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Journal of Human Resources Education Vol. 1, No. 2, Fall 2007, 13-3613

Teaching the Systems Approach to Training

Through Case Analysis

John DunningTroy University

ABSTRACT

This paper presents an approach that can be used to teach a comprehensive systems approach to

analyzing training needs and developing performance- based training courses. The model that is

used incorporates the analysis of performance problems and the basics of instructional systems

design (ISD). The model and the accompanying case have been used successfully in over 20

training and development courses by three different instructors. The paper discusses the ISD

process, presents a case for analysis, provides teaching notes, and offers a Web site for student

and instructor support.

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of this paper is to present a sample case, a performance problem analysismodel, and an ISD checklist that can be used to teach a systems approach to training design. Asystems approach encourages the use of a comprehensive analysis and design process that staysfocused on performance and the needs of the organization. The process presented is consistentwith the five phases of instructional systems design: (1) analysis of the organization’s needs, (2)design of a training system to meet learning goals, (3) development of a training package, (4)implementation of the training package, and (5) evaluation of the training. Each phase of theprocess produces results that are needed by the next phase. If evaluation objectives are not met,

adjustments are made to the preceding phases. The overall success of the training is measured interms of operational impact.

Prior to analyzing the case, students will need a basic understanding of the instructionalsystems design (ISD) process. To achieve this purpose an ISD model and checklist are furnished.Most human resource management and training and development textbooks explain the process.An on-line ISD handbook is provided at www.padm.org to support this paper. As an introductionto the ISD process, this paper will discuss task level performance problem analysis. This shouldenable students to maintain a focus on performance and conduct a “mini-needs analysis,” thatcan be incorporated into the overall design. The following teaching materials are provided:

Steps in conducting a performance problem analysis based on Mager and Pipe (1997) Analyzing Performance Problems,

An overview of the ISD process,

A detailed checklist to support the application of the ISD process,

The case “Grafton Truck Sales and Leasing,”

Case analysis questions, and

Teaching notes.

http://www.padm.org/




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PERFORMANCE PROBLEM ANALYSIS

The performance problem analysis model is based on Mager and Pipe’s (1997) Analyzing

Performance Problems (p. 5). The steps presented are referred to as gap and cause analysis. Agap and cause analysis is conducted when the performance of the workers does not meet theexpectations of the company. This is a useful model to determine if the cause of the problem is a

knowledge or skill deficiency that can be corrected by training. Please note that the analysis isnormally conducted as a “stand alone” exercise. The steps constitute an abbreviated Phase INeeds Assessment, covering some of the items found in the organizational, task and personanalysis.

Step 1: Identify the Performance Discrepancy

To find the problem look at goals, objectives, and standards established by theorganization. If these are not met, they could be indicators of performance problems. Thefollowing must be stated in quantifiable terms:

o What is the actual performance?o What is the desired performance?o The difference between the two is the “gap” that must be closed by management

action or by training.

Determine if the problem is worth fixing. This can be done by calculating the costs,consequences, or lost opportunity related to the performance gap. If the problem is worthfixing go to Step 2 to determine the cause.

Step 2: Look for Management Causes and Fixes

Have performance standards been set so individuals know what is expected of them? If not, set them. (The organizational goals, objectives and standards mentioned in Step 1,need to be applied to individual performance.)

Is adequate feedback being provided so individuals can correct their performance? If not,provide the feedback.

Are there any obstacles that prevent the desired performance such as manpowershortages, inadequate equipment, poor supervision, ineffective policies? If so, remove theobstacle(s).

Are there negative consequences for poor performance? If not, change the consequencesso individuals are not “rewarded” for poor performance.

If these actions do not fix the problem it may be a knowledge, skill or attitude deficiency.

Go to Step 3.

Step 3: Identify Knowledge, Skill or Attitude Causes

Are there any fast fixes to the problem such as providing a job aid or providing additionalpractice? If so, provide.

Can the job be changed to allow others with greater proficiency to accomplish the task? If so, change the job.

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Does the person have the capability to do the job if trained? If so – set up the training. If not, terminate or transfer.

INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DESIGN

The goal of Instructional Systems Design (ISD) is to improve performance based on asystems approach to learning. This process is also referred to as ADDIE because it includesanalysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. There is not a single universallyaccepted model for training design. The various models all seem to share the assumptions thatthe effectiveness of the training depends on reaching training goals and objectives; measurableobjectives should be identified in the design process; and evaluation is an integral part of theoverall process.

FIGURE 1: Instructional Systems Design Model

A summary of this model follows:

Phase I - Analyze

An analysis of a system (organization or department)

Examination of the tasks associated with a job Selection of the tasks requiring training

Establish performance standards associated with the tasks

Analyze

Implement Evaluate

Develop

Design

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Phase II - Design

Develop learning objectives for each task

Identify and list the learning steps associated with each task

Develop performance tests

List the entry knowledge, skills and attitudes(KSA’s) that the learner must possessbefore starting training

List the activities that will facilitate learning and transfer

Phase III - Develop

Select the delivery method appropriate to the required knowledge and skills

Choose the instructional setting appropriate to the tasks

Estimate the cost to deliver the training

Select the trainer

Phase IV - Implement

Create a management or lesson plan

Communicate with managers and trainees

Schedule and conduct the training

Phase V - Evaluate

Evaluate the effectiveness of the training program.

Adjust Phases I-IV as necessary to improve program effectiveness.

INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS DESIGN CHECKLIST

(CREATING A TRAINING PROGRAM)

The checklist is developed as a stand alone instructional tool that summarizes the actionsneeded to design a training program. Additional information on each of the five phases can befound in the on-line ISD handbook at www.padm.org and in most training and developmenttextbooks. This checklist is designed as a textbook supplement. Details may vary and dependingon the text used, so instructors should change or add a level of detail to align with the text. Notethat there are two general approaches to needs analysis. The first focuses on fixing current

organizational problems. The second focuses on anticipating organizational problems andsupports strategic planning. While the same model can be used for both approaches, thischecklist is written to support the first approach – fixing current problems.




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PHASE I – ANALYZE

1. Levels of needs analysis

a) Organizational - The organizational analysis involves looking at the internalenvironment of the organization and determining its fit with organizational goals

and objectives. It is also an examination of how these factors affect jobperformance. The organizational analysis should include the following:

1) Identification of the mission, strategy, long term and short term goals.

2) An examination of the resources and allocation of the resources, given theobjectives.

3) An analysis of internal and external factors to determine if they are causingthe problem. Internal factors could relate to policies, quality of work life ormanagement practices. External factors could relate to the job market,

competition, or the cost of living.

4) An estimate of the numbers that will require training. Also identify any impactthat (1), (2) or (3) will have on the organization’s ability to provide trainingand subsequently transferring the training to the job.

b) Task Analysis - The task analysis examines specific jobs to determine theknowledge, skills and attitude (KSA) requirements that are necessary to get the job done (expected job performance). It requires:

1) An examination of what tasks are to be performed.

2) The standards to which the tasks must be performed, the conditions underwhich they must be performed and the KSA’s necessary to perform them.(The information to write learning objectives is gathered at this point.)

3) An analysis of any roadblocks employees face in performing their job.

c) Person Analysis - The person analysis examines those who occupy the jobs tosee if they have the required KSA’s to do the job. Specifically the person analysis:

1) Identifies those incumbents who are not meeting the desired performance

requirements.

2) Considers additional knowledge or skill requirements. In addition to thecurrent expected and actual performance, consider any programmed changesto equipment, software, or work environment, etc. that will require additionalindividual knowledge or skills for satisfactory job performance.

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d) Outcomes of Training Needs Analysis (TNA) - From the TNA you will be able todetermine what caused the performance discrepancy. The outcomes will relate tonon-training needs and/or training needs.

1) Non-training needs can relate to not having negative consequences for poorperformance, inadequate feedback or having obstacles in the system.

2) Training needs can relate to actual training, providing job aids, or conductingpractice. Other related solutions for KSA deficiencies are to change the job,transfer or terminate the individual.

3) Identify the type of knowledge and skills required as well as any attitudechange needed.

Declarative knowledge refers to the ability to state informationsuch as Washington D.C. is the capital of the United States.

Procedural knowledge refers to the ability to explain how

something works, such as the functions of a cell phone. Strategic knowledge requires the ability to apply both declarative

and procedural knowledge to support an end result. An examplewould be applying the ISD process to develop a training program.

Technical skills refer to the ability to fix or operate something. Anexample would be to repair a transmission or to operate a forklift.

Interpersonal skills refer to the ability to successfully relate toothers. An example would be to convince an undecided customerto lease a truck.

Attitudes refer to beliefs that affect behavior. At times anindividual’s attitude must be changed for effective work

performance.

2. Phase I will provide the data needed for Phase II, indicating where training is needed,what kind of training is needed, who needs to be trained, and the conditions under whichtraining will occur.

PHASE II - DESIGN

1. Develop Objectives. For this exercise we will focus on learning objectives. These arethe objectives that relate to the individual tasks that form the basis of the training

program. There are other types of objectives associated with developing a comprehensivetraining program such as trainee reaction objectives, transfer of training objectives

and organizational outcome objectives. These four types of objectives form the basisfor the design and evaluation of the overall training program. All of the objectives havecommon components. The method of writing the objectives is based on Mager (1997),Preparing Instructional Objectives, 3rd Ed. (p. 51).

a) A good objective has three components:

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1) Desired Outcome: What behavior should occur? The desired behavior mustbe clearly and unambiguously worded. "The trainee will splice electrical

wires of any gauge."

2) Conditions: Under what conditions is the outcome expected to occur? The

condition further clarifies exactly what is required. "….using stripping pliersand multi-gauge splicing sleeves..."

3) Standards: What standard or criteria should be used to signify that theoutcome is acceptable? Three commonly used standards are speed, quality,and accuracy. A standard might be “…within three minutes, complying with

engineering standards of electrical conductivity, 98% of the time…"

The complete objective: “The trainee will splice electrical wires of any gauge, using stripping pliers and multi-gauge splicing sleeves, within three minutes,

complying with engineering standards of electrical conductivity, 98% of the time"

b) The foundation for developing objectives comes from the needs analysis phase.

2. Identify Organizational Constraints

a) Some common organizational constraints are; trainees vary in experience andability, workload precludes lengthy time away from the job, or there are limitedtraining funds available.

b) For each organizational constraint identify a strategy to deal with the constraint.

3. Determine the Factors that Facilitate Learning & Transfer. These categories are based onthe discussion found in Blanchard and Thacker’s (1999) Effective Training: Systems,

Strategies, and Practices, (pp. 192-212)

a) Facilitation of learning – focus on the individual trainee.

1) Trainability – select those with the aptitude or skills to perform the tasks.

2) Expectancy – motivate participants to attend and complete the training.

b) Facilitation of learning – focus on training design.

1) Maintain attention – eliminate distractions in the training setting.

2) Maximize similarity – make the elements similar to the job.

3) Set conditions of practice – schedule active practice, part learning or overlearning where appropriate.

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4) Provide feedback – design the training to provide knowledge of the results.

5) Design meaningful material – provide material and instruction that is rich inassociation to the actual work environment or previous training.

6) Vary the situation – provide general principles and then vary the situation.

7) Consider individual differences – provide alternative modes of instruction toaccommodate trainee learning styles.

8) Prevent relapse – prepare a plan to deal with the risks.

9) Set goals – set goals for the transfer of training to the workplace.

c) Facilitation of transfer – focus on organizational interventions.

1) Establish a system of supervisor, peer and trainer support.

2) Establish systems to reward and reinforce desired behaviors and a positiveclimate from upper management.

4. Outcomes of Design. To develop an effective training package, it is necessary tounderstand the various factors that facilitate learning and transfer. This is a basic outputof the design process.

PHASE III – DEVELOP

1. Select the Appropriate Training Methods. Different instructional methods vary in their

ability to influence the trainee’s knowledge, skills and/or attitudes. For this reason it isimportant to understand the strengths and weaknesses of a particular method. Table 1provides a very brief review of different training methods and their general strengths andweaknesses.

TABLE 1: Strengths and Weaknesses of Training Methods

Training Method Strength Weakness Good For:

Classroom

Straight Lecture Handles large numbers within alimited time frame at a low cost.

Does not accommodatesharing of ideas by

participants or clarificationof understanding.

Declarativeknowledge

Discussion Accommodates two waycommunications for clarificationof understanding.

Need a skilled facilitator andsufficient time must beavailable for meaningfuldiscussion. Trainees need acommon reference point forunderstanding information.

Declarativeknowledge andchangingattitudes

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Computer-based Interactive & self-paced.Provides consistency ininstruction and can increaseaccess to training.

Loss of personal interactionwith a trainer. Initialdevelopment costs may behigh.

Declarative andproceduralknowledge

Case Study Promotes logical problemsolving relating theory to

practice. Allows students todebate alternative courses of action.

Can cause group think and afocus on the past. Limits

complexity of situations andthe sense of immediacypresent in actual situations.

Strategicknowledge

Business Games andSimulations

Similar advantages of the casestudy, but refines problemsolving and decision skillsthrough role playing. Mostsimulations provide feedback.

Can lack the complexity andinformation present in realorganizations. Results maynot be generalized to othersituations/organizations

Strategicknowledge

Role Playing Provides the opportunity foracting out an organizationalsituation. Incorporates thedynamics of a situation and thedevelopment of interpersonal

skills.

Participant may perceive thesituation as artificial or agame, and not a legitimatelearning tool. Some traineesmay feel intimidated by

having to act out a character.

Interpersonalskills andchangingattitudes

EquipmentSimulators

Maximizes similarity andtransfer of knowledge.

High cost of developing andmaintaining equipmentsimulators.

Procedural andtechnicalknowledge

OJT

Job InstructionTraining

Provides one on one instruction.Direct job application.

Ability and motivation of trainers can vary causinginconsistency in learning.

Procedural andtechnicalknowledge andchangingattitudes

2. Calculate the Costs. Consider the costs of development, delivery, overhead and trainerand trainee compensation.

3. Select the Trainer. Will be training be done "in-house" or contracted out?

PHASE IV – IMPLEMENT

1. Prepare the Materials.

2. Prepare a Lesson Plan. A lesson plan is a guide for the actual delivery of the trainingcontent. A sample lesson plan format follows:

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FIGURE 2: Lesson Plan Format

LESSON PLAN FORMAT

Part I

Organization: Date:

Title of Lesson Plan:

Lesson Plan Number:

Instructor(s):

Time Allocated:

Audience:

Learning objectives:

Classroom Requirements:

Training Aids and Equipment::

Trainee Supplies:

Trainee Handouts:

References:

LESSON PLAN FORMAT

(PART II) Time Content Notes Audio Visual

(List time allotted for eachactivity, i.e. 8:00 AM – 8:15 AM)

(Indicate coursecontent, i.e.introduction andoverview)

(Comment on supportactivity, i.e., Group Exercise“why we are here.”)

Indicate AVsupport, i.e.Slides 1-5)

3. Implement the Training Program

a) Conduct a "dry run" to test the effectiveness in a controlled setting - or:

b) Conduct a "pilot program."

c) Conduct the training.

PHASE V – EVALUATE

Information for the evaluation phase is collected in Phase I and the objectives for eachlevel of evaluation (trainee reaction, learning, transfer of training, and organizational outcomeobjectives) are written in Phase II. The effectiveness of the training program is largely dependenton the actions taken in Phases II – IV. If the objectives are not met, then the actions taken todevelop, design and implement the training program during these phases should be reexamined.We will use the Kirkpatrick evaluation model which specifies four specific levels of evaluation(Blanchard and Thacker, 1999).

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1. Evaluate the training at four levels.

a) Level 1 - Reaction - Did the trainees like the program? This can be measuredwith an attitude questionnaire. (This level relates to trainee reaction objectives)

b) Level 2 - Learning – What did the participants learn? Consider pre- and post-

testing. (This level relates to learning objectives)

c) Level 3 - Job Behavior - Does the trainee apply the skills on the job? This usuallyrequires observation of on-the-job behavior. (This level refers to transfer of training objectives)

d) Level 4 - Results - Has the training improved the organization's effectiveness?(profitability, customer service, etc.) This often requires the analysis of economicand operating data. (This level refers to organizational outcome objectives)

2. Collect Data for Evaluation.

a) There are six basic data collection methods to choose from (interview,questionnaire, direct observation, written tests, performance tests and archivalperformance data)

b) Choose the appropriate type of data available for evaluating effectiveness:

1) Individual performance - consider test scores, units produced, timeliness,quality, attendance, and attitude.

2) System-wide performance – consider productivity, rework, scrap, and

customer/client satisfaction.

3) Economic data - consider profits, product liability, avoidance of penalties, andmarket share.

3. Select a research design (plan) for conducting the study. The design specifies theexpected results, the methods of data collection, and how the data will be analyzed . Mosttraining and evaluation textbooks go into detail on design. Common training researchdesigns are:

a) Non-experimental: The case study, relational research and one-group pre- and

post-test.

b) Quasi-Experimental: The non-equivalent control group and time series. Thesedesigns attempt to control threats to validity

4. Insure you do not violate the ethical issues of confidentiality, informed consent,withholding training, use of deception and pressure to produce positive results.

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5. Assess the impact of HRD programs in dollar terms. This involves comparing the costsincurred in conducting the program to the benefits received.

6. Interpret the results and use as feedback for Phases I – IV.______________________________________________________________________________

GRAFTON TRUCK SALES AND LEASING

(CASE STUDY)

Introduction

The rapidly rising cost of diesel fuel and a slump in the economy created an extremehardship on many of the small trucking firms on the East Coast and led Paul Manz to sell hisstruggling freight transfer company to a national carrier in 2000. Paul then purchased hisfather’s company, Grafton Truck Sales, located in Grafton, Virginia. His father started thecompany in 1976 and over the years became the region’s leader in the sales of commercial

trucks, parts and service. Due in part to the struggling economy and the cost of fuel, sales of commercial trucks declined over the past two years. At a recent American Trucking AssociationConference, Paul met Jim Rasmussen, the vice president of a commercial truck leasing andfinancing company. Jim convinced Paul that leasing was the future of the business. Companiesreceive tax breaks by leasing and lower their labor costs by contracting for maintenance. Pauldecided to diversify his business.

Expanded Services

After hiring a consultant to examine his business and assist in developing a plan, Paulproceeded to continue to sell trucks and incorporate full service leasing. He changed the name of

the company to Grafton Truck Sales and Leasing. For financing, he partnered with a local bank.With the help of a national marketing firm he convinced many area freight companies that fullservice leasing was the most viable transportation alternative to owning, especially for smallbusinesses. They would no longer have to deal with the administrative and maintenanceproblems associated with owning their own fleet. Paul was determined to convince hiscustomers that the services he offered with leasing, financing and maintenance were costeffective and would allow them to increase their profits.

Paul was convinced that this was the right decision as there was an increase incompetition for commercial truck sales and the profit margins in the company were declining.He also saw that leasing would help build and preserve the customer base of his dealership. The

expanded services and leases would provide a steady stream of income to help the seasonalfluctuations common to the sales industry.

Operating History

The first two years of his expanded business were successful. Income increased steadilyduring the second year as more commercial freight companies became aware of Grafton’s

leasing options. In the third and fourth years income doubled. Paul found that as fuel costs

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increased and the economy stagnated, more and more carriers turned to the leasing alternative inorder to ease their capital commitments, and improve their cash flow. While leasing utilization(number of vehicles leased compared to number of vehicles owned) of his fleet ran from a highof 90% to 100% to a low of 50%, the overall utilization of vehicles averaged 75% throughout theyear.

Grafton Truck Sales and Leasing currently has 65 employees, operates a 15-bay serviceshop with 30 full time mechanics, 5 service foreman, 13 full-time sales associates(sales/leasing), 5 accountants, 10 administrative personnel, and 2 general managers.

Service Department

The goal of the service department is to provide excellent service resulting in completelysatisfied customers for life. The primary objective to achieve this goal is to keep repeat write-ups (vehicles that have been incorrectly serviced and must be rescheduled) below 1%. During thepast year this commitment seemed to change. The turnover of experienced mechanics has beenunusually high. It has been difficult to hire experienced mechanics and to send new personnel to

the standard certification training conducted in New Jersey. To accommodate the need, theservice manager has relied on the Master Mechanics to provide job instructional training (JIT).

Vehicle maintenance is definitely a problem. While Paul is aware that turnover is animportant factor, he not sure if the problem is also related to training, supervision, or employeequality. Since May, 10% of the daily maintenance schedule involves repeat write-ups. Eachrepeat averages 3 hours of a mechanic’s time. In the past, less than 1% of the maintenanceschedule involved repeat write-ups. The repeat write-ups represent a financial loss to GraftonSales and Leasing and time lost to the customer.

The Service Manager, Bob Smith, has been with the company for 3 years. He believes in

delegation of authority and responsibility. At times, Paul Manz thinks he delegates too muchand has lost sight of essential operating data. Team Leaders hire all mechanics, do allperformance reviews, work scheduling, and training plans. The Master Mechanics (2 on eachteam) conduct OJT, do periodic quality control checks, and perform basic maintenance tasks.All mechanics are paid by the hour and since May have been working from 5 – 10 hours of overtime a week. Because of high turnover and workload, 20% of the mechanics have not been“certified” on all 10 phases of their training records.

Some conflict exists between the Master Mechanics and sales/leasing personnel. One of the Master Mechanics told the sales manager, “ A slump in sales is the best thing that could

happen to us. We can’t meet our current commitment . Every new lease or sale puts us further

behind. Besides, I don’t know how much longer we can continue to work 10 hours of overtime aweek. No wonder everyone is trying to get a job at the Ford plant .”

Sales Department

The stated goal of the service department is to become the leading provider of trucks,(through sales and leasing) in the region. This goal is supported by the objective of 20% annualgrowth through a combination of sales and leasing. In the past, sales and leasing personnel have

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been very successful by taking the “whoever comes in the door is our customer” approach. From

a historical standpoint, sales of trucks have averaged 50 a month. Since March sales haveaveraged only 30 per month. To achieve the objective of 20% growth, they must lease 60 trucksa month. Since April only 40 have been leased each month. Paul knew that a proactiveapproach had to be taken to remain competitive. Potential customers must be identified, theirannual operations analyzed, a needs assessment made, and a tailored leasing or sales plan

presented.

The Sales and Leasing Manager, Mary Grant, has been with the company for 6 months.She just graduated with a MBA specializing in Marketing. Paul Manz hired her to revitalize salesand leasing. Personnel in the department receive a basic salary, plus a bonus of $500 for eachsale. All of the sales/leasing personnel have been with the company for less than three years.The majority have joined the company after working as automotive sales personnel in localdealerships. Training primarily consists of a one day company orientation and working withanother associate for two weeks. Of the thirteen sales and leasing associates, four new membersof the East Team and five new members of the West Team have not made a lease and averageless than three sales per month.

Challenges

Some serious challenges lay ahead for Paul. He is concerned about the decliningeconomy, increased fuel costs, and competition from Dare Truck Leasing Corporation, whichopened two facilities within 15 miles of Grafton during the past year. He believes that success isdependent on a highly skilled and motivated workforce, as well as innovation and continuedgrowth.

FIGURE 1: Grafton Truck Sales and Leasing Organization Chart

PresidentPaul Manz

Sales & LeasingMary Grant

Credit ManagerDon Covey

Service ManagerBob Smith

Red Team*

Service Mana er

White Team*

Service Mana er

Blue Team*Service Mana er

East

Team

West

Team

Accounting

Administration

Each team has 2 Master Mechanics and 6 Mechanics

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TABLE 1: 2006 Maintenance Record

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep

Trucks Serviced 210 320 250 302 275 333 270 315 350

Repeats 2 5 2 3 27 34 27 32 35

Hours lost 6 15 6 9 81 102 81 96 105

Cost $300 $750 $300 $450 $4050 $5100 $4050 $4800 $5250

TABLE 2: 2006 Sales and Leasing Record

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep

Trucks Sold 49 51 32 28 27 33 34 26 30

Trucks Leased 59 60 38 42 39 41 37 43 40

TABLE 3: Position Description – Mechanic

POSITION DESCRIPTION – MECHANIC

The primary purpose of this position is: To troubleshoot, maintain, repair, and overhaul complex majorcomponents and systems of combustion-powered vehicles.

DUTIES AND STANDARDS

Physical Effort

Work requires frequent standing, stooping, bending, stretching, crawling under vehicles, and working in tighspaces or tiring and uncomfortable positions. Frequently lifts, handles, and carries parts and equipmentweighing up to 40 pounds. Occasionally lifts items 50 pounds or more with mechanical devices or withassistance from other workers.

Working Conditions

Usually works indoors on concrete surfaces, exposed to drafts, noise, and auto fumes. Continually exposedto dirt, dust, grease, and to the potential for burns, chemical irritations, shocks, bruises, cuts and strains.Occasionally works outside under adverse weather conditions. Required to follow prescribed safetyprocedures and may be required to use safety equipment such as safety shoes, glasses, and respirators.

TABLE 4: Position Description – Sales and Leasing

POSITION DESCRIPTION – SALES AND LEASING

The primary purpose of this position is: To sell or lease trucks and related services. DUTIES AND PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

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Duty 1 - Marketing: Through research identify and contact potential customers. Work with the customerto analyze their annual operations, make a needs assessment, and present the customer with a tailoredleasing or sales plan.Standards Identify and contact 25 potential customers each month, with 50% requesting a needs assessment of

their operations. Prepare and present all sales and leasing plans within 3 weeks.

Over 80% of the customers will indicate that the plans have accurately assessed their needs. Sell/lease and deliver a minimum of five plans per month.

Duty 2 - Customer Relations: Approach greet, and offer assistance or direction to any customer whoenters the dealership showroom or sales lot. Assist customers in selecting a vehicle by asking questionsand listening carefully to their responses. Explain fully product performance, application, and benefits toprospects. Describe all optional equipment available for customer purchase. Offer test drives to allprospects. Follow dealership procedure to obtain proper identification from customer prior to test drive.Know and understand equity and values, and be able to explain depreciation to the customer. Ensure thatthe sales manager has an opportunity to meet each customer.Standards: Exhibit high level of commitment to customer satisfaction maintaining an average monthly customer

satisfaction rating of 4.0 on a 5 point scale. Sell or leases 5 vehicles per month based on “walk ins.”

Duty 3: Customer Service: Turn closed deals to finance and insurance manager, along with properlycompleted paperwork (insurance information, trade title, etc.). Write complete sales orders and processpaperwork in accordance with established dealership policies. Prepare sold vehicles for customer deliveryprior to customer arrival. Deliver vehicles to customers, ensuring that the customer understands thevehicle's operating features, warranty, and paperwork. Introduces customers to service departmentpersonnel to emphasize to them the quality and efficiency of service repairs and maintenance available inthe dealership's service department.Standards Convince 80% of all sales and leasing customers to use Grafton finance and insurance arrangements. Insure all paperwork is completed within established guidelines with less than 5% reject rate.

Duty 4 - Customer Follow-up: Utilize dealership sales control and follow-up system. Follow up on allpost delivery items, tag/title work, "we-owe", and special requests to be sure that all customer

expectations are met. Maintain an owner follow-up system that encourages repeat and referral businessand contributes to customer satisfaction. Maintain a prospect development system.

Standards Exhibits high level of commitment to customer satisfaction maintaining an average monthly customer

satisfaction rating of 4.0 on a 5 point scale. Contact a minimum of 20 former customers each month, obtaining referrals or repeat business on

10% of the contacts.

REQUISITE KNOWLEDGE and SKILLS:

Associate's degree (A. A.) or equivalent from two-year college or technical school; or six monthsto one year related experience and/or training; or equivalent combination of education andexperience.

Ability to read, analyze, and interpret general business periodicals, professional journals,

technical procedures, and governmental regulations. Ability to write reports, business correspondence, and procedure manuals.

Ability to effectively present information and respond to questions from groups of managers,clients, customers, and the general public.

Ability to calculate figures and amounts such as discounts, interest, commissions, proportions,percentages, area, circumference, and volume.

Ability to solve practical problems and deal with a variety of concrete variables in situationswhere only limited standardization exists.

Ability to interpret a variety of instructions furnished in written, oral, diagram, or schedule form.

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Physical Demands:

The majority of the work will be in an office or showroom setting. The position requiresextensive standing, climbing on vehicles, and occasional crawling under vehicles.

The employee must occasionally lift and/or move up to 50 pounds.

Work Environment:

While performing the duties of this job, the employee is occasionally exposed to moving

mechanical parts, fumes or airborne particles, and outside weather conditions. The noise level in the work environment is usually moderate.

______________________________________________________________________________

CASE ANALYSIS QUESTIONS

The following questions relate directly to the Performance Problem Analysis Model, theInstructional Systems Design checklist and the case “Grafton Truck Sales and Leasing.” Thesequestions assume a basic knowledge of the instructional systems design process. To answer some

of the questions assumptions must be made. Any assumptions should be stated in the responses.Provide sufficient detail for each question to demonstrate knowledge of the ISD process. Eachanswer must include a justification.

Analysis of Performance Discrepancies

1. Use the Steps in Performance Problem Analysis Model to analyze the vehicle

maintenance problems and answer the following questions:

a. What is the actual performance?

b.

What is the desired performance?

c. What is the “gap” that must be closed by management action or by training?

d. Are there management causes that will fix the problem (standards, feedback,obstacles, no consequences for poor performance)? Explain.

e. Are there any KSA fast fixes (job aids, practice, changing the job)? Explain.

Needs Analysis

2. Assume that maintenance mechanics and sales associates have a KSA deficiency. Fromthe information provided in this case, identify the relevant factors that will impacttraining design at each of the following levels of analysis:

a. Organizational Analysis:

1) Identify organizational goals and objectives.

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2) Identify two factors relating to maintenance and two factors relating tosales/leasing that should be resolved to insure the training is effective.

b. Task Analysis:

1) Considering the current performance deficiencies relating to maintenance and

sales/leasing, identify a related job task, the performance standard. (Use the jobdescriptions for support)

2) Identify any job related performance obstacles and strategies to overcome them.

c. Person Analysis:

1) Making any necessary assumptions, identify the maintenance personnel who haveKSA deficiencies and need training.

2) Making any necessary assumptions, identify the sales/leasing personnel who have

KSA deficiencies and need training.

Training Design – Learning objectives

3. Assume that training will be required for sales associates and the mechanics. Using yourgeneral knowledge (and the Position Descriptions) of sales/leasing and maintenance:

a. Select and write a task (related to the performance problem) for a sales/leasingassociate. After identifying the task, write a learning objective for this task.

b. Select and write a task (related to the performance problem) for a mechanic. Afteridentifying the task, write a learning objective for this task.

Training Design - Facilitation of Learning and Transfer

4. Based on your learning objectives, identify the following:

a. A pre-training action that should be taken to facilitate learning for the sales/leasingassociate. (Justify)

b. A during training action that should be designed into the course to facilitate learning

for the sales/leasing associate. (Justify)

c. A post-training action that should be taken to facilitate transfer for the mechanics.(Justify)

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Training Development – Selecting the Appropriate Method

5. Based on the learning objectives you have written, identify the type of knowledge(declarative, procedural or strategic) and skills (technical or interpersonal) required tosupport each objective and then select the appropriate training methods for thefollowing personnel using Table 1 under Phase III.

a. Sales/leasing associate. (Justify)

b. Mechanic. (Justify)

Training Implementation

6. Prepare a sample lesson plan (Part I) for the maintenance specialists based on yourlearning objectives. Use any necessary assumptions. (A lesson plan format is provided inPhase IV, Figure 2)

Training Evaluation

7. Using the Kirkpatrick model of training evaluation discuss how you would evaluate thetraining for the maintenance specialists: a. Identify the four levels of evaluation and the type of information and objectives that

would be used for evaluation.

b. Identify and explain the data collection methods you would use for each level.

TEACHING NOTES

The following learning objectives are associated with this case analysis:

1. Be able to describe the rationale for applying the ISD process for course design.2. Describe the three levels of needs assessment and the general outcome of each level.3. Be able to identify appropriate information from the task analysis to write learning

objectives.4. Write a learning objective that meets the criteria for an effective objective and accurately

reflects needs analysis data.5. Demonstrate the ability to select the appropriate training method(s) based on the type of

knowledge and skills required.

6. Identify the steps involved for implementing a training program.7. Be able to evaluate the effectiveness of a training program using the four levels of

measurement described by Kirkpatrick.

The student should have access to the ISD checklist to complete this case study. Thestudent responses to the case analysis questions should have the following focus:

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Analysis of Performance Discrepancies

1. Analysis of the vehicle maintenance problems. Students should refer to the 2006Maintenance Record and the number of repeat write-ups for answering a, b and c.

a) The actual performance since May has averaged 10% repeat write-ups.

b) The desired performance based on the average prior to May has been 1%.

c) The gap that must be closed through training is 9% or the difference between 10%and 1%.

d) The question asking whether there are management causes that will fix the problem,should examine the following:

Is the problem worth fixing? The financial significance is 3 hours of labor.Considering opportunity lost, this would equate to another 3 hours that could be

dedicated to the normal maintenance schedule. Performance standards are implied in this case – less than 1% repeat write-ups.

Feedback may be an issue, but the assumption could be made that repeat write-ups are tracked and this information is passed on to the mechanics.

There are a number of management obstacles in this case which are contributingfactors such as: turnover, overtime, high workload and perhaps faulty JIT.However, these are all contributing factors and should be fixed to insure trainingeffectiveness. Students may bring up the lack of quality control. The response tothis is that the quality control system “caught” the deficiencies. The bottom line isthat there is a skills deficiency that must be corrected to close the gap.

e) For the question relating to KSA fast fixes the discussion should include thefollowing:

There does not appear to be any KSA fast fixes such as job aids, practice orchanging the job. An assumption could be made that maintenance specifications(handbooks) are available for reference. These would be considered job aids. Useof handbooks is standard practice in this line of work and while they are essential,they probably would not overcome the skills deficiency.

It appears that the mechanics have the capability to do the job, as 90% of themaintenance is performed without a problem. The job cannot be reasonablychanged, so the student should proceed with the ISD process.

Needs Analysis

2. The next set of questions deal with needs analysis. For the purpose of the analysis thestudent is asked to assume that both the maintenance mechanics and sales associates have a KSA deficiency. They are asked to identify relevant factors that will impacttraining design at each of the following levels of analysis:

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a) The Organizational Analysis involves looking at the internal environment of theorganization and looking for factors that are not compatible with the organizationalgoals and objectives. The overall goal of the service department is providing excellentservice resulting in completely satisfied customers for life. The primary objective isto keep the repeat write-ups below 1%. Some factors that could be mentioned relatingto maintenance are the high turnover of maintenance personnel, the inability to hire

qualified mechanics, Bob Smith’s delegation style, and the conflict betweenmaintenance and leasing. On the sales side, the goal is to become the leadingprovider of trucks in the region. The objective is to increase sales by 20% per year.Some of the factors that could be mentioned are that most sales personnel have beenwith the company for less than three years, the manager is new, and the lack of aformal training program.

b) The Task Analysis examines specific jobs to determine the requirements (KSA) thatare necessary to get the job done or achieve the expected job performance. Studentswill have to refer to the position descriptions for this analysis and identify tasksrelative to the performance discrepancies or skill deficiencies.

1) For sales, the student could select any one of the four specified duties in the jobdescription and the related standards. For obstacles to job performance the studentcould mention the lack of a formal training program or the new competition in thearea. For maintenance, either of the first two specified duties and the associatedstandards is relevant.

2) For obstacles to job performance the student could mention the overtime and JITvs. formal certification training.

c) The Person Analysis focuses on those who occupy the job to determine if they have

the required KSA’s.

1) For maintenance personnel the student could identify the 20% of themaintenance personnel who have not been certified on all 10 phases of theirOJT records. This makes the assumption that these are the individuals who arenot performing proper maintenance.

2) For sales/leasing the students could identify the new members of the East andWest Teams that have not made a lease and average less than three sales permonth. This makes the assumption that these individuals are the primary causeof the performance gap.

Training Design – Learning objectives

3. The student must identify a task and then write a learning objective for that task. Thisshould be done for both the maintenance and sales associates. There are a wide variety of tasks in the position descriptions along with conditions and standards. The trainingobjective should have three components: a condition, the desired outcome, and thestandard. Examples from the job description would be:

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a) Sales/Leasing Associate: Task: Through research identify and contact potentialcustomers. Learning Objective: Using the National Trucking Association data base(condition) identify and contact 25 potential customers each month (outcome), with50% requesting a needs assessment of their operations (standard).

b) Maintenance: Task: Dissemble replace a damaged part and reassemble a truck transmission. Learning Objective: Using the factory manual as a guide (condition),disassemble, replace the damaged part and assemble a truck transmission (outcome)within 4 hours with less than a .001 defect rate (standard).

Training Design - Facilitation of Learning and Transfer

4. The student is required to identify actions associated with learning and transfer. The pre-training actions should focus on transferability and expectancy and should be taken fromthe position description Knowledge and Ability section.

a) A pre-training action that would facilitate learning for the sales/leasing associatewould be to pre-test the associate’s ability to effectively present information andrespond to questions from groups of managers, clients, customers, and the generalpublic and to calculate figures and amounts such as discounts, interest, commissions,proportions, and percentages.

b) During training actions relate to nine categories of actions. For this case maximizingsimilarity and providing feedback would be important for the mechanics. Thestudents should provide examples of how that would be done, relating it directly totheir learning objective.

c) Post-training actions relate to facilitation of transfer such a supervisor and peersupport or rewards of recognition of good performance. Depending on the learningobjectives the student should present suggestions that relate to these categories of support or reward.

Training Development – Selecting the Appropriate Method

5. The student is required to identify the type of knowledge and skills required to supporteach objective and then select the appropriate training methods for both the sales/leasingassociate and the mechanic using Table 1 found in Phase III. The knowledge requiredfalls into three categories, declarative, procedural or strategic. The skills are either

technical or interpersonal.

a) For the sales/leasing associate the type of knowledge required would most likely beprocedural and the type of skill required would most likely be interpersonal The mostappropriate training methods would be a combination of computer based training orJIT for the procedural knowledge and role playing for interpersonal skills. Dependingon the actual learning objectives written, the selection of the appropriate trainingmethod could vary.

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b) For the mechanics the type of knowledge required would be procedural and the typeof skill would be technical. The most appropriate training methods would beequipment simulation or JIT.

Training Implementation

6. The student is required to prepare Part I of a lesson plan. The primary value of this task is to familiarize the student with the general content of a lesson plan, to show how theplan relates to the preceding phases of the ISD process, and to provide a “deliverable

product.” Check to see if the lesson plan is consistent with the specifics of the caseanalysis.

Training Evaluation

7. The student is asked to identify the four levels of training evaluation found in theKirkpatrick model (1994), discuss the type of information that would be evaluated, and

the method of data collection they would use at each level. Normally in the ISD process,objectives are prepared to support each level of evaluation. In this exercise, the studentonly prepared learning objectives and did not prepare other supporting objectives.However they should be discuss the type of information that will be evaluated at eachlevel. The value of this question is to demonstrate the need to conduct a comprehensiveevaluation. Student responses should follow the following pattern:

a) Level 1 - Reaction – The type of information evaluated will relate to a trainee’sgeneral reaction to the effectiveness of the instructor, the relevance of the instruction,the adequacy of the instructional materials and the adequacy of the facility. Thisinformation could be collected using a questionnaire.

b) Level 2 - Learning – The type of information evaluated relates directly to the learningobjectives prepared to support this case study. Achievement of these objectives couldbe measured by a pre- and post-test either written or by demonstration. The learningobjectives specify standards based on speed, quality, and accuracy. These standardsform the basis of testing. A comparison of test results prior to the training and afterthe training would demonstrate the level of learning achieved.

c) Level 3 - Job Behavior – The type of information evaluated relates to the trainee’s

ability to perform specified tasks in the actual work setting. If the trainees areperforming their jobs at the expected level or standard, then the transfer of training

has been effective. To determine this information, actual on-site observation of jobbehavior is required.

d) Level 4 - Results – The type of information evaluated in this case would be thenumber of repeat write-ups or the number of trucks sold and leased. The overallmeasure of the effectiveness of the training program – increased organizationalperformance. The information can be collected through archived performance data.

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General Usage Comments:

This model and case have been used at the graduate level in accelerated nine week terms.Most training and development textbooks emphasize the training process in the initial chaptersand the development process in the remaining chapters. The ISD model and checklist arepresented during the first class period and the “Performance Problem Analysis” (Steps 1 – 3)

process is fully explained. For the second class period each student is asked to identify aperformance problem based on a probable skills deficiency that they have observed in their work place. The class uses a team approach to review and analyze the workplace performanceproblems, and then reports the results of the analysis to the class. Most students have difficulty inidentifying and quantifying performance problems. Once they have mastered the PerformanceProblem Analysis steps, they have a good insight into the ISD concept.

The ISD model and checklist can be used to supplement textbook chapters dealing withtraining on a week by week basis. The case and questions serve as a good mid-term assessmentof the student’s ability to apply the ISD process. If used as a mid-term assessment, allow at leastthree hours to complete. The general response of students has been favorable. Students find that

the checklist provides a good summary of the essential training information found in mosttextbooks.

The ISD model and checklist can also be used as the basis for a term paper. Students areasked to identify performance problems (based on a knowledge or skills deficiency) in theirorganization and develop a training program to correct the problem. The general format for theterm paper follows the headings of the ISD checklist.

_____________

John Dunning is an assistant professor in the College of Arts and Sciences at Troy University.

He earned his Ph.D. in public policy and administration from Virginia CommonwealthUniversity. Dr. Dunning’s primary research interests involve instructional design and simulationmodeling. Contact: [email protected].

REFERENCES

Blanchard, P. N. & Thacker, J. W. (1999). Effective training: Systems, strategies and

practices. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Kirkpatrick, D.L. (1994). Evaluating Training Programs: The Four Levels. San Francisco, CA:Berrett-Koehler.

Mager, R. F. & Pipe. P. (1997). Analyzing performance problems, 3rd Ed. Atlanta, GA: TheCenter for Effective Performance.

Mager, R. F. (1997). Preparing instructional objectives, 3rd Ed. Atlanta GA: Center forEffective Performance.

mailto:[email protected]




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Wexley, K. N. & Latham, G. P. (2002). Developing and training human resources in

organizations, 3rd

Ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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