, aiwan, Singapore, Korea, and Japan, with no natural resources o sandalwood, are the mainmarkets, together with India, which has its own productioncapability. Production o sandalwood heartwood rom theSouth Pacific is highly variable, experiencing periods o

boom and bust since exploitation commenced in the early1800s (Shineberg 1967). Vanuatu has a sustainable harvestrate estimated to be 80 M/yr; the average harvest between2000 and 2009 was 95 M/yr, with a range o 70120 Myr. Te annual harvest quota in New Caledonia is 55-60 MIn onga, sandalwood exports recently peaked in 2007 at203 M, and then subsequently plummeted to only 8 Min 2008. A similar situation occurred in Fiji with 306 Mharvested in 2008, plummeting to 46 M in 2009.


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Current world demand or sandalwood oil was estimatedin conerence papers to be about 250 to 300 M/yr, whichequates to over 15,000 M o wood. India (85% o worldproduction) produces about 120150 M o sandalwood oilper year with about 80 M/yr used domestically and the re-mainder exported (ca. 40 M/yr), Indonesia (10% o worldproduction) exports about 15 M/yr, while other sourcesincluding substitutes accounted or 5% (7.5 M/yr) o worldproduction. I these estimates o global production are cor-rect, it can be deduced that there is a current shortall in oilproduction o at least 100 M/yr.

Details o S. austrocaledonicum oil export rom New Cale-donia and Vanuatu are unavailable publicly. Lincoln (2008)reported that the Lush Co. uses 1 M/yr o New Caledo-nian sandalwood oil but the sustainability o this harvesthas been questioned by Burfield (2009). It is probable thatsandalwood oil production in Vanuatu reaches similar lev-els (i.e., 1 M/yr). Currently only a small amount o S. yasioil is being produced in Fiji and Vanuatu (rom heartwoodimported rom Fiji).

Te main importers o sandalwood oil are Europe and theU.S., the latter o which is the single largest market outsideIndia. Prices are high as a consequence o demand exceedingsupply. For example, a George Uhe Co Market Report (2009)gives a price or top-quality S. albumE.I. oil o US$2,000/kg(US$900/lb, cost plus air reight) in limited quantities andSri Lankan S. album oil at US$1,550/kg (US$700/lb, costplus air reight).

Historically, S. austrocaledonicum and S. yasi heartwoodand oils have not commanded the same price as S. albumbecause o their chemical variability and odour profilesdeemed inerior to S. album by the market. Tis problemcan be ameliorated by the careul grading o heartwood withthe top grades providing oil equivalent (or even superior) tohigh grade S. albumoils and attracting prices o US$800/kg(US$360/lb, cost plus air reight) or quantities o 50 kg (23lb) or more and up to US$2,000/kg (US$900 cost plus airreight) or 1 kg (2.2 lb) quantities.

Specialty markets

A number o ragrance companies purchasing sandalwoodoil have adopted sustainable supply and air trade policies

(Choueiri 2008, Lincoln 2008) and this trend is likely to in-crease. In the uture, Pacific producers o sandalwood andsandalwood oil will need to demonstrate sustainability (e.g.,Rainorest Alliance certification) and legality (e.g., ForestStewardship Council certification) i they want to accesshigher paying markets in Europe, the U.S., and elsewhere.

A niche market ocus or Vanuatu sandalwood is based onthe customer intimacy model. Tis would entail establish-ing supply chains that ocus on a ew appropriately sized,premium niche markets in which the buyer places a signifi-

cant commercial value on developing long-term relationships with suppliers. Ideally these Vanuatu suppliers wouldbe independently certified as practicing sustainable, ethical production systems, whilst also producing high qualityproducts in accordance with predetermined quality standards (Page et al. 2010a).

Branding

Pacific island producers o sandalwood may develop uniquebrands and products based on local species and sourcesin order to remain competitive with large, new plantationsources o S. albumsandalwood rom Australia and ChinaFor example, some sources o S. yasi have higher levels o-santalols than S. album, which may be keenly sought aferby perumers.

Potential for Internet sales

Tere is high potential or Internet sales, and this is alreadyoccurring both or sandalwood oils and or larger carvingpieces that are individually auctioned on the Internet.

EXAMPLE SUCCESSES

New Caledonia

As in other Pacific islands, sandalwood has been subjectedin the past to over-exploitation dating back to the early1800s in the French erritory o New Caledonia. In 1988 aninventory o Santalum austrocaledonicum was carried outon the Loyalty Islands and the Isle o Pines to determine anacceptable annual harvesting rate or each island. A ollowup inventory in 1994 suggested sustainable cutting rates oheartwood per year o 30 and 45 M, respectively. Te aimo sandalwood management is to regenerate and sustain theresource while maintaining the activity o local distillationunits. Te distilleries on Mar (Loyalty Islands) and on theIsle o Pines (Wapan tribe) are now owned by local tribesand each have 34 ull time employees. During the period20032008, between 45 and 53 M/yr was harvested by local tribes or distillation. Te Mar distillery produces 600kg o essential oil per year, while the Isle o Pines distillery produces 1,000 kg per year. Depending on market andquality, the essential oil rom S. austrocaledonicumsells oranywhere between US$5001,000/kg (in 2009) in North

America and Europe and is used in high quality perumeryaromatherapy, and beauty care products.

Negotiations between the Kanak chie landowner representatives and Government determine the locality or sandalwood harvesting each year. Forest officers identiy and markmature trees, typically in excess o 50 years, and greaterthan 12 cm dbh beore any tree can be harvested. A policyo replanting has been put in place by the New CaledonianAuthorities. For every sandalwood tree harvested, three sandalwood seedlings are replanted, but probably on average


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only one will reach through to maturity. Te seedlings areplanted in careully chosen microsites in the slightly disturbed, and more open secondary bush where sandalwoodgrows best and in areas rom which trees have been recentlyharvested.

Since 2003, these operations have been an excellent exampleo small-scale sandalwood distillation, providing valuableincome or the local population, whilst maintaining san

dalwood resources and their genetic integrity by using locaseed sources. In uture, when Indian sandalwood oil is beingproduced in greater quantities in plantations, it is anticipated that the New Caledonian sandalwood oil will still havegood market prospects as a promising raw material or theragrance industry with interesting odour properties.

Pacific Reforestation Fiji Pty Ltd, Fiji (Mr. Wilson

Chow, Director)

Pacific Reorestation Fiji (PRF) has been undertaking research and development on sandalwood and other high

value tree species in Fiji since the early 1990s. Te company

has developed state-o-the-art technologies or propagationestablishment, and management o sandalwood in a humidzone o Fiji, building on the work o the Silvicultural Research Division o the Fiji Forestry Department. Over thepast five years, PRF has established 5 ha o sandalwoodplantations in Naitisiri Province, Fiji. Tese plantings comprise mainly Santalum yasi, S. album, S. austrocaledonicumand seedling hybrids, as well a large number o grafed Fhybrids that are grafed onto any available sandalwood rootstock.

In parts o Fiji where Santalumalbumhas been planted nea

to S. yasi, the two species spontaneously hybridize. Naturaseedling regeneration is initially a mixture o pure speciesand hybrids, but within a ew months the seedlings o

sandalwood specialty crop

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